1. Edward H. Schafer, Shore of Pearls: Hainan Island in Early Times (1969).
2. The recent work of Frank Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1945–1957 (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013), spans the final years of the revolutionary struggle and moves into the early years of PRC rule, demonstrating how the ebullient atmosphere of revolutionary victory quickly gave way to an atmosphere of purges and terror. Academic historians have analyzed this period in a clear-eyed way for over a decade now, moving past the myth of a honeymoon that followed the victory of the revolution, but Dikötter significantly presents a complex and nonideological narrative here for the general reader.
3. Gregor Benton, Mountain Fires: The Red Army’s Three-Year War in South China, 1934–1938 (1992), New Fourth Army: Communist Resistance Along the Yangtze and the Huai, 1938–1941 (1999); Hans J. Van de Ven, War and Nationalism in China, 1925–1945 (2003); Edward A. McCord, The Power of the Gun: The Emergence of Modern Chinese Warlordism (1993); Stephen C. Averill, Revolution in the Highlands: China’s Jinggangshan Base Area (2006).
4. Chalmers Johnson, Peasant Nationalism and Communist Power: The Emergence of Revolutionary China (1962).
5. Jung Chang and Jon Halliday, Mao: The Unknown Story (2005).
6. Stephen C. Averill, Revolution in the Highlands: China’s Jinggangshan Base Area (2006).
Chapter 1. Cultivating and Exploiting a “Primitive” Island
1. Anne Csete, “Ethnicity, Conflict, and the State in the Early to Mid-Qing: The Hainan Highlands, 1644–1800,” in Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, and Donald S. Sutton, eds., Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China (2006), 229–230.
2. Joseph W. Esherick, “How the Qing Became China,” in Joseph W. Esherick, Hasan Kayali, and Eric Van Young, eds., Empire to Nation: Historical Perspectives on the Making of the Modern World (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), 229–252.
3. Peng Chengwan 彭程萬, Diaocha Qiongya shiye baogao shu 调查琼崖实业报告书 [A report on the investigation of the industry and commerce of Hainan] (1920), “Peng Chengwan Preface.” (Hereafter cited as DQSBS. There are several Prefaces and Forewords in the frontmatter of this report, each by a different author and each with its own page numbering. I will refer to each by the name of its author. Other references to this report will be listed by the subject or chapter and page number, as page numbers begin anew in each chapter.)
4. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Cen Chunxuan Preface.”
5. “Chronique,” T’oung Pao, vol. 9, no. 4 (1898), 338.
6. N.D.H. “Growing Interest in Hainan Mainly Strategic,” Far Eastern Survey (1938), 203–204.
7. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Zhao Fan Preface.”
8. Ibid., “Li Genyuan Preface.”
9. Howard L. Boorman, Biographical Dictionary of Republican China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1971), vol. 2 (305–307, 455–457), vol. 3 (305–308).
10. B.C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China Including Explorations in the Hitherto Untraversed Island of Hainan (London: S.W. Partridge and Co., 1886), 336–337.
11. Kathleen L. Lodwick, Educating the Women of Hainan: The Career of Margaret Moninger in China, 1915–1942 (1995), 2.
12. Margaret M. Moninger, Isle of Palms (1919), 104.
13. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi 中共海南省委党史研究室 [Historical research office of the Chinese Communist Party provincial committee of Hainan], eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi 中国共产党海南历史 [Chinese Communist Party history of Hainan] (2007), 5.
14. R.P. Mouly, Hai-nan: L’Ile aux Cent Visages [Hainan: The island of a hundred faces] (1944), 11.
15. Henry (1886), 8.
16. Ibid., 332–333.
17. R.T. Phillips, “The Japanese Occupation of Hainan”(1980); M. Tayor Fravel, “China’s Strategy in the South China Sea,” Contemporary Southeast Asia, vol. 33, no. 3 (December 2011), 307; James Bussert, “Hainan is the Tip of the Chinese Navy’s Spear,” Signal (June 2009).
18. In a 1931 mission newsletter, one American observer noted “[Yulin], the best harbor in all Hainan, is there, but so far removed from all inland trading centers as to be of no commercial value.” See American Presbyterian Mission: Island of Hainan, Commemorating Fifty Years of Mission Work in Hainan, 1881–1931 (Haikou: American Presbyterian Mission Newsletter, Autumn 1931), 2.
19. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Transportation,” 1–8.
20. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Tudizhi 海南省志: 土地志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Land gazetteer] (2007), 123–124.
21. Map: Guangdong tong sheng shui dao tu: Call Number: G7823.G8A5 1817.G8; Repository: Library of Congress Geography and Map Division Washington, DC., USA dcu; digital Id: g7823g ct003406; http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g7823g.ct003406; Library of Congress catalog no. Gm71002467.
22. Maritime claims in the South China Sea are a hotly disputed topic at the time of writing (winter 2017), and various actors in the region make widely varying claims. The PRC maritime claim, which is also Hainan’s provincial claim, currently includes about 80 percent of the sea, and is based on the “nine-dash line” established by the Nationalist government in 1947. For a more complete examination of this topic, see the epilogue of this work, and Stein Tønnesson, “The History of the Dispute,” in War or Peace in the South China Sea?, ed. Timo Kivimäki (Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press, 2002); Jianming Shen, “China’s Sovereignty over the South China Sea Islands: A Historical Perspective,” Chinese Journal of International Law 1:1 (2002): 94–157; M. Taylor Fravel, “Hainan’s New Maritime Regulations: A Preliminary Analysis,” The Diplomat, December 1, 2012, accessed February 14, 2013, http://thediplomat.com/china-power/hainans-new-maritime-regulations-a-preliminary-analysis/
23. M. Savina, Monographie de Hainan: Conference faite de 10 décembre 1928 a la Société Géographique de Hanoi, M. Savina (Missionaire apostolique) (1929), 3.
24. Leonard Clark, “Among the Big Knot Lois of Hainan,” (1938), 391. Margaret Moninger also uses the figure of 14,000 square miles in Isle of Palms (1919).
25. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi, eds., Hainan shengzhi: Tudi zhi [Land Gazetteer] (2007), 123–124. This is also my source for the figures of Hainan’s current area.
26. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Peng Preface,” “Transportation.”
27. Ibid., “Li situation.”
28. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi, eds., Hainan shengzhi: Tudizhi [Land Gazetteer] (2007), 157–158.
29. Phillips (1980).
30. Robert Benewick and Stephanie Hemelryk Donald, State of China Atlas: Mapping the World’s Fastest Growing Economy (2009), 43. Citing a 2006 study here, Hainan was the only province in the PRC that still owed over a third of its gross domestic product to agricultural production.
31. Moninger (1919), 39, 44–45.
32. American Presbyterian Mission: Island of Hainan, Commemorating Fifty Years of Mission Work in Hainan, 1881–1931 (1931), 3.
33. This bipolar perception is also analyzed in Gary Y. Okihiro’s study of Hawaii, Island World: A History of Hawaii and the United States (2008).
34. Burton Watson, tr., Su Tung-p’o: Selections from a Sung Dynasty Poet (1965), 130.
35. Wu Lien-teh, “Hainan: The Paradise of China,” (1937), 233–234.
36. Peng, DQSBS (1920). In the forewords to this survey, Beijing and Guangdong officials praise the courage of the surveyors who braved the scorching sun and the zhangqi (miasma) of Hainan to conduct their work.
37. Bonnie Tsui, “The Surf’s Always Up in the Chinese Hawaii,” (2009). Wu Lien-teh, “Hainan: The Paradise of China” (1937).
38. Wu Lien-teh (1937), 241.
39. I refer to the Muslim population of Hainan as Hui because that is the expeditious official classification of this ethnic group on the island, dating from the ethnic minority work of the central government in the 1950s and 1960s. It is noteworthy, however, that most in this group of the Hainan population do not put themselves in the same ethnic category as the Hui Muslims of mainland China, and their origins are probably in southeast Asia. They are, more correctly, the Utsat, and they number about six thousand on Hainan. On the strained relations between Hainanese Han and the island’s Muslim minority, see Keng-Fong Pang, “Unforgiven and Remembered: The Impact of Ethnic Conflicts in Everyday Muslim-Han Social Relations on Hainan Island,” in William Safran, ed., Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China (London: Frank Cass, 1998), 142–162.
40. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Li Situation,” 3.
41. Stevan Harrell, “Introduction: Civilizing Projects and the Reaction to Them,” in Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers (1995), 23–24.
42. Hu Yaling 胡亚玲, Hainan Li cun Miao zhai 海南黎村苗寨 [English title: The Li and Miao Villages in Hainan] (Haikou: Hainan chubanshe, 2012).
43. Csete (2006), 239.
44. Ibid., 247.
45. Wang Xueping 王学萍, Zhongguo Lizu 中国黎族 [The Li of China] (2004), 81. One example of such an uprising came as a result of duplicitous behavior by salt merchants in 1829.
46. Moninger also notes this practice of deserting soldiers joining Li communities in Isle of Palms (1919), 28.
47. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Zhao Fan preface.”
48. Ibid., “Li Situation.”
49. Henry (1886), 377.
50. Clark (1938).
51. Moninger (1919), 16.
52. Wang (2004), 83–84.
53. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Li Situation.”
54. Ibid., 2, 4.
55. Kunio Odaka, Economic Organization of the Li Tribes of Hainan Island (1950) (Originally published in Japanese, 1942); Hans Stübel, Die Li-stämme der insel Hainan; ein beitrag zur volkskunde südchinas [The Li of Hainan Island: A Contribution to the Folk Studies of Southern China] (1937).
56. Odaka (1942), 3.
57. Phillips (1980), 93–109.
58. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Transportation,” 20.
59. Chen Daya et al. (2007).
60. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Transportation,” 20–21. In 1919, Margaret Moninger also remarked on the short road and novelty of a couple of automobiles connecting Fucheng and Haikou. (Moninger, Isle of Palms, 30). By 1938, however, the development of passable Hainan roads had extended deep into the island’s interior, allowing Leonard Clark and his National Geographic team to ride 60 miles by automobile to Nada, in northwestern Hainan.
61. Savina (1929).
62. American Presbyterian Mission: Island of Hainan, Commemorating Fifty Years of Mission Work in Hainan, 1881–1931 (1931), 3.
63. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Transportation,” 18–19.
