Notes

A note on newspapers: nineteenth-century newspapers are notoriously difficult to cite. They change their names constantly, do not routinely number their pages, insert articles and editorials seemingly at random, and often do not bother with headlines. The practice of large, recognizable headlines was just coming into vogue in 1877 and had not yet caught on entirely. As a consequence, some of the following citations for newspapers and articles have titles and some do not. Unless otherwise indicated, the articles cited start on page one of the newspaper. I have cited the page on which the article begins even if it continues on another page as it is generally very difficult to locate an article fragment in these newspapers. Contemporary accounts often differ in minor and significant ways. I have therefore attempted to give multiple sources for events and quotations so that interested readers can compare versions and reach independent judgments.

Preface

1 Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, 1865-1878 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 304.

2 Henry F. May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 95.

3 See, for example, “The Ashtabula Calamity,” New York Times, January 1, 1877; “The Railway Horror,” Boston Daily Advertiser, January 1, 1877; “The Communists Preparing,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 17, 1877; “The Communists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, December 20, 1877, p. 8.

4 Goldwin Smith, “The Labour War in the United States,” Contemporary Review 30 (1877): 541.

5 Rebecca Edwards, New Spirits: Americans in the Gilded Age, 1865-1905 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 140.

6 Edwards, New Spirits, 28.

7 The earliest use of “captains of industry” that I can locate was in a brief article in the Boston Daily Advertiser, September 23, 1876.

8 May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America, 91.

9 Joseph Nash, The Relations between Capital and Labor in the United States (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1878), 8.

10 T. Edwin Brown, Studies in Modern Socialism and Labor Problems (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1886), 67.

11 Henry James to William James, June 28, 1877, in Henry James Letters, ed. Leon Edel, 4 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974-84), 2:116-17, 121n1.

12 T. DeWitt Talmage, T. DeWitt Talmage as I Knew Him (Teddington, UK: Echo Library, 2006), 49.

Chapter 1: On the Edge of a Volcano

1 Thomas Huxley, American Addresses (London: Macmillan, 1877), 125-27; “Views of an Impartial Observer,” Galveston Daily News, September 23, 1876.

2 Andrew Carnegie, Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920), 189.

3 Rendigs Fels, American Business Cycles, 1865-1897 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), 107; A. Ross Eckler, “A Measure of the Severity of Depressions, 1973-1932,” Review of Economic Statistics 15 (1933): 79; Robert Sobel, Panic on Wall Street: A History of America’s Financial Disasters (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 192. Denis Tilden Lynch, The Wild Seventies (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1941), 264, holds that the depression started in 1872, as measured by the great number of homeless crowding New York shelters and police stations that year. William Godwin Moody, Land and Labor in the United States (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1883), 222-24, argues that the economic crisis began in 1867, based on the number of business failures.

4 I have located 522 newspaper articles with “Hard Times” in the headline from October 1, 1873, through the end of 1879, compared with 342 uses of “depression.” The first history of the depression was F.W. Smith, The Hard Times (Boston: J.R. Osgood & Co., 1877).

5 “Hard Times and No Money in Georgia,” from the Columbus Sun, in the Little Rock Daily Republican, November 3, 1873; “Hard Times in New York,” from New York World, October 26, 1873, in the San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 5, 1873.

6 Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York), January 24, 1873; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 156-73; Davis Rich Dewey, Financial History of the United States (New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1931), 370-71; Moody, Land and Labor, 215-22; Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, 1865-1878 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 291-94; Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1960), 427-78; Alexander Dana Noyes, Forty Years of American Finance (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909), 1-19; Fels, American Business Cycles, 86, 98-102; Oliver M.W. Sprague, History of Crises Under the National Banking System, 61st Cong., 2nd sess., Senate Doc. no. 538 (Washington, DC, 1910), 1-89; Henrietta M. Larson, Jay Cooke: Private Banker (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936), 383-411.

7 Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 167-71; M. John Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble: The Northern Pacific Railroad, the Sioux, and the Panic of 1873 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 287; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 164-66, 174-75.

8 Sir George Campbell, White and Black: The Outcome of a Visit to the United States (New York: R. Worthington, 1879), 179; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 312-13; Samuel P. Orth, The Boss and the Machine (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920), 93-118.

9 Lynch, Wild Seventies, 97; Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Co., 1874).

10 Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 10, 1874, p. 28; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, April 11, 1873, p. 445 (quote); Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 275; Larson, Jay Cooke, 397; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 294-95; Fels, American Business Cycles, 99; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 171-73.

11 “Financial Affairs,” New York Times, September 17, 1873, p. 2 (quote); “Financial Affairs,” New York Times, September 12, 1873; “Financial Affairs,” New York Times, September 13, 1873; “Railroad Bonds and United States Securities Strong,” New York Herald , September 12, 1873; “Shall We Have Another Black Friday?” Harper’s Weekly, September 6, 1873; “The Week in Trade and Finance,” The Nation, September 11, 1873; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 175-77; Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 276, 279.

12 “Cooke’s Crash,” New York Herald, September 19, 1873 (quote); “Washington: The Suspension of Henry Cooke,” New York Herald, September 19, 1873; “The Panic,” New York Times, September 19, 1873; “The Northern Pacific Railroad,” New York Times, September 20, 1873, p. 4; Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 279-85; Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke: Financier of the Civil War, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1907), 2:181n2, 352-57, 421-22; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 178, 185; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 295. Jay Cooke lost his extravagant home and moved in with his daughter, where he spent the remaining thirty-one years of his life. He either hid $2 million of his money or made a killing in an investment with Jay Gould, but by 1880 he was once more a rich man. Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 285, 291-92; Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke 2:523-26; Larson, Jay Cooke, 424-25.

13 New York Tribune, September 19, 1873.

14 Philadelphia Press, probably September 19, 1873.

15 Philadelphia Press, September 19, 1873.

16 New York Tribune, September 19, 1873.

17 Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 283; Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, 2:422-25, 429, 432-34.

18 Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, 2:432-33.

19 Horace White, “The Financial Crisis in America,” from Fortnightly Review in Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, June 27, 1876, p. 3; “Washington: The Suspension of Henry Cooke,” New York Herald, September 19, 1873; Harvey O’Connor, Mellon’s Millions: The Biography of a Fortune (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1933), 30-31; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 295-96; Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, 2:421-22, 428-30; Lubetkin, Jay Cooke’s Gamble, 283; Fels, American Business Cycles, 101-2.

20 The Nation, September 25, 1873; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 178-86; 191; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 290-304; Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, 2:432; Theodore Roosevelt Sr. to Anna Roosevelt Cowles, September 24, 1873, in David McCullough, Mornings on Horseback (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1981), 134.

21 David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin Press, 2006), 151-53.

22 Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 151-55 (quote, 153); James A Ward, J. Edgar Thomson, Master of the Pennsylvania (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 207-8.

23 O’Connor, Mellon’s Millions, 33-34 (quote, 32); Fels, American Business Cycles, 102; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 188-93; Moody, Land and Labor, 224-29.

24 Miriam Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: G.W. Carleton & Co., 1877), 127; “Jay Cooke’s Crash,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, October 3, 1873; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 10, 1874; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 24, 1874; Commercial and Financial Chronicle , January 15, 1876; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, July 1, 1876; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 5, 1878; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, January 19, 1878; “Alleged Conspiracy: A Great Company Doing Business Without Capital,” North American (Philadelphia), September 27, 1877; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 298n2, 303; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 185, 187, 191-94.

