The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought

political ritual

The ceremonies and performances conducted by Muslim political leaders to demonstrate their authority and religious legitimacy became common under the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties, especially rulers’ titles, dress, and court and prayer ceremonies. These particulars are generally discussed under the rubric of adab (etiquette) and appear as distinct sections in larger works on Islamic government, Mirrors for Princes, and so on. Likewise, the terms rusūm or marāsim, defined either as “protocol” or as “ceremonies,” are used in the main medieval works that document these practices.

Lineage was already important in pre-Islamic Arabia, and titles formed an integral part of a prominent figure’s reputation. In the political context, lineage might also offer legitimacy. The descendants of the Prophet emphasized their pedigree by appending to their name the title of al-sayyid (the master) or al-sharīf (the noble). In the 11th century, the Buyids introduced the controversial titles malik (king) and malik al-mulūk (king of kings). The latter had particularly problematic connotations, since a famous hadith attributes to the Prophet the statement, “The most abhorrent of names before God is that of ‘king of kings.’” Scholars have interpreted this gesture by the Buyids as an attempt either to revert to pre-Islamic Persian titulature or to distance the ruler from religious responsibility.

In the medieval period, several regular occasions provided opportunities for rulers to demonstrate their legitimacy. Perhaps the two most important such occasions were the Friday and holiday prayers, since it was customary to mention the ruler’s name in the accompanying sermon (khuṭba). During the Friday sermon, the preacher would cite the current ruler’s name and recite blessings for him. This invocation of the ruler’s name parallels his mention in inscriptions on the coins (sikka) minted during his reign as well as his mention on textiles made in the ruler’s atelier (ṭirāz). In the ninth century, it became customary for the ruler to lead prayers at the central mosque of his capital, thus displaying his religious and political clout, and for his name to be pronounced in the khuṭba of a secondary mosque.

Similarly, holidays proved fitting contexts for rulers to display their authority. For the Fatimids and Buyids, celebration of the festival of Ghadir Khumm was regarded as the most direct evidence of their legitimacy. On that day in the year 632, the Prophet was said to have pronounced his cousin and son-in-law, ‘Ali b. Abi Talib, as his heir. Shi‘i governments would mark the occasion by decorating the city and proclaiming ‘Ali’s special status as the Prophet’s legitimate successor. Similarly, the Fatimid procession at the New Year’s celebration was a powerful display of authority, particularly in the context of the contestation for power among the caliph, the army, and the vizier. The vizier would ride on horseback with his sons and brothers before him and would be followed by the caliph and his party. The caliph would be carried on a sedan chair and would exchange slight bows with the vizier toward the end of the procession. Their places in the lineup were said to have reflected their ranks. Medieval historian Paula Sanders notes that while the vizier’s power stemmed from the caliph, his actual powers in terms of government emerged from the trust of his troops. Therefore, national and religious holidays served not only to legitimate the sources of power but also to restore and define the internal dynamics of the government.

Different religious rulers also demonstrated their legitimacy by wearing or displaying the Prophet’s insignia when appearing in public. According to Dominique Sourdel, this tradition first became apparent during the Abbasid caliphate, when the caliph would wear the Prophet’s cloak (burda), hold the Prophet’s scepter (qaḍīb), and carry a copy of the Qur’an (muṣḥaf).

In the political context, pledges (bay‘a) played an important role in articulating trust in a ruler. The bay‘a was an important practice that dates from the death of the Prophet, when Abu Bakr assumed the caliphate, and the ceremony became a prominent feature in the assumption of Sunni caliphal rule. Under Shi‘i governments, it served merely as a gesture of loyalty rather than an official marker of power. During the Buyid reign, pledges were the most prominent way for a ruler to informally obligate and instruct government functionaries regarding their tasks.

In the modern period, rituals are commonly performed by governments to articulate their connection to Islam. Iran confers the highest political and religious authority on the supreme leader (rahbar)—a position that has thus far been filled by descendants of the Prophet. They too adopt the title sayyid and wear a black turban as a sign of this pedigree. Strict enforcement of the dress code serves as an expression of the country’s religious nature. Women are required to wear a chador, a concealing black cloak, and hijab, a headscarf, as an outward sign of the obligation to preserve modesty and piety.

In contemporary Morocco, the sultan also adopts certain traditional practices to display his legitimacy. In 1962 Sultan Muhammad V introduced the pledge, which subsequent leaders make upon assuming power. Moreover, since 1962, kingship is conferred upon descendants of the Prophet, and only sons may succeed the reigning king. The king’s public ritual sacrifice of two sheep (one for himself and one for the Moroccan people) every year on the festival of sacrifice (‘Id al-Adha) associated with the annual pilgrimage to Mecca is a powerful symbol of his sovereignty under the aegis of Islam.

Parallel to rituals of legitimacy, in the modern period certain novel rituals are introduced to maintain the religious spirit of the country. In Iran, the Basij, the official paramilitary group, plans religious events and suppresses opposition. In Saudi Arabia, the muṭawwi‘īn are officially charged with ensuring prayer attendance—sometimes by harsh means—thus monitoring the nation’s religious culture.

See also ‘Ashura’; bureaucracy