64. L. Carrington Goodrich and L. Chaoying Fang, eds., Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 474.
65. The Chinese stone inscription reads Yishou chengtian (一手撑天 “single-handedly hold up the heavens”). An image of the rock is featured on the Qiongzhong County government website: http://www.qiongzhong.gov.cn/view%20spot_info.aspx?id=7500
66. Peng, DQSBS (1920), “Transportation,” 18–19.
Chapter 2. Political Prospects in the Early Republic
1. Jean Chesneaux, “The Federalist Movement in China, 1920–1923” in Jack Gray, ed., Modern China’s Search for a Political Form (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), translation of “Le Mouvement Fédéraliste en China, 1920–1923,” in Revue Historique (Octobre–Décembre 1966), 347–384.
2. John Fitzgerald, “The Province in History,” in John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China’s Provinces (2002), 20.
3. Stephen R. Platt, Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2012); Tobie Meyer-Fong, What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in the 19th Century (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2013).
4. John Fitzgerald, “Increased Disunity: The Politics and Finance of Guangdong Separatism, 1926–1936,” in Modern Asian Studies, vol. 24, no. 4 (October 1990), 745–775; also Boorman (1971), vol. 1, 160–163.
5. Chen Keqin 陈克勤, Hainan jiansheng 海南建省 [Hainan becomes a province] (2008), 11–12.
6. Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi 海南省地方史志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Minzhengzhi, waishizhi 海南省志: 民政志, 外事志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Civil Administration gazetteer, Foreign affairs gazetteer] (Haikou: Nanhai chuban gongsi, 1996), 194–200.
7. Kathleen L. Lodwick, The Widow’s Quest: The Byers Extraterritorial Case in Hainan, China, 1924–1925 (2003).
8. Harry A. Franck, Roving through Southern China (New York: The Century Co., 1925), 338.
9. Charles E. Ronan, S.J. and Bonnie B.C. Oh, eds., East Meets West: The Jesuits in China, 1582–1773 (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988), 30.
10. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi 琼崖武装斗争史办公室 [Office of the history of Hainan’s military struggle], eds. Qiongya zongdui shi 琼崖纵队史 [History of the Hainan Column] (1986), 2. Hainan baikequanshu bianzuan weiyuanhui 海南百科全书编纂委员会 [Committee of compilers of the Hainan encyclopedia], eds., Hainan baikequanshu 海南百科全书 [Hainan encyclopedia] (1999), 45.
11. Hainan, People’s Republic of China Provincial Government official website: http://en.hainan.gov.cn/englishgov/AboutHaiNan/200904/t20090408_1228.html
12. Sterling Seagrave, The Soong Dynasty (New York: Harper & Row, 1985).
13. Xing Yilin, Han Qiyuan, Huang Liangjun 邢益森, 韩启元, 黄良俊, Qiongqiao cangsang 琼侨沧桑 [The ups and downs of overseas Hainanese] (1991), 44–45.
14. Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi 海南省地方史志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Baoyezhi, Di shiyi juan 海南省志: 报业志, 第十一卷 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Newspaper gazetteer, vol. 11] (Haikou: Nanhai chuban gongsi, 1997), 10–11.
15. Ezra Vogel, Canton Under Communism: Programs and Politics in a Provincial Capital, 1949–1968 (1971 [originally published by Harvard University Press, 1969]), Prologue, 21.
16. Rhoads (1975), 222–223, 80–81.
17. See the works of Adam McKeown, including “Conceptualizing Chinese Diasporas, 1842–1949,” Journal of Asian Studies (May 1999), 306–337; Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, Hawaii, 1900–1936 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
18. Victor Purcell, The Chinese in Malaya (1948), 204.
19. Moninger (1919), 24–25.
20. See also Philip A. Kuhn, Chinese Among Others: Emigration in Modern Times (2008).
21. Vogel (1971 [1969]), 20.
22. Biographical material here on Lin Wenying comes from the following materials: Fan Yunxi 范运晰, Qiongji minguo renwuzhuan 琼籍民国人物传 [Biographies of Hainanese in the republic], Haikou: Nanhai chuban gongsi, 1999 (293–300); Zhonggong wenchang xianwei dangshi yanjiushi, eds., 中共文昌县委党史研究室编 [Chinese Communist Party Committee of Wenchang county historical research office], Wenchang yinghun 文昌英魂 [The spirit of Wenchang heroes] (1993), 1–7.
23. Kuhn (2008), 80.
24. Kuhn (2008) reproduced a 1914 document titled, “The Jews of the Orient,” in which Rama VI denounced the Chinese living in Siam, noting the “racial loyalty which prevents their absorption into other nations” (Kuhn, 298).
25. Fan Yunxi (1999), 294.
26. Zhonggong wenchang xianwei dangshi yanjiushi, eds., 中共文昌县委党史研究室编 [Chinese Communist Party Committee of Wenchang county historical research office], Wenchang yinghun 文昌英魂 [The spirit of Wenchang heroes] (1993). In this volume, Lin Wenying has pride of place as the first biographical entry.
27. Fu Heji 符和积, “Shixi Xinhai nian Qiongya zhengju de shanbian” 试析辛亥年琼崖政局的嬗变 [Analysis of the evolution of the political situation on Hainan in 1911], in Hainan daxue xuebao shehui kexue ban 海南大学学报社会科学版 [Social Science Journal of Hainan University] (September 1998), 1–6.
28. Ibid., 2.
29. Zhonggong Wenchang xianwei dangshi yanjiushi 中共文昌县委党史研究室 [Party history research office for the Wenchang County Committee of the Chinese Communist Party], eds., Wenchang Yinggui: Wenchang dangshi ziliao 文昌英魂: 文昌党史资料 [Spirits of Wenchang’s martyrs: Wenchang Party history materials] (1993), 5–7.
30. Xing Yilin et al. (1991), 43–44.
31. Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi, eds., Hainan shengzhi: Baoyezhi, Di shiyi juan [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Newspaper gazetteer, vol. 11] (1997), 257.
32. Henry (1886), 334; also see Moninger (1919).
33. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi 中共海南省委党史研究室 [Historical research office of the Chinese Communist Party provincial committee of Hainan], eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi 中国共产党海南历史 [Chinese Communist Party history of Hainan] (2007), 14–15.
34. Fan Yunxi (1999), 299–300. Lin was also celebrated in the Hainanese community in Thailand, and he continues to be a hero there as well as in his home province. In 1984, during a revival of local history and in a time of exoneration of local heroes, Lin’s hometown was renamed Gelan village, for Lin’s courtesy or style name (Gelan 格兰).
35. Chen Fatan 陈发檀, “Qiongzhou gaisheng liyou shu” 琼州改省理由书 [Reasons for making Hainan a province] (1912), reprinted in Fan Yunxi 范运晰, Qiongji minguo renwu zhuan 琼籍民国人物传 [Biographies of Hainanese in Republican China] (1999), 197–200. Also see Liang Kun 梁昆, 1912 海南改省风云 “Hainan gaisheng fengyun” [1912, The controversy over making Hainan a province], in Hainan zhoukan (November 18, 2008).
36. John Fitzgerald, “Increased Disunity: The Policy and Finance of Guangdong Separatism, 1926–1936,” Modern Asian Studies (October 1990), 250–254.
37. Ibid., “The Misconceived Revolution: State and Society in China’s Nationalist Revolution, 1923–26,” Journal of Asian Studies (May 1990), 333.
38. Gordon Y.M. Chan, “The Communists in Rural Guangdong, 1928–1936,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (April 2003), 86.
39. Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi 海南省地方史志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Baoyezhi, Di shiyi juan 海南省志: 报业志, 第十一卷 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Newspaper gazetteer, vol. 11] (1997), 259–261.
40. Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi (2007), 23.
41. “Japanese Activities in South China: Naval Intelligence Officer’s Reports, June 1922,” reprinted in Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, eds., British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Part II (From the First to the Second World War), Series E, Asia, 1914–1939, ed. Ann Trotter, vol. 27, China, March 1922–May 1923 (1994), 249.
42. N.D.H., “Growing Interest in Hainan Mainly Strategic,” Far Eastern Survey (August 24, 1938), 203–204; Etienne Dennery, “A French View of the Situation in the Far East,” International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1931–1939) (July–August 1938), 528–540; Norman D. Hanwell, “France Takes Inventory in China,” Far Eastern Survey (September 28, 1938), 217–225.
43. Li Yisheng 李毅生, Fenzhan ershisan nian de Hainan dao 奋战二十三年的海南岛 [Twenty-three years of fighting on Hainan island] (Hankou: Renmin chubanshe, 1951), 3.
44. Xu Chengzhang 徐成章, “ ‘Qiongya Xunbao’ chuanban zhi Jingguo” “琼崖旬报” 创办之经过 [Since the founding of the Hainan Xunbao] (April 1922), reprinted in Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi 海南省地方史志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Baoyezhi, Di shiyi juan 海南省志: 报业志, 第十一卷 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Newspaper gazetteer, vol. 11] (1997), 316.
45. Kuhn (2008), 269–270.
46. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi [Chinese Communist Party History Research Office for the Provincial Committee of Hainan], eds., Zhonggong Qiongya difang zuzhi de guanghui licheng 中共琼崖地方组织的光辉历程 [The glorious history of the local organization of the Chinese Communist Party on Hainan], for internal Provincial Government circulation (Document YK060) (June 2001), 6–7 (pages not numbered).
47. Ibid., 6 (pages not numbered).
48. Xu Chengzhang (1922), 316–320.
49. Ulises Granados, “As China Meets the Southern Sea Frontier: Ocean Identity in the Making, 1920–1937,” Pacific Affairs (Fall 2005), 454–457.
50. “Consul-General Jamieson to Sir B. Alston, Document number 42, Secret, Canton, July 11, 1922,” reprinted in Kenneth Bourne and D. Cameron Watt, eds., British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Part II (From the First to the Second World War), Series E, Asia, 1914–1939, ed. Ann Trotter, vol. 27, China, March 1922–May 1923 (1994), 238–240.
51. M. Savina, Monographie de Hainan: Conference faite de 10 décembre 1928 a la Société Géographique de Hanoi [Monograph on Hainan: 10 December 1928 Conference of the Geographical Society of Hanoi] (Missionaire apostolique) (1929), 7.
52. Xing Yikong, Peng Changlin, Qian Yue 邢诒孔, 彭长霖, 钱跃, Feng Baiju jiangjun zhuan 冯白驹将军传 [Biography of General Feng Baiju] (1998), 3–4.