25 Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 290. On the spread of the depression, see Walter Nugent, Money and American Society, 1865-1880 (New York: Free Press, 1968), 176-84.

26 Campbell, White and Black, 104; “Who Is Responsible—Hard Times Ahead,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), November 11, 1873; “What Can We Do?” Idaho Signal (Lewiston), April 11, 1874; O’Connor, Mellon’s Millions , 32.

27 Vanderbilt quoted in Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 180; “The Mystery of Hard Times,” Lowell Daily Citizen and News, November 22, 1873; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 291; Charles Dickens, Hard Times (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1854).

28 Commercial and Financial Chronicle, November 15, 1873, p. 647 (quote); “The Panic,” New York Times, September 20, 1873 (quote); Commercial and Financial Chronicle , January 10, 1874, p. 36.

29 “The Panic,” New York Times, September 20, 1873. See also “The Panic,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, September 20, 1873; “The Financial Crisis,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), September 25, 1873, p. 412; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 29; Campbell, White and Black, 33.

30 Carnegie, Autobiography, 189-90; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 188-99; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 297; Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke, 2:431-32; Alexander Dana Noyes, Forty Years of American Finance (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1909), 19-20. On the confusion in Congress, see John Sherman, Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate and Cabinet, 2 vols. (Chicago: Werner Co., 1895), 1:490-506.

31 Carnegie, Autobiography, 190, 192; New York Times, December 11, 1874, p. 5; “The American Iron and Steel Association,” North American and United States Gazette (Philadelphia), February 12, 1875; Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 161-63, 175.

32 “The Week,” The Nation, July 1, 1875, p. 1; Stephen Thernstrom, Progress and Poverty: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth-Century City (New York: Atheneum, 1970), 20. A survey of workingmen by the Ohio Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1880 found that they had lost an average of eight weeks of work the previous year, even after the depression was over. Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus, Ohio, 1860-1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), 142; Ohio Bureau of Labor Statistics, Third Annual Report, 1879 (Columbus: State of Ohio, 1880), 219.

33 Senate Committee on Finance [the Aldrich Committee], Report on Wholesale Prices, Wages, and Transportation, 52nd Cong., 2nd sess., 3, pt. 1 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1893); Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 302; Report on the Statistics of Wages in Manufacturing Industries, vol. 20, Tenth Census of the United States (Washington, DC: GPO, 1886); Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 174; Thomas J. Misa, A Nation of Steel: The Making of Modern America, 1865-1925 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 31; Fels, American Business Cycles, 90, 93, 97-98; Sobel, Panic on Wall Street, 195. H.R. 2934, known as the Fourth Coinage Act and the Mint Act, was an exceedingly complex piece of legislation that basically placed the United States on the gold standard. Nugent, Money and American Society, 140-71.

34 Commercial and Financial Chronicle, August 22, 1874; The Economist, December 26, 1874; The Economist, September 21, 1878; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 299-305; Dewey, Financial History, 371-73; Campbell, White and Black, 349; Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie, 173; Edith A. Abbott, Wages of Unskilled Labor in the United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1905), 363; C.D. Wright, Comparative Wages, Prices, and Cost of Living (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1889); Report on the Defective, Dependent and Delinquent Classes of the Population of the United States, vol. 21, Tenth Census of the United States (Washington, DC: GPO, 1888), ix-xxi; Moody, Land and Labor, 215-35.

35 Campbell, White and Black, 97-103, 237, 241-42, 309-10 (quotes, 97, 99); Commercial and Financial Chronicle, August 7, 1875; Nevins, Emergence of Modern America, 299.

36 Colorado Springs Gazette, May 12, 1877, p. 2; “The Times Growing Worse and Worse,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), May 8, 1877. See also “Gaunt Famine,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, January 14, 1877, p. 2.

37 Campbell, White and Black, 238, 245, 257; Barry Werth, Banquet at Delmonico’s: Great Minds, the Gilded Age, and the Triumph of Evolution in America (New York: Random House, 2009), 166; Carolyn Ashbaugh, Lucy Parsons: American Revolutionary (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1976), 16; Denis Tilden Lynch, The Wild Seventies (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 1941), 266.

38 Jules Leclercq, “L’empereur de la ville impériale, c’est le dollar” and “le même culte au dieu Greenback,” in Un Été en Amérique de l’Atlantique aux Montagnes Rocheux (Paris: Plon, 1877), 76. See also ibid., 27-28, 41-43, 72-81, 140; John E. Van Sant, ed., Mori Arinori’s Life and Resources in America (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004), 68; H. Husey Vivian, Notes of a Tour in America from August 7th to November 17th, 1877 (London: Edward Stanford, 1878), 247; Henry Sienkiewicz, Portrait of America: Letters of Henry Sienkiewicz, ed. and trans. Charles Morley (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 28-29.

39 Smith, “The Labour War in the United States,” 532. This passage is a bit ambiguous, but its context of condemning the conduct of the railroads seems to support this reading.

40 Sienkiewicz, Portrait of America, 12-13. There were many such instances of people getting arrested in order to gain food and shelter in jail. See, for instance, “A Sample of Hard Times,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), November 13, 1873; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), February 10, 1877.

41 William Peirce Randel, Centennial: American Life in 1876 (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1969), 10; Thomas J. Schlereth, Victorian America: Transformations in Everyday Life, 1876-1915 (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 5. For a contrary view, which does not reference any specific exhibits or contemporary published statements, see Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 2: “In 1876, almost as if by common consent the people of the United States chose the centennial of the nation’s birth as a year for taking stock of the past by means of celebrations both solemn and gay.”

42 Randel, Centennial, 293; John D. McCabe, The Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition (Philadelphia: National Publishing Co., 1876); “Characteristics of the International Fair,” Atlantic Monthly 38 (1876): 85-91, 233-40, 350-60, 492-502; Frank H. Norton, Frank Leslie’s Historical Register of the United States Centennial Exposition, 1876 (New York: Frank Leslie, 1877), which has 800 illustrations of the exposition. The Chicago World’s Fair drew 27 million people and covered 685 acres; Lilia Moritz Schwarcz, The Emperor’s Beard: Dom Pedro II and the Tropical Monarchy of Brazil, trans. John Gledson (New York: Hill & Wang, 2004), 287.

43 “Characteristics of the International Fair,” Atlantic Monthly 38 (1876): 85-91 (quote, 91); Harper’s Weekly, October 14, 1876; Randel, Centennial, 189, 294, 299, 327; McCabe, Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition.

44 Wagner called this piece “Fest Marsche.” Randel, Centennial, 343; Mary Wilhelmine Williams, Dom Pedro the Magnanimous: Second Emperor of Brazil (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937), 196; Schwarcz, Emperor’s Beard, 275.

45 Brown, Year of the Century, 127.

46 Pedro on Corliss engines: Williams, Dom Pedro the Magnanimous, 197; Pedro’s private opinion: Roderick J. Barman, Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825-91 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 279; Baltimore Sun, May 12, 1876; Public Ledger, May 11, 1876; Baltimore Weekly American, May 13, 1876; Brown, Year of the Century, 122-29.

47 Sidney Kirkpatrick, The Revenge of Thomas Eakins (Binghamton, NY: Vail-Ballou Press, 2006), 191-97; William Howe Downes, The Life and Works of Winslow Homer (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911), 81-82.

48 Samuel T. Pickard, Life and Letters of John Greenleaf Whittier, 2 vols. (London: Samson Low, Marston & Co., 1895), 2:613; Howells, “A Sennight of the Centennial,” Atlantic Monthly 38 (1876): 96, 107; Brown, Year of the Century, 43-45.

