In common parlance, “treason” refers to the act of betraying one’s country to the benefit of another, usually an enemy or a rival. Historically, in English common law, this understanding was denoted by “high” treason, as opposed to “petty” treason, which could entail a servant killing his master, a wife killing her husband, or adultery between a servant and his master’s wife. Throughout its usage, however, “treason” has been largely synonymous with “sedition”; the difference between the two words—namely, that treason carries the additional connotation of allegiance to a foreign power—is a modern convention. Practically speaking, treason would typically include such acts as political assassination, sabotage, and military desertion.
Examples of treason in Islamic history are many and varied. Perhaps the first prosecution of treason in Islamic history belongs to the first caliph, Abu Bakr (r. 632–34). Following the Prophet Muhammad’s death, a group of Muslim tribes in the Najd refused to pay the alms tax (ṣadaqa) to the caliph in Medina. Abu Bakr considered this a kind of treason—more precisely, apostasy (ridda)—and sought to bring the rebels back into the taxpaying fold by force.
This episode adds an important dimension to the definition of treason in an Islamic context. Was treason against a ruler also considered a religious transgression? Certainly, one can imagine that any ruler would favor such a conflation, but the question could be, and was, easily turned around. Was “treason” against a tyrannical ruler a religious duty? There is no clear answer to this question, and opinions among Muslims have been varied. Nor was there a standard response to treason from medieval rulers. Some groups rebelling against caliphs were punished with extreme prejudice, while others were granted clemency.
The period known as the First Civil War (fitna; 656–61) was also thick with examples of treason. The caliph ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan was murdered by treasonous mutineers dissatisfied with his leadership of the community. ‘Ali b. Abi Talib was acknowledged as caliph by many, but ‘Uthman’s relative Mu‘awiya dismissed ‘Ali’s leadership, claiming that ‘Ali was complicit in ‘Uthman’s assassination. ‘Ali’s camp regarded Mu‘awiya as a traitor, while Mu‘awiya’s camp regarded ‘Ali as guilty of treason against ‘Uthman. In the midst of the battle between the two forces, Mu‘awiya’s troops sued for arbitration, to which ‘Ali agreed. Some of ‘Ali’s stalwart supporters felt that his capitulation to a traitor (Mu‘awiya) was itself betrayal, and they deserted him, thus forming the Kharijis. The arbitration did not go well for ‘Ali’s claim, prompting accusations of treason against the arbitrators. However, shortly thereafter a Khariji assassinated ‘Ali, and Mu‘awiya became caliph.
This early episode proved extremely divisive. For subsequent generations, it was also a painful and disquieting memory, given that some Companions of the Prophet had fought and killed others. While intrigue and the threat of treason always lurked in the courts and corridors of power, these two very different early examples of treason in Islamic history certainly further complicated Muslim attitudes toward political legitimacy, the possibility of rebellion, and loyalty.
Further Reading
Khaled Abou El Fadl, Rebellion and Violence in Islamic Law, 2001; Patricia Crone, God’s Rule, 2004; Wilferd Madelung, The Succession to Muḥammad, 1996.
NICHOLAS G. HARRIS