53. A slightly broader interpretation of the name does not include the character of Hong Xiuquan’s family name, but ascribes the “three dot” or “three drop” name to the ways in which members of the society wrote secret signs with the three dot water sign in front of them as part of a code. (See Mary Somers Heidhues, “Chinese Organizations in West Borneo and Bangka: Kongsis and Hui,” in David Ownby and Mary Somers Heidhues, eds., “Secret Societies” Reconsidered: Perspectives on the Social History of Modern South China and Southeast Asia [1993], 86, footnote 7.)
54. David Ownby, Brotherhoods and Secret Societies in Early and Mid-Qing China: The Formation of a Tradition (1996), 5.
55. David Ownby (1996), 13–14, 182–183.
56. As cited in Feng Chongyi and David S.G. Goodman, “Hainan: Communal Politics and the Struggle for Identity,” in David S.G. Goodman, China’s Provinces in Reform: Class, Community, and Political Culture (London: Routledge, 1997), 57.
Chapter 3. From Globetrotters to Guerrillas
1. Feng Yunxi’s letter is reproduced in Wu Zhi and He Lang, Feng Baiju zhuan 冯白驹传 [Biography of Feng Baiju] (1996), 19.
2. Stephen C. Averill, “The Origins of the Futian Incident,” in Tony Saich and Hans van de Ven, eds., New Perspectives on the Chinese Communist Revolution (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995), 79–115.
3. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi (2007), 180.
4. Many retrospective essays on the Communist revolution on Hainan bear this phrase, such as Lin Hongsheng 林鸿盛, “Hongqi budao yu Qiongya hongse geming laoqu” 红旗不倒与琼崖红色革命老区 [The red flag never fell on the old revolutionary base areas of Hainan], in Hainan gemingshi yanjiu 海南革命史研究 [Research on the revolutionary history of Hainan], vol. 9 (December 2002), 91–99.
5. Yuan Bangjian and Chen Yongjie 元邦建, 陈永阶, “Xu Chengzhang” 徐成章 [Xu Chengzhang], in Qiongdao xinghuo bianjibu 琼岛星火编辑部 Qiongdao xinghuo editorial board, eds., Qiongdao Xinghuo (hereafter QX), vol. 4, 1981, 48–84.
6. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi (1986), 6.
7. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Gongchandang 海南省志: 共产党 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Communist Party gazetteer] (2005), 311.
8. Feng Baiju, “Guanyu wo canjia geming guocheng de lishi qingkuang” (1968), 412–413.
9. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Gongchandang 海南省志: 共产党 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Communist Party gazetteer] (2005), 57.
10. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi (2007), 95–96.
11. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi 琼崖武装斗争史办公室 [Office of the history of Hainan’s military struggle], eds. Qiongya zongdui shi 琼崖纵队史 [History of the Hainan Column] (1986), 13–14.
12. Zhonggong Guangdongsheng Qiongya tewei 中共广东省琼崖特委 [Special Committee for Hainan of the Chinese Communist Party of Guangdong Province], Qiongya tewei yiyufen zongbaogao, di liu ci 琼崖特委一月分总报告, 第六次 [The sixth January summary report from the Hainan special committee], January 25, 1928, reprinted in the Zhongyang dang’anguan (Central archives), 755, Guangdong Provincial Archives.
13. Ibid.
14. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi (1986), 33; Diana Lary, Region and Nation: The Kwangsi Clique in Chinese Politics, 1925–1937 (1974), 197.
15. “Zai geming kunnan shiqi de Feng Baiju” 在革命困难时期的冯白驹 [Feng Baiju in the difficult period of the revolution], a summary of activities on Hainan sent to the Southern Party Bureau, reprinted in FBYS, October 23, 1937, 466–467.
16. Haikoushi bingwei 海口市兵委 [Haikou municipal military committee], Haikou xingshi ji gongzuo qingkuang 海口形势及工作情况 [Haikou circumstances and work situation], June 6, 1928, reprinted in the Zhongyang dang’anguan (Central Archives), reprint no. 1069, Guangdong Provincial Archives, folio 18.
17. Haikou xingshi ji gongzuo qingkuang (June 6, 1928).
18. Ibid.
19. “Huang Xuezeng gei shengwei de baogao” 黄学增给省委的报告 [Huang Xuezeng’s report to the Provincial Committee], July 16, 1928, cited in Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi (2007), 134–135.
20. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi (1986), 37–38.
21. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi (2007), 150–151.
22. Luo Wenyan zhi Zhongyang xin 罗文淹致中央信 [Luo Wenyan’s letter to Party Central], September 6, 1929, Shanghai.
23. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi (2007), 103.
24. Luo Wenyan zhi Zhongyang xin 罗文淹致中央信 [Luo Wenyan’s letter to Party Central], September 6, 1929, Shanghai.
25. Feng Baiju, “Guanyu wo canjia geming guocheng de lishi qingkuang” (1968), 359. Feng remembered there being twenty-six in his mountain gang in Muruishan in 1932–1933.
26. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Gongchandang 海南省志: 共产党 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Communist Party gazetteer] (2005), 58–59.
27. “Qiongya tewei baogao” 琼崖特委报告 [Hainan special committee report] (October 27, 1929), cited in Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi (1986), 44–45.
28. Ibid., 41.
29. Ibid., 53.
30. Zhou Shike, Feng Qihe, Ou Yingqin, Wei Jingzhao 周仕科, 冯启和, 欧英钦, 韦经照, “Zhongguo gongnong hongjun Qiongya duli er shi nüzi jun tewu lian” 中国工农红军琼崖独立二师女子军特务连 [The women’s special services (spy) company of the Hainan independent second division of the Chinese Red Army of Workers and Peasants], in Qiongdao xinghuo (Hainan spark) editorial board, eds., Qiongya funü geming douzheng zhuanji 琼崖妇女革命斗争专辑 [Hainan women’s revolutionary struggle album], vol. 5, 1981, Internal Circulation, pp. 1–8.
31. Feng Baiju 冯白驹, “Gei Zhongyang de baogao: tewei yu shangji shiqu lianxi de qingxing” 给中央的报告: 特委与上级失去联系的情形 [Report to Party Central: The situation of the loss of communications between the Special Committee and its superiors] (December 12, 1934), reprinted in Zhonggong Hainanqu dangwei dangshi bangongshi 中共海南区党委党史办公室 [The Party history office of the Chinese Communist Party of Hainan district committee], eds., Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao 冯白驹研究史料 [Research materials on Feng Baiju] (1988), 3–4.
32. Hainansheng difang zhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan Provincial Office of Local Gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Gongchandang 海南 省志: 共产党 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Communist Party gazetteer] (2005) 383, 385.
Chapter 4. An Outrage of Little Consequence
1. “Southward Advance of Japanese Expansionist Movement: Hainan and the Spratly Islands,” Telegram from U.S. ambassador to Japan (Grew) to the U.S. Secretary of State (Hull), February 10, 1939, in Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), United States Diplomatic Papers, 1939, The Far East (1939), p. 103.
2. “Japanese Landing on Hainan Island,” February 12, 1939, in Chiang Kai-shek, The Collected Wartime Messages of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek 1937–1945 (New York: John Day Company, 1946), 184–186.
3. Ibid., 186.
4. Most significantly, see Rana Mitter’s Forgotten Ally: China’s World War II, 1937–1945 (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2013); and Jay Taylor’s The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the Struggle for Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2009).
5. Diana Lary, Region and Nation: The Kwangsi Clique in Chinese Politics, 1925–1937 (1974), 197–199; Gregor Benton, Mountain Fires: The Red Army’s Three-Year War in South China, 1934–1938 (1992), 104–106.
6. The most obvious and extreme example of this came with the New Fourth Army Incident, also known as the Southern Anhui Incident (Wannan shibian 皖南事变), in January of 1941. Gregor Benton treats this incident and its context masterfully in his work, New Fourth Army: Communist Resistance Along the Yangtze and the Huai, 1938–1941 (1999). Benton also deals with the longer context in an earlier work, Mountain Fires: The Red Army’s Three-Year War in South China, 1934–1938 (1992).
7. See Kathleen L. Lodwick’s excellent treatment of this case in The Widow’s Quest: The Byers Extraterritorial Case in Hainan, China, 1924–1925 (2003).
8. David S. Tappan, “Communist Echoes: Dreaded Reds Still Taking Their Toll,” Hainan Newsletter, American Presbyterian Mission (Fall 1937).
9. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi, eds. (1986), 96–99; also Wu Zhi and He Lang 吴之, 贺朗, Feng Baiju zhuan 冯白驹传 [Biography of Feng Baiju] (1996), 275–287.
10. Luella Rice Tappan’s Grandfather’s China Story is a modestly titled, self-published, volume of recollections covering the many years spent on Hainan by Mrs. Tappan and her husband, Reverend David S. Tappan. The volume was printed for the couple’s grandchildren in 1967 and is held in the University of Oregon’s special collection of the David S. and Luella R. Tappan Papers, Collection 103, Box 5, Folder 9.
11. David S. Tappan, “War Shadows,” Hainan Newsletter, American Presbyterian Mission (Christmas 1938), 21.
12. Cited in R.T. Phillips, “The Japanese Occupation of Hainan,” Modern Asian Studies (1980), 95.
13. Dai Xiuli 戴秀丽, “ ‘Wo shi Zhongguoren,’ ” “我是中国人” [“I am Chinese”], in Hainan gemingshi yanjiu hui, eds. [Hainan revolutionary history research association, eds.] 琼崖风云 Qiongya fengyun [Hainan wind and clouds]. Haikou: Hainan chubanshe, 2006, 347–353.
14. “Japan Seeks Needed Pot of Gold on Hainan Isle,” Sunday Mercury (November 5, 1940).
15. Zhuang Tian, quoting Zhou Enlai in his work Qiongdao fengyan 琼岛烽烟 [Hainan island beacon fire] (Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 1979), as cited in FBYS, 519.
16. Feng Baiju, “Zhihan Haiwai qiaobao baogao Qiong zhan bing qing nuanzhu” 致函海外侨胞报告琼战并请援助 [Letter to overseas Hainanese abroad with report and request for assistance], November 2, 1939; Feng Baiju, “Zhi Qiongya Huaqiao lianhe zonghui jiuji weiyuanhui zhuren Wang Taosong han liang feng” 至琼崖华侨联合总会救济委员会主任王兆松函两封 [Two letters to Wang Zhaosong, director of the Relief Committee of the Overseas Hainanese Federation], 1940; “Women ying jieshou Qiongqiao zonghui ji Feng Zongduizhang zhi huyu wei nan bao jiangshi quanmu hanyi” 我们应接受琼侨总会及冯总队长之呼吁为难胞将士劝募寒衣 [We should accept the Overseas Hainanese Committee’s and Captain Feng’s appeal for soldiers, funds, and winter clothes], October 30, 1940, all reprinted in FBYS, 6–13.