49 Randel, Centennial, 241, 244, 246; Brown, Year of the Century, 169.

50 Brown, Year of the Century, 2; Schlereth, Victorian America, 1. In contrast, the Paris Exhibition of 1878 drew 16 million people; Schwarcz, Emperor’s Beard, 287. Randel, Centennial, 188, estimates one in fifteen Americans visited.

51 Emerson quoted in Randel, Centennial, 352; Herbert S. Gorman, A Victorian American: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (New York: Doran, 1926), 334; Makato quoted in Harper’s Weekly, July 15, 1876, p. 579; Brown, Year of the Century, 131n.

52 John Leng, America in 1876: Pencillings During a Tour in the Centennial Year (Dundee, Scotland: Dundee Advertiser, 1877), 28-30.

53 Schlereth, Victorian America, 5; Randel, Centennial, 180, 295; James Blaine Walker, The Epic of American Industry (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949), 272-76; Brown, Year of the Century, 132-33; Randel, Centennial, 294; McCabe, Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition.

54 Williams, Dom Pedro the Magnanimous, 210-11; Catherine Mackenzie, Alexander Graham Bell: The Man Who Contracted Space (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928), 122-24, 158; Barman, Citizen Emperor, 280, 479n20; Walker, Epic of American Industry, 261-69.

55 George Augustus Sala, America Revisited: From the Bay of New York to the Gulf of Mexico, and From Lake Michigan to the Pacific, 3d ed., 2 vols. (London: Vizetelly & Co., 1883), 1:126, 129; Schlereth, Victorian America, 2, 5; Randel, Centennial, 289; Jacques Offenbach, Orpheus in America: Offenbach’s Diary of His Journey to the New World, trans. Lander MacClintock (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957), 95; Vivian, Notes of a Tour, 248.

56 Campbell, White and Black, 222.

57 “Pharasaisme americain,” Leclercq, Un Ete en Amerique, 72. See also Campbell, White and Black, 384.

58 Campbell, White and Black, 243.

59 Offenbach, Orpheus in America, 129.

60 Leng, America in 1876, 318.

61 Brown, Year of the Century, 141-43. Women were generally not allowed in most theaters and bars, and often were consigned to separate rooms in restaurants, while large hotels had side entrances for women so that they would not have to mingle among men in the lobby. George Sala saw this conduct as “thoughtful courtesy” and a “well-deserved homage” to women, assuming that men like himself were so awful that women should not come near them except through marriage. Sala, America Revisited, 1:171. Sir George Campbell also noticed this separation of the genders, but was shocked that it did not extend to the sleeping cars on trains; Campbell, White and Black, 218.

62 R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, ed. and trans., Land Without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 42-44. See also Campbell, White and Black, 29.

63 Friedrich Ratzel, Sketches of Urban and Cultural Life in North America, trans. and ed. Stewart A. Stehlin (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988), 188-89; M. Philips Price, America After Sixty Years: The Travel Diaries of Two Generations of Englishmen (London: Allen & Unwin, 1936), 54-55; Paul Toutain, Un Français en Amérique: Yankees, Indiens, Mormons (Paris: Plon, 1876), 64-68.

64 Elizabeth Cady Stanton et al., eds., History of Woman Suffrage, 6 vols. (Rochester, NY: Susan B. Anthony, 1881-1922), 3:18-20; Brown, Year of the Century, 143-45.

65 “Not Yet Named,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), June 16, 1876; “The Political Pot,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 25, 1876, p. 3; “The Women’s Memorial,” Daily Arkansas Gazette, June 30, 1876.

66 “Characteristics of the International Fair,” Atlantic Monthly 38 (1876): 357; Randel, Centennial, 301; McCabe, Illustrated History of the Centennial Exhibition, 671.

67 Stanton et al., History of Woman Suffrage, 3:29-34.

68 William Saunders, Through the Light Continent; or, the United States in 1877-78 (London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, 1879), 393; Lady Duffus Hardy [Mary McDowell], Through Cities and Prairie Lands: Sketches of an American Tour (New York: Worthington, 1881), 168; Randel, Centennial, 59; Toutain, Un Français en Amérique.

69 James D. Richardson, comp., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1902, 10 vols. (New York: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1903), 10:4364-65, 4367.

70 See, for example, “Louisiana . . . A Suppressed Volcano,” Chicago Tribune, September 18, 1876, p. 2; “A Volcano in Pennsylvania,” Chicago Tribune, January 8, 1877, p. 8; “a volcano which may yet bring ruin on their households,” from “The ‘Color Line’ Policy,” New York Times, January 2, 1877, p. 4; “a political volcano,” from “A Republic in Chaos,” New York Times, January 30, 1877, p. 4.

71 Philadelphia Inquirer, December 30, 1876; Baltimore Sun, December 30, 1876. Since December 31, 1876, fell on a Sunday, the final issue of the year for most papers was December 30; weekly papers tended to come out on Wednesday or Friday.

72 New York Sun, January 13, 1877.

73 “Poor Men’s Day at the Exhibition,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 8, 1876, quoted in Kevin Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 244; Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour: An Autobiography (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925), 138.

74 Wheeling Daily Register, December 30, 1876; Macon Weekly Telegraph, December 26, 1876; Duluth Weekly Tribune, December 29, 1876; Salt Lake Weekly Tribune, December 30, 1876; Pomeroy’s Democrat, December 30, 1876. See also the Mobile Register , December 12, 1876; “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 24, 1877. On the press’s obsession with the illusory idea that Grant sought a third term, see Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865-1878 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 256-78.

75 Quoted in the Wheeling Daily Register, December 30, 1876.

76 Pomeroy’s Democrat, December 30, 1876.

Chapter 2: Seeking White Unity

1 Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour: An Autobiography (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925), 138.

2 I would like to thank Nell Irvin Painter for bringing Henry Adams’s testimony to my attention. His entire list is reprinted in Senate Report no. 693, 46th Cong., 2nd sess., Report and Testimony of the Select Committee of the United States Senate to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes from the Southern States to the Northern States, 3 parts (Washington, DC: GPO, 1880), pt. 2:192-211; examples from 201, 204-5, 208.

3 Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, pt. 2:127.

4 Ibid., 153-54, 113-14, 127-28.

5 Ibid., 176-92.

6 Ibid., 184-85.

7 Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975); C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 1955); Dan T. Carter, The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).

8 There are numerous histories of the 1876 election, but they focus overwhelmingly on the political maneuvering and very little on the violence of the campaign. Even recent histories give scant attention to the outrageous violations of democratic principles and of the law by Southern Democrats. In one of the classic accounts of the election, Allan Nevins portrayed the contest as a “bracing new wind blowing through the country,” since the public turned against corruption. Angrily accusing the Republicans of attempting to “revive the hatreds of the Civil War,” Nevins maintained that the election “brought out the essential stuff of the American people,” by which he seems to mean something other than the policy of terrorism employed by the Democrats. While acknowledging “the atrocities committed on helpless blacks,” Nevins concludes “the whole controversy was ended without the slightest disturbance,” and suggests that it may have been wisest to have just counted the white vote. Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, 1865-1878 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 314-17.

