The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

Mu‘tazilis

The Mu‘tazilis were the followers of a religious movement in early Islam called Mu‘tazilism, founded in Basra by Wasil b. ‘Ata’ (d. 748–49) and his disciples in the late Umayyad period. Mu‘tazilism evolved into a significant theological school, politically dominant during the ninth and tenth centuries, before experiencing a steady decline in the following centuries.

The origins of Mu‘tazilism are highly controversial. According to some scholars, Mu‘tazilism emerged out of a religiopolitical attitude during the First Islamic Civil War (fitna), specifically the Battle of the Camel (656) and the Battle of Siffin (657). A group of Muslims abstained from taking sides with ‘Ali b. Abi Talib or his opponents and were called Mu‘tazilis, from the Arabic i‘tazala, meaning “to separate from” and “to dissociate oneself from.” This historical attitude of “political neutrality” was later translated, on the doctrinal level, into a position of independence regarding the central question of Islamic theology at its beginnings: the status of the Muslim who committed a grave sin. Wasil allegedly was the first to place such a person between the status of the believer and the infidel, the so-called manzila bayna al-manzilatayn. A cloth merchant from Basra, he left the circle of his teacher, Hasan al-Basri (d. 728), after disagreeing with the teacher’s views. With his disciples, he led a missionary organization spreading the views of the movement through travel and business activities. While other explanations have been suggested concerning the origins of the movement and the meaning of the term mu‘tazila, this is the most commonly accepted one.

Mu‘tazili doctrine is characterized by five principles, defined by Abu al-Hudhayl (d. 841): God’s unity (tawḥīd), God’s justice (‘adl), divine retribution (al-wa‘d wa al-wa‘īd), the intermediate position concerning the Muslim sinner (al-manzila bayna al-manzilatayn), and commanding right and forbidding wrong (al-amr bi-l-ma‘rūf wa-l-nahy ‘an al-munkar). Each one of these principles carries significant doctrinal implications. Because of their understanding of tawḥīd, the Mu‘tazilis considered God’s inessential attributes, but also His speech (the Qur’an), to have been created. The second principle (‘adl) entails the idea of human free will and responsibility. Because God is infinite justice, humans are the creators of their acts and are capable of distinguishing between good and evil. A fundamental aspect of Mu‘tazili creed is the belief that human reason is able to demonstrate the existence of God rationally. Human reason and divine revelation are placed on an equal footing. Due to their rationalist approach and methods, the Mu‘tazilis were opposed by the traditionalists who preached a literal reading of the Qur’an and traditions of the Prophet (hadith).

Scholars divide the development of Mu‘tazilism into three main phases or periods: an incubation phase (eight century), a second period during which the movement was at its height both intellectually and politically at the Abbasid court (815–50), and finally a third period during which Mu‘tazili thought was systematized (several centuries following). Under Wasil, the early Mu‘tazilis were predominantly non-Arabs (mawālī), particularly Persians, who were not granted the same rights as Muslim Arabs despite their conversion. The movement and its early followers might have reacted to the difference of status between Arabs and mawālī. While it was rather politically neutral in its early years, the Mu‘tazili movement took part in the 762 revolt led by the Shi‘i Muhammad b. ‘Abdallah al-Nafs al-Zakiyya against the Abbasid caliph. The failure of the revolt led to harsh persecution of the Mu‘tazili movement and years of inactivity. However, Mu‘tazilism was soon propelled to success due to the theological interest of the Abbasid caliphs. While the viziers of Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–802), the Barmakid family, showed a predilection for theological disputes, Caliph Ma’mun (r. 813–33) imposed Mu‘tazilism as a state doctrine and started an inquisition (miḥna) in 833. The Mu‘tazilis, though not the instigators of the policy, provided the state doctrine with intellectual support, notably through the figure of Ahmad b. Abi Du’ad (d. 855).

Several explanations have been offered regarding the Abbasid support for the Mu‘tazili doctrine. The Abbasid caliphs, argues Josef van Ess, saw in Mu‘tazili rationality and dialectical methodology a potential way to transcend the fierce sectarianism that emerged from the early politico-theological disputes. Another explanation suggests that Mu‘tazili political theory, grounded on the principle of the just ruler, justified the overthrow of the Umayyads by the Abbasids. The distinguished Mu‘tazili jurist of the time, Abu ‘Uthman ‘Amr al-Basri (d. 869), known as “al-Jahiz,” established that a tyrant imam is to be rebelled against and deposed. This position stands in contradiction to the traditionalists’ emphasis on patience toward the imam and preference for stability against chaos. A third group of scholars argues that the Abbasid movement rested upon the early Mu‘tazili theology of Wasil.

The miḥna continued under the caliphs Mu‘tasim (r. 833–42) and Wathiq (r. 842–47) but was abandoned by Mutawakkil (847–61), who favored the traditionists, the scholars of hadith. Although Mu‘tazilism was more influential in Iran, it declined in the early 13th century. Mu‘tazili theology had a strong impact on Shi‘ism, particularly on Zaydism and Twelver Shi‘ism.

Mu‘tazilism played a significant role in the development of Islamic theology and had a strong impact on the formation of traditionalist orthodoxy. While Mu‘tazilism virtually disappeared after the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, it has experienced a comeback today through the work of modern scholars such as Fazlur Rahman or Harun Nasution, often labeled as “neo-Mu‘tazilis.”