17. Feng Baiju, “Hongqi budao,” 红旗不倒 [The Red flag didn’t fall], written for Hongqi piaopiao 红旗飘飘 [The fluttering red flag], vol. 3, 1957, reprinted in Zhu Yihui 朱逸辉, ed. Qiongya qizhi 琼崖旗帜 [The Colors of Hainan] (Haikou: Hainan chubanshe, 2004), 513.
18. Lin Ping to Zhou Enlai, “Lin Ping guanyu Qiongya qingkuang zhi Zhou Enlai bing Zhongyang junwei dian” 林平关于琼崖情况致周恩来并中央军委电 [Lin Ping’s telegam to Zhou Enlai and the Central Military Commission on the situation on Hainan], May 7, 1945, reprinted in Zhonggong Hainanqu dangwei dangshi bangongshi, 中共海南区党委党史办公室, eds. [Chinese Communist Party History Office of Hainan District, eds.], in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao 冯白驹研究史料 [Historical Research Materials on Feng Baiju] (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 1988), 478–481.
19. Fan Yunxi 范运晰, Qiongji minguo renwu zhuan 琼籍民国人物传 [Biographies of Hainanese in Republican China] (1999), 319–321.
20. Li Bo 李勃, Hainan dao: Lidai jianzhu yange kao 海南岛: 历代建置沿革考 [Hainan island: A study of the establishment and evolution of previous regimes] (2005), 456–463.
21. Sato Shojin 佐藤 正人 publishes his findings in the reports of his Hainan Modern Historical Research Association (海南島近現代史研究).
22. Zhang Qianyi 张茜翼, “Riben xuezhe Sato Shojin 22 ci lai Hainan souji Riben jun qinlüe Qiong shiliao” 日本学者佐藤正人 22 次来海南搜集日军侵琼史料 [Japanese scholar, Sato Shojin, comes to Hainan for the twenty-second time to gather historical materials on the Japanese military invasion of Hainan], Zhongguo Xinwen Wang 中国新闻网 [China News], October 30, 2012, accessed July 25, 2014, http://www.chinanews.com/sh/2012/10–30/4288752.shtml
23. Su Zhiliang, Hou Jiafang, Hu Haiying 苏智良, 侯桂芳, 胡海英, Riben dui Hainan de qinlue jiqi baoxing 日本对海南的侵略及其暴行 [The Japanese invasion and atrocities on Hainan] (2005).
24. Phillips (1980), 96–98.
25. Lin Ping to Zhou Enlai, “Lin Ping guanyu Qiongya qingkuang zhi Zhou Enlai bing Zhongyang junwei dian” 林平关于琼崖情况致周恩来并中央军委电 [Lin Ping’s telegam to Zhou Enlai and the Central Military Commission on the situation on Hainan], May 7, 1945, reprinted in Zhonggong Hainanqu dangwei dangshi bangongshi, eds. 中共海南区党委党史办公室, eds. [Chinese Communist Party History Office of Hainan quarter, eds.], in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao (FBYS), 478–479.
26. Ibid.
27. Interviews, Lin’cheng, March 1, 2008; Xianlai, March 26, 2008.
28. Su Zhiliang et al. (2005), 49.
29. Ibid. The account of the public gang-rape of women and the burning alive of Changtai villagers as written by Su Zhiliang et al., was confirmed in an interview by the author with the witness of these events in Changtai village, March 2008.
30. Major General John K. Singlaub, Hazardous Duty: An American Soldier in the Twentieth Century (1991), 94.
31. Ibid., 94, 91.
32. Su Zhiliang et al. (2005), 41.
33. Sato Shojin 佐藤 正人 has done the work of uncovering this and many other burial and massacre sites. The “Korea-town” mentioned here was excavated and reported on by Professor Sato in October 1999 reports of his Hainan Modern Historical Research Association (海南島近現代史研究).
34. Singlaub (1991), 99.
35. As a standard of Chinese Communist historiography on the subject, see Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi, eds. 中共海南省委党史研究室 [The research office of Hainan province’s Chinese Communist Party history], Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi 中国共产党海南历史 [The history the Chinese Communist Party on Hainan] (2007).
36. Feng Baiju 冯白驹, “Guanyu wo canjia geming guocheng de lishi qingkuang” 关于我参加革命过程的历史情况 [Regarding the historical situation of my participation in the revolutionary process], June 25, 1968, reprinted in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 447.
37. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi, eds. (1986) frontmatter.
38. “Women zai junshi shang shi zenyang fensui diren de qingjiao,” 我们在军事上是怎样粉碎敌人的清剿 [How we militarily crushed the enemy’s attempt to wipe us out], undated report from the Hainan Communist leadership to the mainland Communist leadership, probably late 1946 or early 1947.
39. Guenther Stein, “Japan’s Army on China’s Fronts,” Far Eastern Survey, vol. 12, no. 1 (July 14, 1943), 141–143.
1. Feng Baiju, “Wuzhishan jian wu duo hongxia” 五指山尖五朵红霞 [Wuzhishan points to five red mists], December 1957, reprinted in FBYSL, 364–371.
2. Peng Chengwan 彭程萬, Diaocha Qiongya shiye baogao shu 调查琼崖实业报告书 [A report on the investigation of the industry and commerce of Hainan] (1920).
3. Wu Lien-teh (1937); Clark (1938), 391–418.
4. Li Bo 李勃, Hainan dao: Lidai jianzhu yange kao 海南岛: 历代建置沿革考 [Hainan island: A study of the establishment and evolution of previous dynasties] (2005), 287.
5. Anne Alice Csete, A Frontier Minority in the Chinese World: The Li People of Hainan Island from the Han through the High Qing (April 1995).
6. Anne Csete, “Ethnicity, Conflict, and the State in the Early to Mid-Qing: The Hainan Highlands, 1644–1800,” in Pamela Kyle Crossely, Helen F. Siu, and Donald S. Sutton, eds., Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China (2006), 231.
7. Csete (1995), 171.
8. Ibid., 84–85. Citing Ming histories, Csete notes that the source of the problem was attributed to unprecedented avarice and cruelty of local officials during large Ming uprisings.
9. Peng Chengwan, Diaocha Qiongya (1920), Li section, p. 4.
10. Ibid., 3.
11. Zhang Qingchang, Liqi jiwen [A record of the Li people], preface dated 1756, in Yu Quan, ed., Linghai wenlu [A record of unusual reports from Linghai], as noted in Csete (1995), 176.
12. Su Ke 肃克, ed., Zhonghua wenhua Tongzhi: Minzu wenhua 中华文化通志: 民族文化 [Annals of Chinese culture: People’s culture] (1998), 418–419. The policy of the Ming was called tu she, tu guan (local house, local official) and that of most of the Qing era was simply called zongguan zhidu. This meant a steward system, roughly translated, though literally it simply meant, “to be in charge of.”
13. Robert Swinhoe, “The Aborigines of Hainan” (Article 2), read before the Society on 25th March 1872, 26.
14. Ibid., 28–29.
15. Stevan Harrell, ed., Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers (1995), 7.
16. Hainan sheng difangzhi ban’gongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [The office of Hainan provincial gazetteers], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Minzu zhi 海南省志: 民族志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Nationalities gazetteer] (2006), 32–38. A brief account of their population figures through a few sample years is as follows. In 1412 there were 296,093 Han Chinese on Hainan, and 41,386 (12 percent of the total population). By 1935 the Li were almost 9 percent (almost 200,000 total) of the total Hainan population of more than 2 million. By 1953, the Li numbered about 358,000, and by 1990 they were more than one million. The dramatic increase from 1953 to 1990 (almost a trebling) is accounted for by health improvements, a more flexible child-bearing policy for ethnic minorities, and due to the custom of an intermarried couple counting itself and its descendants as fully and officially Li.
17. One American linguist working in Taiwan has presented the possibility of a connection between the origins of the aborigines of Taiwan and Hainan. Since Taiwan’s aborigines have definitively traced their ancestral tracks to the Pacific and what is today Indonesia, this would shift the received knowledge on the Li origins. It seems likely, however, that linguistic interaction and exchange throughout the region caused any similarities between the aborigines of the two islands, since all other indicators point the Li ancestral tracks to mainland Southeast Asia. (Csete [1995], 13). The Li language was one of the most interesting aspects of the culture of these indigenous people of Hainan island to early twentieth-century scholars. These ethnologists and anthropologists focused a disproportionate amount of their studies on Li language, establishing a Romanized system of writing the language that was most likely quickly relegated to library shelves and left for only a handful of later scholars of Hainan to ponder. It is not clear that any military or political missions to Hainan ever brought with them a scholar of the Li language, and the compilation of Li linguistic information seems rather to have been an effort to establish their Southeast Asian origins, rather than to preserve the language and culture. See Walter Strzoda, Die Li auf Hainan und ihre Beziehungen zum asiatischen Kontinent [The Li on Hainan and their relations with the Asian continent] (1911), 196. Nearly every page of Strzoda’s text is dedicated to Li linguistics, and it includes an extensive explanation of the sounds and meanings of many words in the Li language. The preeminent Hainan scholar of the Li, Wang Xueping, also dedicates a chapter of his most recent study of the Li to their language, but it is not the primary focus of his study (Wang Xueping [2004], 43–74). The Li language still does not have an official script.
18. Wang Xueping (2004), 72. This group has its roots in the Sino-Tibetan family, but it has since been accorded its own category by linguists. Kra-Dai languages are restricted for the most part to the Southeast Asian and southern Chinese mainland, with Hainan as the one notable island exception. Grouping the Li language and most of Hainan’s Chinese dialects in this language groups orients the island toward the Asian continent rather than toward the surrounding island chains. This linguistic connection, and other characteristics of the Li people suggest that their ancestral roots are in Southeast Asia, and not in what is today Malaysia or the Philippines. See Ouyang Jueya, The Cun Language (1998); Graham Thurgood, From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects: Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change (1999). This is a rich area of exploration, with perceived high stakes for the cultural and linguistic claims on all sides of the sometimes-contentious scholarly discussion.