9 “Scalawag” is an old Scottish word referring to a rootless scoundrel and was first applied to white Southerners who supported Reconstruction in 1867. “Carpetbagger” identified Northerners who came south after the war, the term being based on their cheap luggage, with the implication that they held no other property before arriving and were just passing through. Both terms carried a heavy opprobrium for Southern Democrats. Ted Tunnell, War, Radicalism, and Race in Louisiana, 1862-1877 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984), 138-40; James Alex Baggett, The Scalawags: Southern Dissenters in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2003), 1-2.

10 Edward J. Blum, Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865-1898 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005), 12-13; Sir George Campbell, White and Black: The Outcome of a Visit to the United States (New York: R. Worthington, 1879), 364. In general, see Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988).

11 Lou Falkner Williams, The Great South Carolina Ku Klux Klan Trials, 1871-1872 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996); Foner, Reconstruction, 425-59; William H. Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis: The Disputed Election of 1876 (New York: Knopf, 2004), 18.

12 Stephen Budiansky, The Bloody Shirt: Terror After Appomattox (New York: Viking, 2008), 221-25; Green B. Raum, The Existing Conflict Between Republican Government and Southern Oligarchy (Washington, DC: Greene Printing, 1884), 231-87; Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006), 170-80.

13 Foner, Reconstruction, 558-63; Mark Wahlgren Summers, The Press Gang: Newspapers and Politics, 1865-1878 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 4-6, 47, 191-222; Campbell, White and Black, 332.

14 William Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 1869-1879 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 312-13.

15 Akerman to John Sherman, June 17, 1876, in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 313.

16 “Funding the National Debt,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), November 2, 1876, p. 34; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 301-2.

17 New York Times quoted in Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 125-26; Fanueil Hall protest quoted in Jack Beatty, Age of Betrayal: The Triumph of Money in America, 1865-1900 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 144; Morton Keller, Affairs of State: Public Life in Late Nineteenth-Century America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), 30, 44, 161; Foner, Reconstruction, 554.

18 Foner, Reconstruction, 569-70; U.S. v. Reese (1876) 92 US 214. The case challenged the right of a Kentucky Democratic election official to refuse to register black voters so long as it was not a federal election, thereby negating the Fifteenth Amendment.

19 Waite quoted in Samuel T. Spear, “The Elective Franchise,” Albany Law Journal 16 (1877): 27; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 295-97; C. Peter Magrath, Morrison R. Waite: The Triumph of Character (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 122-34; Ward E.Y. Elliott, The Rise of Guardian Democracy: The Supreme Court’s Role in Voting Rights Disputes, 1845-1969 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974), 64-71; Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 143; Everette Swinney, “Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment,” Journal of Southern History 28 (1962): 208.

20 Ari Hoogenboom, The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 6-8; Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age (Hartford: American Publishing Co., 1874); John De Forest, Honest John Vane (New Haven: Richmond & Patten, 1875); De Forest, Playing the Mischief (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1875); Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 709-14.

21 Carl Schurz to B.B. Cahoon, March 3, 1876, and “Address to the People,” May 16, 1876, in Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, 6 vols., ed. Frederic Bancroft (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913), 3:222, 248; “Mark Twain in Politics,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 3, 1876.

22 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 260, 262.

23 John W. Blassingame and John R. McKivigan, eds., The Frederick Douglass Papers: Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, 5 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979-1992), 4:441; “Hayes’ Manifesto,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), July 13, 1876; Cincinnati Commercial, July 10, 1876; Cincinnati Commercial, July 19, 1876; Cincinnati Commercial, September 2, 1876; “Political,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 10, 1876; “Pith of the Press,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 24, 1876, p. 4; “Sound Sense,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 10, 1876; “Notes and Opinions,” Galveston Daily News, July 14, 1876; “Notes and Opinions,” Galveston Daily News, July 18, 1876; “Gov. Hayes’ Letter of Acceptance,” Southwestern Advocate (New Orleans), July 20, 1876; “Political Notes,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 22, 1876, p. 2; Republican National Convention, Official Proceedings of the National Republican Conventions of 1868, 1872, 1876 and 1880 (Minneapolis: Charles W. Johnson, 1903), 234, 293, 334-35. Many delegates at the convention attempted to raise the issue of Democratic conduct; ibid., 236, 248, 252, 290-91, 382, 414-15

24 Blassingame and McKivigan, Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:442; Cincinnati Commercial , June 15, 1876; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 304.

25 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 265; Alexander C. Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden: A Study in Political Sagacity (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1939), 255-78, 280-86, 291, 303-4.

26 Most observers predicted a close election, leading the Republicans to push Colorado into statehood by August 1876, just in time to pick up its three electoral votes in the presidential election. William Peirce Randel, Centennial: American Life in 1876 (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1969), 116; Roy Morris Jr., Fraud of the Century: Rutherford B. Hayes, Samuel Tilden, and the Stolen Election of 1876 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003), 155-56; “Republican Victory in Colorado Confirmed,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 9, 1876; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 297-304, 315-17 (quote, 299).

27 Keith Ian Polakoff, The Politics of Inertia: The Election of 1876 and the End of Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 116-26; Summers, Press Gang, 301-2; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 266.

28 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 267.

29 Ibid., 267 (“danger”), 269 (Nordhoff); letter to Blaine quoted in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 316; Douglass to Chandler, in Philip S. Foner, ed., Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, 5 vols. (New York: International Publishers, 1950-1955), 4:536n42. I have located more than 400 articles written during the election that reference this fear of a “Solid South.” See especially Redfield’s articles in the Cincinnati Commercial , August 3 and December 23, 1876; “The ‘Solid South,’” North American (Philadelphia), August 22, 1876; “The Southern Question,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, September 12, 1876, p. 3; “The Solid South,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 2, 1876, p. 4; “The Solid South,” Galveston Daily News, October 4, 1876; “What a Solid South Implies,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, October 9, 1876; “The ‘Solid South,’” Inter Ocean (Chicago), October 17, 1876; “Fears of a ‘Solid South,’” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), October 17, 1876; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 321.

30 Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 288-89, 301-2, 307-8. Traditional histories of the 1876 election portray reform as the only significant issue, avoiding the question of “home rule” versus “the Solid South,” as well as economic issues. Flick, for instance, maintained that Americans cared most deeply about reform in 1876; ibid., 332-33.

31 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 270.

32 Ari Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 259 (quote); Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 272; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 197-98; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 307-14; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia , 116-18; Harper’s Weekly, July 15, 1876; Harper’s Weekly, August 19, 1876; “Tilden a Secessionist,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 25, 1876, p. 4. On the Mississippi election of 1875, see Vernon L. Wharton, The Negro in Mississippi, 1865-1890 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), 182-90; William C. Harris, The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979), 670-96; Foner, Reconstruction, 558-63.

33 Quoted in “Political Miscellany,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 10, 1876, p. 3; Lowell Daily Citizen, November 6, 1876; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 314.

34 Quoted in “A Terrible Indictment,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, August 10, 1876, which identifies the source as the Augusta Constitutionalist; Richard Zuczek, State of Rebellion: Reconstruction in South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), 168.

35 Opelousas Courier, quoted in Otis A. Singletary, Negro Militia and Reconstruction (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), 135; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 169-70; Francis Butler Simkins and Robert H. Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1932), 501.

36 Senate Report no. 527, 44th Cong., 1st sess., Mississippi in 1875: Report of the Select Committee to Inquire into the Mississippi Election of 1875, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1876), 1:xiv, xx-xxii; Singletary, Negro Militia, 131 (quote), 136; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 316; testimony of Jerry Thornton Moore, Edward Dunbar, L.L. Guffin, Alexander S. Richardson, Cornelius Arnold, and David Graham, Senate Miscellaneous Document no. 48, 44th Cong., 2nd sess., South Carolina in 1876: Testimony as to the Denial of the Elective Franchise in South Carolina at the Elections of 1875 and 1876, 3 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877), 1:11-15, 19, 22-26, 315-20, 450-52, 456-59, 464-67, 509-11. Wealthy whites often bought firearms for the gun clubs; for instance, the White League in New Orleans had two thousand members, two-thirds of whom were armed with pistols and Belgian muskets purchased in New York. They also had two cannon. Singletary, Negro Militia, 136.

37 Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 168, 170-73, 190; Francis Butler Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman: South Carolinian (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1944), 59-60; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 311; Augusta Constitutionalist, September 19, 1876; Atlanta Constitution, October 18, 1876.

38 Singletary, Negro Militia, 114-128; J.A. Sharp, “The Downfall of the Radicals in Tennessee,” East Tennessee Historical Society’s Publications, no. 5 (1933): 108; Ella Lonn, Reconstruction in Louisiana after 1868 (Gloucester, MA: P. Smith, 1967), 67; James W. Garner, Reconstruction in Mississippi (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 297, 328, 384, 411; Joseph Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina (Gloucester, MA: P. Smith, 1964), 531, 559; Ramsdell, Reconstruction in Texas, 313; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 170-71; Nell Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New York: Norton, 1992), 23n13; John G. Fletcher, Arkansas (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1947), 218-19; William Watson Davis, The Civil War and Reconstruction in Florida (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1913), 566-70; Alfred B. Williams, Hampton and his Red Shirts: South Carolina’s Deliverance in 1876 (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1970), 224-27; Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman , 60-61; testimony of Jesse Jones, South Carolina in 1876, 1:857-58; testimony of H.P. Hurst, Mississippi in 1875, 1:95-99; Benjamin S. Johnson, “The Brooks-Baxter War,” Publications of the Arkansas Historical Association 2 (1908): 122-73.

39 Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 168, 171-72, 174 (quote); Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman , 64-65; Painter, Exodusters, 101; Singletary, Negro Militia, 118, 122-27; Wharton, Negro in Mississippi, 188-90; Garner, Reconstruction in Mississippi, 374; testimony of Henry Mays, South Carolina in 1876, 1:31-34; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 295-97, 312; Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina, 470.

40 Randel, Centennial, 254; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 166-68, 172, 175; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 312; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 20-21; Singletary, Negro Militia, 122-27; John S. Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865-1877 (Columbia, SC: State Co., 1905), 184-90, 201, 305, 311-13; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 444; Powell Clayton, The Aftermath of the Civil War in Arkansas (New York: Neale, 1915), 99-102; Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina, 468-72; Louis F. Post, “A Carpetbagger in South Carolina,” Journal of Negro History 10 (1925): 61; John A. Leland, A Voice from South Carolina (Charleston, SC: Walker, Evans & Cogswell, 1879), 51-74, 134; testimony of Margaret Ann Caldwell, Mississippi in 1875, 1:435-40.

41 Where Dee Brown treats Butler as a hero, Singletary identifies him as the leader of a “deliberately incited race riot” intent “to strike terror.” Singletary, Negro Militia, 139-40; Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 269-71, 274; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 163-65; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 487; Joel Williamson, After Slavery: The Negro in South Carolina During Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965), 267-69; Raum, Existing Conflict, 322-25; Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman, 61-63; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 108.

42 Democrats blamed the victims. So convincing was Southern white propaganda that an historian writing nearly a century later would blame the town’s black “thieves and criminals” for the confrontation. Brown, Year of the Century, 273-74; Augusta Constitutionalist , July 14, 1876; Foner, Reconstruction, 570-72 (quote, 572); Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 308; Summers, Press Gang, 201-2.

43 “The Old Rebel Spirit,” New York Times, July 14, 1876. See also “Southern Troubles,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 3, 1876, p. 4; Boston Journal, September 11, 1876; testimony of Edward Dunbar and D.L. Adams, South Carolina in 1876, 1:22-42; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 66-73; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 173; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 307-9, 316.

44 Grant to Chamberlain, in Walter Allen, Governor Chamberlain’s Administration in South Carolina (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1888), 325-26; Randel, Centennial, 253; “Wade Hampton’s Canvass,” New York Times, October 13, 1876; “The Troops in South Carolina,” New York Times, October 15, 1876; “The Rebels in Power” and “The Terror in the South,” New York Times, October 16, 1876; Singletary, Negro Militia, 140-41; Benjamin R. Tillman, The Struggles of ’76: How South Carolina Was Delivered from Carpetbag and Negro Rule (n.p., n.d.), 15; Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, 344-47; Anderson (SC) Intelligencer, July 13, 1876; South Carolina in 1876, 1:3-102; Singletary, Negro Militia, 143; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 177-79; proclamation in Appleton’s Annual Cyclopædia and Register of Important Events of the Year 1876 (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1877), 721; Garner, Reconstruction in Mississippi, 378; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 509. Chamberlain wrote bitterly about these matters years later in “Reconstruction in South Carolina,” Atlantic Monthly 87 (1904): 473-84.

45 Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 317 (quote); Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 165, 179.

46 Many later historians, such as Dee Brown, continued to accept the Democrats’ version of events; Brown, Year of the Century, 279-80. In contrast, see Mark M. Smith, “‘All Is Quiet in Our Hellish County’: Facts, Fiction, Politics, and Race—the Ellenton Riot of 1876,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 95 (1994): 142-55; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 176; Raum, Existing Conflict, 325-32; Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman, 66; South Carolina in 1876, 1:103-43.

47 Robert M. Utley, Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 156-57. The vicious nature of the Texas Ku Klux Klan was legendary; in addition to the notorious mass murder at Waco in 1868, in which they killed thirteen freedmen, they routinely beat and raped women and girls, not hesitating to steal the change from the pockets of their victims. Carolyn Ashbaugh, Lucy Parsons: American Revolutionary (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1976), 14-15.

48 Utley, Lone Star Justice, 157; James B. Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 1875 to 1881, ed. Milo M. Quaife (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925), 69-77; C.L. Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1957), 87-107; Walter Prescott Webb, The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1935), 325-28.

49 Charleston News and Courier, May 8, 1876, quoted in Allen, Governor Chamberlain’s Administration, 275. As Mark Summers wrote, the bias of the Charleston News and Courier was so intense that “its support for the Democratic ticket could not be separated from its reports.” Summers, Press Gang, 219.

50 Budiansky, Bloody Shirt, 221 (emphasis in original).

51 Quoted in Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 167; Singletary, Negro Militia, 133, 139; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 564-69. Francis Butler Simkins called the Shotgun Plan a “hard necessity”; Simkins, Pitchfork Ben Tillman, 56. The complete plan is in Sheppard, Red Shirts Remembered, 47-50.

52 Tillman, Struggles of ’76, 17; Singletary, Negro Militia, 142. See also testimony of William A. Hayne, South Carolina in 1876, 2:169; John R. Lynch, The Facts of Reconstruction (New York: Neale, 1913) 137-46; Henry W. Warren, Reminiscences of a Mississippi Carpet-Bagger (Holden, MA: for the author, 1914), 68-71; Allen, Governor Chamberlain’s Administration, 365-427; testimony of W.B. Cunningham, Mississippi in 1875, 2:836-37.