19. Hainan shengzhi: Minzu (2006), frontmatter.
20. Leonard Clark, while researching his article for National Geographic Magazine cited above, shot some footage that was later made into the short documentary film, Beyond the Mountains of the Red Mist in Hainan (1938). The author is grateful to the staff of the American Museum of Natural History for digitizing this film and making it available for Interlibrary Loan (American Museum of Natural History, 1985). This film is purportedly the first moving images of the Li people. Hans Stübel recorded the intricate distinctions in the dress of both Li men and women across the island in his exhaustive 1937 ethnographic study. His photographs are reprinted in this chapter. (Hans Stübel, Die Li-Stämme der Insel Hainan: Ein Beitrag zur Volkskunde Südchinas [The Li tribes of Hainan island: A contribution to the ethnography of South China]) (1937).
21. Harrell (1995), 10–13.
22. Cl. Madrolle, Hai-nan: Le Pays et Ses Habitants [Hainan: The land and its inhabitants] (1909), 22.
23. B.C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China Including Explorations in the Hitherto Untraversed Island of Hainan (London: S.W. Partridge and Co., 1886), 350–351.
24. Harry A. Franck, Roving through Southern China (New York: The Century Co., 1925), 327.
25. Harrell (1995), 18.
26. Csete (2006).
27. Zhong Yuanxiu 中元秀, Lizu renmin lingxiu Wang Guoxing 黎族人民领袖王国兴 [The leader of the Li people, Wang Guoxing], Qiongdao xinghuo 琼岛星火 [Hainan spark], vol. 6 (Guangdong Province, publication for internal circulation, 1980). There are two editions of this biography by the same author. One is for “internal circulation” (neibu faxing), and contains more sensitive accounts of critiques by and of Wang Guoxing. This is the edition I use throughout. The differences between this edition and the one published in 1983 by “Nationalities Press” (Minzu chubanshe) are negligible for the portions used in this chapter, but they are more substantial in the post-1950 sections. The 1983 edition is Zhong Yuanxiu 中元秀, Lizu renmin lingxiu Wang Guoxing 黎族人民领袖王国兴 [The leader of the Li people, Wang Guoxing] (1983).
28. Hainan shengzhi: Minzu (2006), 756–757.
29. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 13–21.
30. Odaka (1942), 24–27.
31. Ibid., 26.
32. Wu Lien-teh (1937), 240.
33. Lloyd E. Eastman. Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937–1949 (1984).
34. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 15.
35. Ibid.
36. Preserving Li culture has become a priority recently, and efforts especially in the realm of education have been made to document and encourage the distinctiveness of the Li of Hainan. See Zhang Hongxia and Zhan Changzhi, “A Library’s Efforts en Route to Salvaging a Vanishing Culture,” a paper presented at The World Library and Information Congress: 73rd Annual International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) General Conference and Council (19–23 August 2007, Durban, South Africa).
37. In this period, the anthropological interest that was shown in the Li people was mostly from the foreign community, and not from mainland China. Hans Stübel (Germany), Kunio Odaka (Japan), M. Savina (France), and earlier, Robert Swinhoe (Great Britain) all toured the island as well as other foreigners cited here, and wrote extensively on the Li people. Meanwhile the cultural and political interest of mainlanders seems to have been at a low point in Hainan’s history. Mainly economic concerns can be found in the mainland perspective in this period, as is reflected in the Peng Chengwan survey, Chen Zhi’s Hainan dao xin zhi [New Gazetteer of Hainan], and the Wu Lien-teh English-language article.
38. Wu Lien-teh (1937), 225–226.
39. Csete (1995), 215; Chen Keqin 陈克勤, Hainan jiansheng 海南建省 [Hainan is made a province] (2008), 20–33.
40. Peng Chengwan, Diaocha Qiongya (1920), Li situation.
41. Clark (1938), 404–405.
42. Peng Chengwan, Diaocha Qiongya (1920), Introduction.
43. Wang Guoxing 王国兴, “Gongchandang shi Lizu Miaozu renmin de jiuxing” 共产党是黎族苗族人民的救星 [The Communist Party is the savior of the Li and Miao people], in Qiongdao xinghuo bianji bu 琼岛星火编辑部 [Hainan Spark editorial department], eds., Qiongdao xinghuo: Baisha qiyi zhuan 琼岛星火: 白沙起义专辑 [Hainan Spark: Baisha Uprising special edition]. Vol. 12 (Guangdong Province, publication for internal circulation, 1983), 15.
44. Yuan jizheng 原吉征, “Chen Hanguang jingweilü zai Qiongya de cansha” 陈汉光警卫旅在琼崖的残杀 [Slaughter by Chen Hanguang’s Hainan guards brigade], in Hainansheng zhengxie wenshiziliao weiyuanhui 海南省政协文史资料委员会 [Hainan Province wenshiziliao], eds., Qiongdao fengyu 琼岛风雨 [Hainan wind and rain], vol. 1 (1989), 60.
45. Li Duqing 李独清, Lizu renmin guanghui de zhandou licheng 黎族人民光辉的战斗历程 [The glorious struggle of the Li people], in Qiongdao xinghuo bianji bu 琼岛星火编辑部 [Hainan Spark editorial department], eds., Qiongdao xinghuo 琼岛星火 [Hainan spark] vol. 2 (1980), 121.
46. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 19.
47. Clark (1938), 408.
48. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 13–15.
49. Su Ke (1998), 418–419. Passing hereditary titles among ethnic groups at the margins of the Chinese empire precluded the need to send unwelcome officials from Beijing. These marginal groups were not required to follow the “rule of avoidance” for Chinese officials, which traditionally dictated that an official could not serve in his home district—a measure that was intended to prevent corruption and nepotism.
50. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 17–18.
51. Ibid.
52. Hainan shengzhi: Minzu zhi (2006), 782. Wang Xueping (2004), 92.
53. Zhong Yuanxiu (1983), 18.
54. Hainan shengzhi: Minzu zhi (2006), 774–775.
55. Wang Xueping (2004), 90–91.
56. Li Duqing (1980), 120–121. A later, more scholarly account of the Li uprising of 1897 also notes that it involved more than four thousand Li fighters, but makes no mention of an alliance with the Han. See Cheng Zhaoxing and Xing Yikong 程昭星, 邢诒孔. Lizu renmin douzheng shi 黎族人民斗争史 [A history of the struggles of the Li people] (1999), 505.
57. Swinhoe (1872), 71.
58. Cheng Zhaoxing and Xing Yikong (1999), 507.
59. In 1943, Wang Yujin remembered that the Lingshui Communist movement had included a mixture of Han and Li fighters (Zhong Yuanxiu [1980], 45).
60. Csete (1995), 174, citing a report from 1756, during the high Qing by the official, Zhang Qingchang. Zhang Qingchang, Liqi jiwen [A record of the Liqi people], preface dated 1756, in Yu Quan, ed., Linghai Wenlu [A record of unusual reports from Linghai (Lingnan)], Guangxu gengyin. The practice of circulating an “arrow of war” or “sending around an arrow” was not limited to the Li, and also a tradition among the warring peoples of early Iceland. See chapter 1, section 3 in Jane Smiley, ed., The Sagas of Icelanders (New York: Penguin, 2001).
61. Feng Baiju, “五指山尖五朵红霞” “Wuzhishan jianwuduo hongxia” [Wuzhishan red dusk glow], in Zhonggong Hainanqu dangwei dangshi ban’gongshi 中共海南区党委党史办公室 [The history office for the Chinese Communist Party Committee of Hainan district], eds., Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao 冯白驹研究史料 [Feng Baiju research materials] (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe [article originally written in 1957], 1988), 364–371.
62. Odaka (1942), 14.
63. Ibid., 17.
64. Zhong Yuanxiu (1980), 21.
65. Ibid., 22–24.
66. Ibid., 35–37.
67. Ibid., 41.
68. Ibid., 42.
69. Ibid., 43.
70. You Qi 尤淇, Qiongya Limin shanqu fangwen sanji [Notes and Interviews on the Li people of Hainan’s mountain region] 琼崖黎民山区访问散记 (1950), 1–4. In fact, Wang would certainly have known that the sudden appearance of a bright red mist is not unheard of in the mountains of Hainan, though it is striking to observe for the newcomer to the island. This might account for You Qi’s eagerness to weave the dramatic natural phenomenon into his account of the events. In his 1937 National Geographic article cited above, Leonard Clark was also impressed by the sudden appearance of the “ox-blood red” mist (Clark [1938], 399–400), and it inspired the name of his short documentary film, also mentioned above, Beyond the Mountains of the Red Mist in Hainan (1938) (American Museum of Natural History, 1985).
71. Zhong Yuanxiu (1980).
72. The following accounts use the smaller figures of twenty thousand Li fighters and three hundred Nationalist casualties: Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi ban’gongshi, eds. (1986), 171. Zhong Yuanxiu’s biography of Wang Guoxing (1980) uses the larger figures for both Li participation and Nationalist casualties.
73. Hainan shengzhi: Minzu zhi (2006), 787.
74. Csete (1995), 109.
75. Zhonggong zhongyang shuji chu 中共中央书记处 [Chinese Communist Central secretary], “对琼崖工作指示” “Dui Qiongya gongzuo zhishi” [Directive on Hainan work], July 1940, as quoted in Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi ban’gongshi, eds. (1986), 171.
76. Zhan Lizhi 詹力之, “Suqing fandong shili, gonggu minzhu zhengquan: Huiyi yu Wang Guoxing tongzhi gongshi de rizi 肃清反动势力 巩固民主政权: 回忆与王国兴同志公事的日子 [Eliminating the influence of reactionaries, consolidating the power of democracy: A recollection of days working together with Comrade Wang Guoxing], in Zhonggong Guangdongsheng Hainan Lizu Miaozu zizhizhou wei dang shi ban’gongshi 中共广东省海南黎族苗族自治州委党史办公室 [Office of the Chinese Communist Party history committee of the Hainan Li-Miao autonomous region, Guangdong Province], eds., Baisha qiyi: sishi zhounian jinian wenji 白沙起义: 四十周年纪念文集 [Baisha Uprising: 40th anniversary commemoration writings]. Vol. 1 (1983).
Chapter 6. Holding Aloft Hainan’s Red Flag
1. “Statement by President Truman on U.S. Policy towards China, Dec. 15, 1945,” Department of State Bulletin, December 16, 1945.
2. Letter from Zhou Enlai to Australian Legation First Secretary, Patrick Shaw, May 14, 1946, Australian National Archives documents (321/46/3).