53 “Must be exterminated”: Vicksburg Herald, quoted in “The Reign of Hate,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), September 2, 1874; Wallace quoted in Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 172. For other acts of racial violence in the 1876 election, see “A Warning to Corrupt and Dishonest County Officers,” Hinds County Gazette (Raymond, MS), September 9, 1874; Melinda M. Hennessey, “Racial Violence during Reconstruction: The 1876 Riots in Charleston and Cainhoy,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 86 (1985): 100-12; Orville V. Burton, “Race and Reconstruction in Edgefield County, South Carolina,” Journal of Social History 12 (1978): 31-56; Randel, Centennial, 254; Budiansky, Bloody Shirt, 224-48; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 177-78.

54 Singletary, Negro Militia, 143-44; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 197.

55 Edward McPherson, A Hand-Book of Politics for 1876 (Washington, DC: Solomons & Chapman, 1876), 256. See also Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 317-18; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 178-79; “South Carolina,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin , October 18, 1876; “The Prostrate State,” Galveston Daily News, October 18, 1876; “The New Rebellion,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), October 19, 1876, p. 4; Cincinnati Commercial , October 23, 1876; “Grant’s Southern Campaign,” Hinds County Gazette (Raymond, MS), October 25, 1876.

56 Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 173-74; Spartanburg Herald, August 23, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, September 18, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, October 2, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, October 3, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, October 17, 1876; Charleston News and Courier, October 20, 1876.

57 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 308, 315. As William Gillette wrote about the vote in Louisiana, “Intimidation, irregularities, and murders of Republicans there were so prevalent and so publicized that they popularized the word ‘bulldoze,’ and the validity of the outcome would of course be highly questionable.” Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 315.

58 Cincinnati Commercial, November 10, 1876 (story dated November 7); Cincinnati Commercial, September 15, 1876; Cincinnati Commercial, November 6, 1876; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 317-20. Michael Holt feels that the contested election made no difference as far as the end of Reconstruction is concerned—that the Republicans would have behaved the same regardless of the election results; Michael F. Holt, By One Vote: The Disputed Election of 1876 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008), 246-47.

59 Cincinnati Commercial, March 6, 1877; Cincinnati Commercial, March 26, 1877; Springfield Republican, February 16, 1877; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 320-32, 423n63; J.F. Cleveland, comp., Tribune Almanac and Political Register for 1877 (New York: New York Tribune, 1877), 46-52; Brown, Year of the Century, 288. Many historians believe that Tilden won the election, holding that the Republicans alone stole the election through “the post-election abuses in Florida and Louisiana.” Morris, Fraud of the Century, 249. This perspective requires full faith in the official tabulation of votes in the South, which in turn necessitates ignoring the efforts of Democrats to suppress the Republican vote. Officially, the results were astoundingly one-sided in several Southern states, the Democrats receiving 72 percent of the Georgia vote, 70 percent in Texas, and 68 percent in Mississippi. Holt, By One Vote, 167. Given that the last state had a black majority and Georgia was about 40 percent black, these results surely indicate some finagling with the results. The turnout for the Democrats was enormous, exceeding 100 percent in many Southern precincts. Most scholars present figures such as these without noting the degree to which they were the result of violence and fraud. While Holt admits that “some fraction of those recorded votes, and not just in the South, was undoubtedly fraudulent,” he maintains that “Republicans’ Reconstruction programs also best explain the breathtaking jump in white support for Democrats in the South.” Holt, By One Vote, 244-45.

60 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 272-73.

61 Ibid., 274; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 199-202; Jerome L. Sernstein, ed., “The Sickles Memorandum: Another Look at the Hayes-Tilden Election-Night Conspiracy,” Journal of Southern History 32 (1966): 342-57.

62 New York Tribune, November 8, 1876; New York Sun, November 8, 1876; New York Evening Post, November 8, 1876; New York Times, November 8, 1876; New York Herald, November 8, 1876; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 275; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 202-4; Sernstein, “Sickles Memorandum,” 342-45. Reid later tried to take all the credit for motivating the Republicans to act on the morning of November 11; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 324-26; Elmer Davis, History of the New York Times, 1851-1921 (New York: New York Times, 1921), 131-36.

63 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 276; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 327.

64 Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 314-15; Cincinnati Commercial, December 30, 1876, March 3, 1877.

65 Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 328, 336-44; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 278; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 103; Paul Leland Haworth, The Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election of 1876 (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1906), 111-12, 318; James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the Final Restoration of Home Rule at the South in 1877, 7 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1920), 7:231; Randel, Centennial, 231-32; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 210-14. The efforts of Tilden’s nephew to buy off the Florida and Louisiana election boards became national scandals in 1878; Summers, Press Gang, 308; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 429-42.

66 Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 107-8; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 277-78; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 210-14. Georgia and Alabama had nearly equal proportions of black and white voters.

67 Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 194-97; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 278; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 219-20; Brown, Year of the Century, 326-27. By acting quickly, the election board undermined the Democrats’ plan of having the state supreme court issue an injunction. Furious, the court fined the board’s members $1,500 and sentenced them all to jail. Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 108-9.

68 Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 424n80; see Redfield’s reporting in Cincinnati Commercial, November 25, November 27, December 2, December 4, December 30, 1876, February 18, 1877, and March 6, 1877. Haworth made much the same point about the Florida election: “While a fair count of the votes cast in the state of Florida might have resulted in a small majority for Tilden, a free election would with far greater certainty have resulted in a substantial majority for Hayes.” Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 76. After studying the Louisiana election returns closely, Haworth came to the conclusion that a fair election in that state would have produced a Republican majority of between five thousand and fifteen thousand votes; ibid., 116-21.

69 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 277-79; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 214-19; Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 64-80; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 344-46; Jerrell H. Shofner, “Fraud and Intimidation: The Florida Election of 1876,” Florida Historical Quarterly 42 (1964): 321-30; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 105-6.

70 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 279-80; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 220-41; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 111; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 348-49. One of Hayes’s Oregon electors, John W. Watts, served as a postmaster. Since Article 2, Section 1 of the Constitution forbids a federal officeholder from serving as a presidential elector, Watts immediately resigned as postmaster upon his election—as was often done. Democratic Party chairman Abram Hewitt wired Oregon’s Democratic governor suggesting that he disqualify Watts and replace him with a Democrat. Though no law supported this action, Oregon governor LaFayette Grover did as requested, throwing the election back to Tilden by one vote. Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 110-11; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 279; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 225-27; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 349; Allan Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1935), 327.

71 Brown, Year of the Century, 325; Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt, 338-40; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 369-73.

72 On the negotiations, which were sometimes conducted in the press, see New York Herald, December 3, 1876, in “Hayes’ Bid for the Presidency,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), December 12, 1876; New York Tribune, December 4, 1876; “A Carnival of Lies,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, December 5, 1876; Summers, Press Gang, 303-4; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 281-84, 288-89, 291, 296; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 45-50, 60-61, 65; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 244-45, 290-92, 301-5; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 331; Holt, By One Vote, 238-42, 277-78n56; Charles Richard Williams, ed., Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, 6 vols. (Columbus: Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, 1924), 3:417; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 332.

73 Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 330; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 280-84; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 259; Bancroft, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, 3:387. Some historians argue that there was no deal involved in Hayes’s attaining the presidency, particularly as Reconstruction “was already dead in eight of the eleven former Confederate states” at the time of the election; Holt, By One Vote, 277n56.

74 Tilden quoted in Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 115; Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 168-203; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 365-69, 375. The idea for the commission is generally credited to Republican representative George W. McCrary of Iowa. Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 365-67; Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 190-98.

75 Nashville Weekly American, January 25, 1877, p. 2; “The Difficulty of a Settlement,” The Nation, January 4, 1877, p. 4-5; Washington National Republican, January 24, 1877, p. 2; Congressional Record (1877): 5:799-801, 820-25; Michael Les Benedict, “Southern Democrats in the Crisis of 1876-1877: A Reconsideration of Reunion and Reaction ,” Journal of Southern History 46 (1980): 508-11; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 115-16; Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 204-12; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 369-76, 382. The House vote was 191 to 86, with 160 Democrats in favor and 17 opposed, and 31 Republicans voting yes compared to 69 opposed. In the Senate, the vote was 47 to 17, with the Democrats voting 26 to 1 in favor, and the Republicans 21 to 16. Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Presidential Election, 210-19. The commission consisted of Senators Thurman (D-OH), Bayard (D-DE), Frelinghuysen (R-NJ), Morton (R-IN), and Edmunds (R-VT); Representatives Payne (D-OH), Hunton (D-VA), Abbott (D-MA), Garfield (R-OH), Hoar (R-MA); and Justices William Strong of Pennsylvania (R), Samuel F. Miller of Iowa (R), Nathan Clifford of Maine (D), Stephen J. Field of California (D), and David Davis of Illinois (Greenback). Thurman retired from the Senate and was replaced by Senator Kernan (D-NY).

76 Tilden quoted in Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 376; Brown, Year of the Century, 333; Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt, 361-63; Simpson, “Grant and the Electoral Crisis,” 13-15; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 285-86; John Sherman, Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate and Cabinet, 2 vols. (Chicago: Werner Co., 1895), 1:560-61. David Barry saw the Electoral Commission as a Republican trap into which the Democrats stepped, having been cleverly maneuvered into putting the bill forth. The only Democratic senator to vote against the bill, William Eaton of Connecticut, took the same position at the time. David Barry, Forty Years in Washington (1924; New York: Beekman Publishers, 1974), 11. Since the commission was to be evenly divided between Democrats and Republicans except for the independent justice David Davis, everyone assumed that the presidential election would be decided by this one man. Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 285; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 268-75; Barry, Forty Years in Washington, 13.

77 “Our Political Drama,” Galveston Daily News, December 5, 1876; New York Herald December 18, 1876; “The Tilden Conspiracy,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, December 19, 1876; Brown, Year of the Century, 328-30; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 330.

78 Sunday Capital, February 18, 1877; “Piatt’s Incendiary Talk,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 20, 1877; “Urging Assassination,” Inter Ocean, February 20, 1877, p. 4; “Inciting to Murder,” Inter Ocean, February 21, 1877, p. 4; Cincinnati Enquirer, February 22, 1877; Cincinnati Enquirer, February 23, 1877; Cincinnati Enquirer, February 25, 1877; Cincinnati Enquirer, February 28, 1877; Cincinnati Enquirer, March 9, 1877; “How the Props Fell Out,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, January 12, 1877, p. 3; “Political Mention,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), January 25, 1877, p. 132; North American (Philadelphia), February 24, 1877; Summers, Press Gang, 299; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 114. Nast mocked Piatt’s call for blood in a cartoon in Harper’s Weekly, while the St. Louis Globe-Democrat charged him with being “a fierce advocate of assassination.” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, February 10, 1877; “Evading the Issue,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, February 20, 1877.

79 Atlanta Constitution, December 24, 1876; “Ben Hill,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, December 29, 1876, p. 4; “Insidious and Devilish,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), January 9, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, February 10, 1877, p. 2.

80 Barry, Forty Years in Washington, 7-8, 10. For additional fears of, and calls for, civil war, see Richmond Daily Dispatch, January 13, 1877, in “The Fighting Phalanx,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), January 23, 1877; “L.Q.W.,” Louisville Courier-Journal, April 10, 1877, p. 3; Atlanta Constitution, February 22, 1877; Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 330-32, 339-40, 351, 359, 390-92, 400-401; Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt, 330.

81 New York Herald quoted in Brown, Year of the Century, 321; Sherman quoted in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 331-32; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 57, 70.

82 Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 325-26, 331-32. Any newspaper from this period will give a sense of anxiety and attention to Grant’s actions: for example, “General Grant and the Presidential Crisis,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, December 1, 1876; “Will Grant Interfere?” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), December 5, 1876; “Grant’s Coup Detat” and “Grant’s Latest Outrage,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger, December 12, 1876; “Hewitt’s Interview with Grant,” Lowell Daily Citizen, December 9, 1876; “Grant Speaks,” North American (Philadelphia), December 11, 1876; “Grant to the Front,” Newark Advocate (Newark, OH), December 15, 1876.

83 Sherman quoted in Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt, 380-81; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 176.

84 See particularly Charles Fairman, Five Justices and the Electoral Commission of 1877 (New York: Macmillan, 1988); U.S. Congress, Electoral Count of 1877: Proceedings of the Electoral Commission and of the Two Houses of Congress in Joint Meeting (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877).

85 Barry, Forty Years in Washington, 13-14; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 293. Hoping, no doubt, to justify his own unorthodox actions in Bush v. Gore, Rehnquist concludes, “This outcome was a testament to the ability of the American system of government to improvise solutions to even the most difficult and important problems”; Rehnquist, Centennial Crisis, 219.

86 Barry, Forty Years in Washington, 8-9, 15.

87 Ibid., 9; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 294; Polakoff, Politics of Inertia, 312; Simpson, “Grant and the Electoral Crisis,” 18-19.

88 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 70; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 295.

89 James D. Richardson, ed., Messages and Papers of the Presidents of the United States, 20 vols. (New York: Bureau of National Literature, 1897-1918), 10:4394-99. Hayes paraphrased a line of Carl Schurz’s in a letter to Hayes, January 25, 1877: “You will serve that party best by serving the public interest best”; Bancroft, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, 3:372.

90 Brown, Year of the Century, 342.

91 Barry, Forty Years in Washington, 25; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 297, 324.

92 Cincinnati Enquirer, March 2, 1877, quoted in Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 396; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 89. Justice Nathan Clifford showed his pique by never setting foot in the White House during Hayes’s presidency, while Abram Hewitt refused to meet Hayes. Flick, Samuel Jones Tilden, 397; Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt, 389.

93 Summers, Press Gang, 315.

94 Chamberlain to F.J. Garrison, March 18, 1877, in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction , 340, 349.

95 New York Herald, March 8, 1877; Indiana Progress (Indiana, PA), March 15, 1877, p. 4; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 337-38. On Republican dissent over Hayes’s cabinet, see Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 301-2.

96 Butler to L. Stiger, March 23, 1877, in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 349; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 296-97. Richard W. Thompson of Indiana was named secretary of the navy, Representative George W. McCrary of Iowa secretary of war, and Judge Charles Devans of Massachusetts attorney general.

97 “The President’s Tour,” Lowell Daily Citizen, September 24, 1877; Atlanta Constitution , September 22, 1877, p. 2; “The Georgia Press,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), October 2, 1877; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction , 348-49; Rayford W. Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro: From Rutherford B. Hayes to Woodrow Wilson (New York: Collier Books, 1965), 28; New York Tribune, September 23, 1877, p. 4.