3. Singlaub (1991), 83.
4. Yu Maochun, OSS in China: Prelude to Cold War (New Haven: Yale University, 1997), 232.
5. Yu, Maochun (1997), 232. Ho’s relationship with the OSS was a complex and perhaps paradoxical one that involved cooperation and confrontation, but in this instance of evacuating French personnel from Vietnam, a mutual enmity between the United States and the Vietnamese Communists was evident.
6. Singlaub (1991), 83.
7. Though the beginning of the full-scale Japanese invasion of China (starting in July1937 and the occupation of Hainan beginning in February of 1939) did not immediately prompt the withdrawal of the American Presbyterians, the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December of 1941 led to the missionaries’ departure first to Hong Kong and then back to America. From 1939 through the end of 1941, the Japanese occupiers appear to have maintained rather close ties to the American Presbyterians on Hainan. The new eastern masters of the island simply became the power that the Americans attempted to work with to spread their faith through schools and hospitals (Lodwick, Educating the Women of Hainan, 1995).
8. Lionel Max Chassin (Timothy Osato and Louis Gelas, trans.), The Communist Conquest of China: A History of the Civil War, 1945–1949 (1965).
9. Singlaub (1991), 99.
10. Ibid., 99–100.
11. Odd Arne Westad, Decisive Encounters: The Chinese Civil War (2003), 31.
12. Singlaub (1991), 99.
13. Ibid., 100.
14. Ibid., 98–99.
15. Phillips (1980).
16. Ibid., 109.
17. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi, eds. 中共海南省委党史研究室 [The research office of Hainan province’s Chinese Communist Party history], Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi 中国共产党海南历史 [The history of Hainan’s Chinese Communist Party] (2007), 411.
18. Phillips (1980), 98.
19. “Liang-Guang zongdui shi” bianxie lingdao xiaozu “两广纵队史” 编写领导小组 [Leading group editors of the “History of the Guangdong and Guangxi Column”], eds., Liang-Guang zongdui shi 两广纵队史 [History of the Guangdong and Guangxi Column] (1988), 1–8.
20. R.T. Phillips, “The Japanese Occupation of Hainan,” Modern Asian Studies (1980), 107–109.
21. Fan Yunxi 范运晰, Qiongji minguo renwu zhuan 琼籍民国人物传 [Biographies of Hainanese in Republican China] (1999), 319–321.
22. Interview, Lin’cheng, March 1, 2008; Xianlai, March 26, 2008.
23. Westad (2003), 46.
24. Phillips (1980). Phillips notes that this was the Japanese view that the Communists were more active in their resistance fighting, and this view is not surprisingly shared by the contemporary and historical Chinese Communist views.
25. Lin Ping 林平 “Guanyu Qiongya gongzuo fangzhen gei Zhongyang de baogao” 关于琼崖工作方针给中央的报告 [Report to Party Central on the direction of work done on Hainan], October 26, 1945. As cited in Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi, eds., 中国共产党海南历史 Zhongguo gongchandang Hainan lishi [Hainan’s history of the Chinese Communist Party] (2007), 411.
26. Lloyd E. Eastman, Seeds of Destruction: Nationalist China in War and Revolution, 1937–1949 (1984), 156–157.
27. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi, eds. (2007), 418–421.
28. Shi Dan 史丹, “Haikou tanpan” 海口谈判 [Haikou negotiations], in Qiongdao xinghuo 琼岛星火 [Hainan spark] (1987), 454.
29. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiushi, eds. (2007), 411.
30. Feng Baiju, “Zai Qiongya jian jun shi zhou nian jinian dahui shang de yanshuo” 在琼崖建军十周年纪念大会上的演说 [Speech at the commemorative meeting for the tenth anniversary of the founding of the Hainan army], December 5, 1948, reprinted in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 150.
31. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu XX Qiongya budui jixu fenzhan gei Feng, Huang, Li dian” 中共中央关于鼓励琼崖部队奋战给冯黄李电 [Telegram from Party Central to Feng (Baiju), Huang (Kang), and Li (Ming) regarding encouragement of the Hainan army’s struggle], September 30, 1946, in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 485.
32. Chen Dagui, Chen Qin, and Wang Jun were among the leaders of the Hainan Communist military who lost their lives in this attempt to reestablish this vital line of communication between the mainland Chinese Communists and the Hainan movement. See Qiongya wuzhuang douzhengshi bangongshi, eds. (1986), 212.
33. Xing Yikong, Peng Changlin, Qian Yue 邢诒孔, 彭长霖, 钱跃, Feng Baiju jiangjun zhuan 冯白驹将军传 [The Biography of General Feng Baiju] (1998), 327. This account is taken from a personal recollection of Wang Yuzhang, who was tasked with organizing the communications of the Hainan Column.
34. Gregor Benton, New Fourth Army: Communist Resistance Along the Yangtze and the Huai, 1938–1941 (1999), 59.
35. Huang Yunming, as told to Zhou Longjiao 黄运明口述, 周龙蛟整理 “Wo tong Qiongya diantai de qingyuan” 我同琼崖电台的情缘 [My love for Radio Hainan], in Hainan gemingshi yanjiu hui, eds. [Hainan revolutionary history research association, eds.] 琼崖风云 Qiongya fengyun [Hainan wind and clouds] (2006), 228–229.
36. Singlaub (1991), 95.
37. Xing Yilin, Han Qiyuan, Huang Liangjun, Qiongqiao cangsong 琼侨沧桑 [The ups and downs of Overseas Hainanese (English title)] (1991), 47.
38. Xing Yilin et al. (1991), 76–78.
39. As was noted in chapter 2, the British were also most likely in part clandestinely responsible for the arrest and execution of a prominent Hainan operative, newly arrived from Hong Kong in the early years of the Communist Party on Hainan. See Chan Lau Kit-ching, From Nothing to Nothing: The Chinese Communist Movement and Hong Kong, 1921–1936 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 188–189. This operative was Sichuan native, Li Shuoxun, who arrived in Hainan in 1931 and was executed within weeks. He left his son (the now well-known Li Peng) and wife in the care of Zhou Enlai. Also see Hainan gemingshi yanjiu hui, eds. [Hainan revolutionary history research association, eds.] 琼崖风云 Qiongya fengyun [Hainan wind and clouds] (2006), 9–10.
40. “Zhonggong zhongyang guanyu guli Qiongya budui jixu fenzhan gei Feng, Huang, Li dian” 中共中央关于鼓励琼崖部队奋战给冯黄李电 [Telegram from Party Central to Feng (Baiju), Huang (Kang), and Li (Ming) regarding encouragement of the Hainan army’s struggle], September 30, 1946, in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 485.
41. Ma Biqian 马必前, “Qiongya dianbo” 琼崖电波 [Hainan broadcast], in Hainan gemingshi yanjiu hui, eds. [Hainan revolutionary history research association, eds.] 琼崖风云 Qiongya fengyun [Hainan wind and clouds] (2006), 211.
42. Wu Zhi, He Lang 吴之, 贺郎, Feng Baiju zhuan 冯白驹传 [Biography of Feng Baiju] (1996), 588.
43. Ibid., 591.
44. Feng Baiju, “Gongbu san nian ziwei zhanzheng zhi zhanji” 公布三年自卫战争只战绩 (Report on the successes in three years of the struggle of self-defense,” December 10, 1948, in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 156.
45. Feng Baiju, “Zai Qiongya jian jun shi zhou nian jinian dahui shang de yanshuo” 在琼崖建军十周年纪念大会上的演说 [Speech at the commemorative meeting for the tenth anniversary of the founding of the Hainan army], in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 150–155. Han Hanying was the military leader of the Nationalist forces on Hainan in 1948.
46. Benton (1992), xxxvii.
47. Ibid.
48. Vogel (1971 [1969]).
Chapter 7. Sharing Victory
1. “Zhongguo renmin geming junshi weiyuanhui dianhe Hainandao quanbu jiefang” 中国人民革命军事委员会电贺海南岛全部解放 [Telegram of congratulations from the Chinese People’s Revolutionary Military Committee on the complete liberation of Hainan island], May 5, 1950, reprinted in Zhu Yihui 朱逸辉, ed., Qiongya qizhi [The Colors of Hainan] (2004), 8.
2. Li Xiaobing, A History of the Modern Chinese Army (2007), 133. This assessment is not incorrect, and it is not within Li’s stated goals to include the nuance of every regional struggle in the Communist revolution. However, this brief treatment does perpetuate the notion that the Hainan campaign was fought and won by an overwhelming landing force that simply swept the enemy before them.
3. Liu Zhenhua, Hainan jiefang 海南解放 [Liberating Hainan] (1998), 81.
4. Han Xianchu, “Hainandao saotao zhan” 海南岛扫讨战 [The Hainan island mop-up campaign], from Xinghuo liaoyuan 星火燎原 [A single spark can start a prairie fire], translated and reprinted in the appendix of Reed Richard Probst, The Communist Conquest of Hainan (1982), 228.
5. Ibid., 235.
6. “Zhongguo Gongchandang de guanghui zhaoyao zai Hainan shang” 中国共产党的光辉照耀在海南上 [The glory of the Chinese Communist Party shines on Hainan], 1951. Reprinted in Zhu Yihui 朱逸辉, ed., Qiongya qizhi [The Colors of Hainan] (2004), 492–498.
7. “Hainan’s saviors,” Hainan anti-Japanese wartime song, reprinted in He Lang and Wu zhi 贺朗, 吴之, eds., Chengqi Qiongya banbi tian 撑起琼崖半壁天 [Lifting up half of the Hainan sky] (1992), 440.
8. This phrase was General John Burgoyne’s (1722–1792) description of American troops. He referred to the Americans as a “rabble in arms, flushed with success and insolence,” and Kenneth Roberts used the phrase as the title of his Revolutionary War novel, Rabble in Arms (Doubleday: New York, 1936). It is interesting to note that with the distance of time, Americans embrace the culture of a “rabble in arms,” and this may be the direction in the PRC. In 1950, I believe, it was more important for the PRC leadership to point to its transformation from such a rabble into a massive and effective conventional fighting force.
9. Michael Szonyi, Cold War Island: Quemoy on the Front Line (2008). Quemoy is a Hokkien romanization that is still sometimes used for Jinmen. Crossing the Qiongzhou Strait with the Fourth Field Army was a Soviet documentarian whose footage has become the source for seminal images of the campaign. Some of this footage has been compiled in historical documentary film accounts of the campaign at: http://v.ifeng.com/his/201005/b8a742dd-e53b-44ec-bfe5–7eeb6ffc65b2.shtml
10. Suzanne Pepper emphasizes corruption and incompetence in her unsurpassed 1978 study of the Chinese Civil War. The Nationalists’ administrative corruption and incompetence lost the war as much as any Communist attributes won it (Suzanne Pepper, Civil War in China: The Political Struggle, 1945–1949 [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978], 423). On Hainan this nepotism was embodied by Chen Jitang and Han Hanying. The military leadership of Xue Yue in the final days of Nationalist rule on Hainan offered a glimpse of another road of efficiency and responsibility in Nationalist rule, but Xue’s tenure was quickly ended by the Communist campaign.
11. Seymour Topping, On the Front Lines of the Cold War: An American Correspondent’s Journal from the Chinese Civil War to the Cuban Missile Crisis and Vietnam (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010), 115–116.
12. Deng Hua, “Jiefang Hainan” 解放海南 [Liberating Hainan], in He Lang and Wu zhi 贺朗, 吴之, eds., Chengqi Qiongya banbi tian 撑起琼崖半壁天 [Lifting up half of the Hainan sky] (1992), 415–423. Liu Zhenhua, Hainan jiefang 海南解放 [Liberating Hainan] (1998).
13. Interview with three guerrilla veterans from Xianlai village of Qiongshan county provided eye-witness accounts of their first meetings with the mainland PLA forces, October 8, 2008.
14. This interview with a PLA captain, then living in Haikou, provided eye-witness account and opinion of the first interactions between PLA regulars and the Hainan guerrillas, October 15, 2008. (Numbers of casualties are wildly divergent in contemporary sources, based on propaganda, especially in a specific engagement like the initial crossing of the Qiongzhou Strait. Today most estimates of total Communist casualties in the Hainan campaign are around four thousand. Most of these were probably incurred in the earliest phase of the fighting, namely in the initial crossing, when Nationalist warships and planes were able to sink entire unarmed junks full of PLA soldiers.)
15. Interview with PLA captain, October 15, 2008. In late 1949 and early 1950, both the New York Times and Los Angeles Times provided daily updates on the progress of the Communist conquest of Hainan, with information coming via press offices on Hong Kong and with little delay. The world watched intently as half of the Nationalists territory (considered by some to be “free China”) was on the verge of falling to the Reds.
16. Han Xianchu, “Hainandao saotao zhan,” 225–241.
17. Ma Baishan and Ma Biqian 马白山, 马必前, Yuxue tianya 浴血天涯 [Bloody Horizon] (2007 [vol. 2]), 387–389.
18. Chen Keqin, Hainan jiansheng 海南建省 [Making Hainan a province] (2008), 20–33.
19. Zhou Quangen 周泉根, Sui, Tang, Wudai Hainan renwu zhi 隋唐五代海南人物志 [Prominent figures of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties] (Haikou: Sanhuan chubanshe, 2007), 164–204.
20. Jeremy Brown and Paul G. Pickowicz, eds., Dilemmas of Victory: The Early Years of the People’s Republic of China (2007).
21. Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi [Hainan Provincial Committee for Historical Research, Chinese Communist Party], eds., Zhongguo renmin jiefangjun: Hainan jiangling zhuan 中国人民解放军: 海南将领传 [Chinese People’s Liberation Army: Biographies of Hainan’s Military Officers] (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 1991), 201–203.
22. Lu Jun and Xing Yikong 陆军, 邢诒孔, “Dui Qiongya genjudi 23 nian hongqi budao de chubu tantao” 对琼崖革命根据地 23 年红旗不倒的初步探讨 [A preliminary inquiry into the Hainan base areas “holding aloft the red flag for twenty-three years”], in Zhonggong Hainan shengwei dangshi yanjiu shi, eds., Qiongya geming yanjiu lunwenxuan (1994), 19.
23. “Dongyuan xuesheng canjia Qiongya gongxue xuexi tongzhi” 动员学生参加琼崖公学学习通知 [Notice on mobilizing students to attend Hainan Public School]. Issued by Chairman Feng Baiju, Hainan Interim Democratic Government, October 24, 1948.
24. “Guanyu Qiongzong fuban junzheng xuexiao de zhishi” 关于琼纵复办军政学校的指示 [Directive on the Hainan Independent Column reestablishing the military and political schools]. Issued by Chairman Feng Baiju, Hainan Interim Democratic Government, January 12, 1949.
25. Pepper (1980), 95–131.
26. Hainan sheng zhi: Jinrong zhi, 533–534.
27. Ibid., 28, 72, 532–533. Most recently there had been two notable attempts. In December of 1948 a small run of about 80 yuan was printed in denominations of 1 and 2 jiao, and 5 fen notes (1 yuan = 10 jiao = 100 fen). This was clearly only an experiment, and the notes were recalled in May of the following year. At the time of the recall, though, the Hainan Column authorities printed another run of paper money. This was presumably a more ambitious venture, though there are no records of how much money was printed in this second issuance. The notes issued in this second run were also recalled, but not until the Communist takeover a year later, in May of 1950, when the Communist government essentially bought the old money using the new currency, the mainland renminbi (“the people’s money”).
28. Hainan sheng zhi: Jinrong zhi, 533–534.
29. Telegrams between Feng Baiju and Deng Hua, Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 183–191.
30. He Lang and Wu Zhi 贺朗, 吴之, Feng Baiju zhuan 冯百驹传 [Biography of Feng Baiju] (1996), 726–727. Lin accomplished the task of collecting the Nationalist reserves nearly perfectly. Feng only scolded him on one point. When Lin and his men were collecting the gold reserves, Lin suggested Feng’s wife take a bauble for herself—“a souvenir of the revolution.” For the austere Feng, this type of behavior would not stand, and according to this account in Feng’s biography, Lin quickly acknowledged his mistake under Feng’s criticism.
31. Hainan sheng zhi: Jinrong zhi, 72, 75, 533–534. The name of the bank would be changed in November 1950, and the Hainan Branch would become simply a division of the Guangdong Branch of the People’s Bank of China.
32. Ma Baishan and Ma Biqian 马白山, 马必前, Yuxue tianya 浴血天涯 [Bloody Horizon] (2007 [vol. 2]), 387–389.
33. Ibid.
34. Ma Baishan 马白山, “Beishang canjia zhengxie huiyi” 北上参加政协会议 [Going north to attend the Political Consultative Conference], in Ma Baishan and Ma Biqian 马白山, 马必前, Yuxue tianya 浴血天涯 [Bloody Horizon] (2007) [vol. 2], 122–125.
35. Hainansheng difang shizhi bangongshi [Hainan provincial local history and gazetteer office], eds. Hainan shengzhi: Renkou zhi, fangyan zhi, zongjiao zhi 海南省志: 人口志, 方言志, 宗教志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Population gazetteer, dialect gazetteer, religion gazetteer] (1994), 67–69.
36. Yang Dechun 杨德春, Hainandao gudai jianshi 海南岛古代简史 [A brief history of Hainan island in ancient times] (Jilin: Dongbei shifan daxue chubanshe, 1988), 143–148.
37. Zhong Yuanxiu 中元秀, Lizu renmin lingxiu Wang Guoxing 黎族人民领袖王国兴 [The leader of the Li people, Wang Guoxing] (1983), 33–38.
38. Ma Baishan 马白山, “Beishang canjia zhengxie huiyi” 北上参加政协会议 [Going north to attend the Political Consultative Conference], in Ma Baishan and Ma Biqian 马白山, 马必前, Yuxue tianya 浴血天涯 [Bloody Horizon] (2007) [vol. 2], 123–124.
39. A. Doak Barnett, China on the Eve of the Communist Takeover (1963), 296–303.
40. Deng Hua speech, FBYS.
41. Qiongya wuzhuang douzheng shi bangongshi [Hainan military struggle history office], eds., Qiongya zongdui shi 琼崖纵队史 [History of the Hainan Column] (1986), 209–217.
42. Chen Keqin, Hainan jiansheng 海南建省 [Making Hainan a province] (2008), 54.
43. Han Xianchu, “Hainandao saotao zhan” 海南岛扫讨战 [The Hainan island mop-up campaign], from Xinghuo liaoyuan 星火燎原 [A single spark can start a prairie fire], translated and reprinted in the appendix of Reed Richard Probst, The Communist Conquest of Hainan (1982), 227.
44. Dangdai Zhongguo de Hainan 当代中国的海南 [Hainan in modern China] (1993), 77.
45. China Handbook, 1951 (1952), 151.
46. “Chen Jitang yao zuo Hainan wang,” [Chen Jitang wants to be king of Hainan] in Xinwen tiandi (December 4, 1949), 9.
47. Xinwen tiandi (December 31, 1949).
48. Yan Xishan, Taiwan ji Hainan dao baowei an [A plan for the protection of Taiwan and Hainan Islands], 17–24.
49. Hainan shengzhi: Junshi zhi, 690.
50. Yuan Jizheng “Chen Hanguang jingweilü zai Qiongya de cansha” [Chen Hanguang’s guard brigade’s massacre in Hainan], He Kaiqia “Chen Hanguang dui Hainan shaoshuminzu de xuexing tongzhi” [Chen Hanguang’s bloody rule over the ethnic minorities of Hainan].
51. Barnett (1963), 296–303.
Chapter 8. Bringing Hainan to the Nation’s Heel
1. Tiewes (1979), 368.
2. Zhengxie Lingaoxian wenshi ziliao yanjiu weiyuanhui 政协临高县文史资料研究委员会 [Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) Lingao County Historical Research Committee], eds., Lingao Wenshi 临高文史 [Lingao literature and history], vol. 12, Hainansheng feiyingli chuban (1998).
3. For a major 1962 retrospective speech by Hainan’s most prominent Communist leader in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s, see Feng Baiju’s February 5, 1962, speech, “Zai Zhonggong Guangdong shengwei zhaokai de tanxin hui shang de fayan” 在中共广东省委召开的谈心会上的发言 [Speech at the meeting of the Chinese Communist Party Guangdong Provincial Committee], reprinted in Guangdong Qiongya gemingshi yanjiuhui 广东琼崖革命史研究会 [Guangdong, Hainan revolutionary history research association], eds., Feng Baiju huiyilu 冯白驹回忆录 [Feng Baiju recollection volume] (2000). For official communications between the Hainan and mainland leadership during land reform of the early 1950s, see 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (2002).
4. The work, translated into English by Stacy Mosher and Guo Jian, is Yang Jisheng’s Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958–1962 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2012).
5. Feng Baiju, “Zai Zhonggong Guangdong shengwei zhaokai de tanxin hui shang de fayan” 在中共广东省委召开的谈心会上的发言 [Speech at the meeting of the Chinese Communist Party Guangdong Provincial Committee], February 5, 1962, reprinted in Guangdong Qiongya gemingshi yanjiuhui 广东琼崖革命史研究会 [Guangdong, Hainan revolutionary history research association], eds., Feng Baiju huiyilu 冯白驹回忆录 [Feng Baiju recollection volume] (2000), 253–254.
6. Xiaorong Han, “Localism in Chinese Communist Politics Before and After 1949: The Case of Feng Baiju,” The Chinese Historical Review 11, 1 (Spring 2004): 23–56.
7. Ye Ding 叶顶, Nanxia Nanxia! Xin Zhongguo de jijiehao [Advance South, Advance South!: New China’s call to arms] 南下南下! 新中国的集结号 (2010).
8. William T. Rowe, China’s Last Empire: The Great Qing (Cambridge, MA: Belknap/Harvard, 2009), 38–39.
9. Feng Baiju 冯白驹, “Feng Baiju tanpan Ou Mengjue qingkuang” 冯白驹谈攀区梦觉情况 [Feng Baiju discusses the situation with Ou Mengjue], undated, hand-written document, probably a speech in a closed Party meeting, dating to 1961 or 1962.
10. Feng Baiju 冯白驹, “Zhaojin jihui xiang jiefang dajun xuexi” 抓紧机会向解放大军学习 [Seize the opportunity to study from the PLA main army], originally printed in Xin Hainan bao 新海南报 [New Hainan Journal], May 8, 1950, and reprinted in Zhonggong Hainanqu dangwei dangshi ban’gongshi 中共海南区党委党史办公室 [The history office for the Chinese Communist Party Committee of Hainan district], eds., Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao 冯白驹研究史料 [Historical Research Materials on Feng Baiju] (1988), 192–195.
11. Ou Mengjue. “What Have Been the Mistakes of Ku Ta-ch’un and Feng Pai-chu?” in Survey of China Mainland Press 1899, pp. 16–23. (Originally published in the first issue of 上游 Shangyou [1958]).
12. Ibid.
13. Frederick C. Tiewes, Politics and Purges in China: Rectification and the Decline of Party Norms, 1950–1965 (1979), 357–358, 366–367.
14. Wu Zhi, He Lang 吴之, 贺郎, Feng Baiju zhuan 冯白驹传 [Biography of Feng Baiju] (1996), 844–845.
15. Wang Xueping 王学萍, Zhongguo Lizu 中国黎族 [The Li Ethnic Group in China] (2004), 465.
16. Chen Keqin 陈克勤, Hainan jiansheng 海南建省 [Hainan is made a province] (2008), 50–51.
17. This took place following the shift in name of the currency to renminbi, or “people’s money,” but prior to the adjustment in denominations in 1955 from the inflated Nationalist currency. So Feng’s 5,000,000 would actually be the equivalent of 500 yuan, following the adjustment.
18. Hu Tichun, Xu Chunhong, Wang Huanqiu 胡提春, 许春宏, 王焕秋, Feng Baiju jiangjun zhuan 冯白驹将军传 [Biography of General Feng Baiju], Qiongdao Xinghuo (Hainan Spark) Series, vol. 3 (1981), 108–111.
19. Feng Baiju 冯白驹, Zhongguo gongchandang de guanghui zhaoyao zai Hainandao shang 中国共产党的光辉照耀在海南岛上 [The radiance of the Chinese Communist Party shines on Hainan island] (1951).
20. Ibid., 1.
21. Hainansheng difangzhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan provincial gazetteer office], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Tudi zhi 海南省志: 土地志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Land gazetteer] (2007), 357–359.
22. Hainansheng difangzhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan provincial gazetteer office], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Haiyang zhi, Geming genjudi zhi 海南省志: 海洋志, 革命根据地志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Maritime gazetteer, revolutionary base area gazetteer] (2006), 186, 193, 195.
23. Vogel (1971 [1969]), 95.
24. Hainansheng difangzhi bangongshi 海南省地方志办公室 [Hainan provincial gazetteer office], eds., Hainan shengzhi: Tudi zhi 海南省志: 土地志 [Hainan provincial gazetteer: Land gazetteer] (2007), 360.
25. Cai Dizhi 蔡迪支, Guangdong 1949–1959 广东 1949–1959 [Guangdong, 1949–1959] (1959), 104–105.
26. Tiewes (1979), 367.
27. “Zhonggong Hainan qu wei guanyu tugai gongzuo jihua,” 中共海南区委关于土改工作计划 [Chinese Communist Party Hainan District Committee plan regarding land reform work], February 13, 1951, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953], Haikou, 2002, p. 6.
28. “Hainan junzheng weiyuanhui guanyu tugai zhong ruogan teshu wenti de guiding” 海南军政委员会关于土改中若干特殊问题的规定 [Provisions regarding a number of special problems in land reform by the Hainan military administrative committee] March 17, 1951, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局 (馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 19–22.
29. Hainan junzheng weiyuanhui shishi tudi gaige de bugao 海南军政委员会实施土地改革的布告 [Hainan military administrative committee announcement on the implementation of land reform] March 22, 1951, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 24–25.
30. Vogel (1971 [1969]), 99–110. The precision with which Guangdong land reform is striking in Vogel’s account. January and February are labor-intensive in the Guangdong calendar since these are the planting months. According to Vogel, January and February of 1951 saw moderate policies that did not alienate farmers while their planting labor was needed, and then the spring brought a flood of radicalized northern cadres to take over the process.
31. “Hainan tugaiwei guanyu tugai shidian ji ge wenti de tongzhi” 海南土改委关于土改试点几个问题的通知 [Circular by the Hainan land reform committee regarding some problems with the land reform experiment], April 13, 1951, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 28–29.
32. Vogel (1971 [1969]), 112.
33. “Hainan tugai gongzuo di yi tuan guanyu huafen jieji gongzuo wenti de tongzhi” 海南土改工作第一团关于划分阶级工作问题的通知 [Circular by the Hainan first land work group regarding some problems with class divisions], April 14, 1951, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 30–31.
34. Michael R. Phillips, Huaqing Liu, and Yanping Zhang, “Suicide and Social Change in China,” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry (1999), 25–50.
35. Yang Kuisong, “Reconsidering the Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries,” The China Quarterly (2008), 109, 115.
36. Ibid., 116. Yang quoted Ye Jianying’s report on the zhenfan work in southern China from May 17, 1951.
37. Vogel (1971 [1969]), 115, 119.
38. “Zhonggong Hainan quwei zhuanfa ‘Zhongnanju guanyu chuli nongmin zisha shijian de si zhong banfa’ de tongzhi” 中共海南区委转发 “中南局关于处理农民自杀事件的四种办法” 的通知 [Circular by the Hainan Chinese Communist Party district committee “Central Southern Bureau regarding four methods of handling peasant suicides”], February 12, 1952, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 436–437.
39. “Zhonggong Hainan qu wei guanyu kefu ganbu youqing sixiang shenru fanba tuizu douzheng de tongbao” 中共海南区委关于克服干部右倾思想深入反霸退租斗争的通报 [Circular by the Chinese Communist Party district committee of Hainan regarding overcoming the rightist tendencies among cadres and deepening the anti-tyrant rent remission struggle], April 19, 1952, reprinted in 海南省史志工作办公室, 海南省档案局(馆) [Hainan provincial historical office, Hainan provincial archives (museum)], eds., Hainan tudi gaige yundong ziliao xuanbian, 1951–1953 海南土地改革运动资料选编, 1951–1953 [Selected materials on the land reform movement in Hainan, 1951–1953] (Haikou, 2002), 510–514.
40. Hu Tichun, Xu Chunhong, Wang Huanqiu 胡提春, 许春宏, 王焕秋, Feng Baiju jiangjun zhuan 冯白驹将军传 [Biography of General Feng Baiju], Qiongdao Xinghuo (Hainan Spark) Series, vol. 3 (1981), 112.
41. Zhong Yuanxiu 中元秀, Lizu renmin lingxiu Wangguoxing 黎族人民领袖王国兴 [Wang Guoxing, leader of the Li people], Qiongdao xinghuo (Hainan Spark series), vol. 6 (Haikou, 1981), 142–144.
42. Feng Baiju, “Zai Zhonggong Guangdong shengwei zhaokai de tanxin hui shang de fayan” 在中共广东省委召开的谈心会上的发言 [Speech at the meeting of the Chinese Communist Party Guangdong Provincial Committee], February 5, 1962, reprinted in Guangdong Qiongya gemingshi yanjiuhui 广东琼崖革命史研究会 [Guangdong, Hainan revolutionary history research association], eds., Feng Baiju huiyilu 冯白驹回忆录 [Feng Baiju recollection volume] (2000).
43. Zhongyang jilü jiancha weiyuanhui 中央纪律检查委员会 [Central committee on disciplinary inspection], Guanyu Feng Baiju, Gu Dacun tongzhi de wenti shenli yijian de baogao 冯白驹, 古大存同志的问题审理意见的报告 [Report of opinions on the hearing over the problems of Comrades Feng Baiju and Gu Dacun] (1983), in Feng Baiju yanjiu shiliao, 527–528.
44. Edward H. Schafer, Shore of Pearls: Hainan Island in Early Times (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), 5.
Epilogue
1. Ezra Vogel, One Step Ahead In China: Guangdong Under Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989), 291–294.
2. Li Jinming, “Nansha Indisputable Territory,” China Daily (June 15, 2011).
3. James Manicom, “Understanding the Nature of China’s Challenge to Maritime East Asia,” Harvard Asia Quarterly (December 24, 2010).
4. Edward Wong, “Beijing Warns US About South China Sea Disputes,” New York Times (June 22, 2011).
5. The annual Bo’ao Forum for Asia draws an impressive roster of dignitaries, including current and former heads of state, whose expressed aim is to increase the economic integration of the region. This economic integration has prevailed in recent years, even over any escalation of regional tensions. (http://www.boaoforum.org/html/home-en.asp)
6. Philip Feifan Xie, Authenticating Ethnic Tourism (Bristol: Channel View Publications, 2011).
7. “Hainan to Expand Tax Rebate Program to Domestic Tourists,” People’s Daily Online (March 22, 2011).