98 “Speech of President Hayes at Atlanta,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), September 27, 1877, p. 416. For a Southern view of this speech, see Sue Harper Mims in Atlanta Constitution, January 25, 1914. When Hayes spoke in Louisville, he received lusty cheers for his policy from the white section of the audience, while the black members of the audience were “less enthusiastic.” New York Tribune, September 19, 1877; Logan, Betrayal of the Negro, 24. Hayes gave very different kinds of speeches in the North; see Cincinnati Commercial, September 8, 1877; Washington National Republican, September 15, 1877. Many papers responded angrily to Hayes stating that there was no difference between Union and Confederate soldiers. “The Peace of Surrender,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, September 29, 1877; “President Hayes’ Policy, William Lloyd Garrison’s Views,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, November 2, 1877; “God Forbid,” Colorado Springs Gazette, October 20, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, November 11, 1877, p. 2.

99 Hayes to William Bickham, May 3, 1877, in Williams, Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, 3:432; ibid., 3:450; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 351. Logan writes that the Southern white leadership took advantage of Hayes’s weakness, his “horror of bloodshed.” The old Civil War general did not want a repetition of the battles he had survived; Logan, Betrayal of the Negro, 29.

100 “Governor Chamberlain’s Inaugural,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, December 11, 1876; Cincinnati Commercial, February 18, 1877; Columbia Union-Herald, January 17, 1877; Louisville Courier-Journal, March 2, 1877; Memphis Appeal, March 4, 1877; “Boston Calipers,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, March 15, 1877; “Blaine,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), March 8, 1877, p. 4; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 336-37.

101 “Political,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), September 11, 1877; “The President Interviewed,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 11, 1877; “President Hayes,” North American (Philadelphia), September 11, 1877; “Hayes’ Policy,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, September 11, 1877, p. 4; “Hayes’ Solution of the Southern Problem,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat , September 11, 1877, p. 5; “How the President Came to Adopt His Southern Policy,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), September 13, 1877, p. 396.

102 “Hayes Tells How He Came to Weaken So Terribly,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), September 11, 1877; “A New Coalition Invited: The Hayes Republicans Offering to Form a Compact with the Master Class of the South,” Newark Advocate (Newark, OH), February 23, 1877. The New York Herald observed that Hayes was more useful to the white Democrats than Tilden would ever have been as president; New York Herald, September 24, 1877, p. 4; Logan, Betrayal of the Negro, 28. See also “The New South,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 26, 1877, p. 4; “Seated,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), December 1, 1877.

103 Methodists quoted in Galveston Daily News, April 12, 1877. See also “Washington,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 5, 1877; “The Southern Policy,” Raleigh Register, September 20, 1877; Wade quoted in “Southern Policy,” Inter Ocean, April 23, 1877. Northern Democrats and many Northern newspapers approved of Hayes’s policies ending Reconstruction; “Effects of the President’s Southern Pacification,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), July 7, 1877, p. 298; Logan, Betrayal of the Negro, 20-21.

104 “Uneventful,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 10, 1877; “Washington,” Galveston Daily News, March 11, 1877; Charleston News and Courier, March 12, 1877; “By Telegraph,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), March 13, 1877; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 339; New York Herald, March 7, 1877; New York Times, March 11, 1877; New York Times, March 15, 1877; New York Times, March 26, 1877; New York World, March 12, 1877; “Hampton and Nicholls,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), March 3, 1877; “Packard or No Packard,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), March 6, 1877; “The New Heads,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 13, 1877; “The Louisiana Bother,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, March 27, 1877.

105 Spartanburg Herald, January 3, 1877; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 198; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 535; Charleston News and Courier, December 16, 18, 1876; “South Carolina,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 27, 1876; “South Carolina,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, January 9, 1877; “Hampton Taxes,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), January 30, 1877; “Southern News,” Galveston Daily News, February 10, 1877.

106 Spartanburg Herald, January 17, 1877; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 198.

107 Charleston News and Courier, April 4, 1877; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 200; Simkins and Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction, 540-41; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 309-10.

108 Williams, Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, 3:428, 449; Washington National Republican, March 16, 1877; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 64; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 339; “South Carolina,” North American (Philadelphia), April 4, 1877; “Words of Warning,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), April 4, 1777.

109 “National Affairs,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 4, 1877; Chamberlain to Hayes, April 1877, and Hampton to Hayes, March 29 and March 31, 1877, in Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 344, 429n27; “Washington,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), April 10, 1877; “South Carolina,” Daily Arkansas Gazette, April 25, 1877; “Free Carolina,” Daily Arkansas Gazette, April 11, 1877; “South Carolina,” Boston Daily Advertiser, April 11, 1877; “The South Carolina Legislature,” Boston Daily Advertiser, April 26, 1877; “South Carolina Free!” Galveston Daily News, April 11, 1877; “Left in the Lurch,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, April 11, 1877, p. 3; “The New South Carolina,” Hinds County Gazette (Raymond, MS), May 9, 1877; “South Carolina,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), May 15, 1877, p. 2; North American (Philadelphia), May 19, 1877; “The Week,” The Nation, July 5, 1877, pp. 1-2.

110 “South Carolina,” Southwestern Christian Advocate, April 19, 1877; Akerman to Chamberlain, April 16, 1877, in Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 68; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 201.

111 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 65; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 310-12, 314.

112 “Governor Packard’s Proclamation,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 26, 1877; “Nicholls Is Happy,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, April 25, 1877, p. 4; “Louisiana,” Wisconsin State Register (Portage), April 28, 1877; “National Notes,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat , April 21, 1877, p. 4; “Washington,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 24, 1877, p. 5; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 344-45; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 314.

113 Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 188; “The Warning,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 31, 1877, p. 4. The Globe-Democrat was a Republican paper despite its name.

114 Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (New York: George Braziller, 1965), 85-104.

115 Rhodes, History of the United States, 6:36-39; “Wade Hampton,” Boston Daily Advertiser, March 29, 1877.

116 Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 302, 345-46; Painter, Exodusters, 249.

117 William S. McFeely, Frederick Douglass (New York: Norton, 1991), 289, 291; Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 338; Foner, Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, 4:101; “Frederick Douglass, United States Marshall for the District of Columbia,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), April 7, 1877, p. 85; Inter Ocean (Chicago), May 5, 1877, p. 4. Oddly, the standard biographies of Hayes fail to mention this aspect of the Douglass appointment.

118 Blassingame and McKivigan, Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:454-55, 460, 467. There is some disagreement on the date of the speech. McFeely places it in March 1877 (Frederick Douglass, 292), while Blassingame and McKivigan put it in May (Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:443).

119 Blassingame and McKivigan, Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:443, 618; Washington Evening Star, May 11, 1877; Washington Evening Star, May 14, 1877; Washington National Republican, May 11, 1877; Washington National Republican, May 12, 1877; New York Times, May 13, 1877; New York Times, May 18, 1877; New York Times, May 19, 1877; Christian Recorder, May 17, 1877; New York Times, May 24, 1877; “Blow for Blow,” North American (Philadelphia), May 14, 1877; “The Capital,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, May 14, 1877, p. 4; “Distinction on Account of Color,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), May 22, 1877.

120 Douglass quoted in “The Capital,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, May 14, 1877, p. 4; “Quiet in Washington,” New York Times, June 1, 1877, p. 4. See also Washington National Republican, May 13, 1877; New York Times, May 13, 1877; New York Times, May 18, 1877; New York Times, May 19, 1877; New York Times, May 31, 1877; New York Times, June 1, 1877; Christian Recorder, May 17, 1877; Christian Recorder, May 24, 1877; Blassingame and McKivigan, Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:475, 617-20.

121 “Quiet in Washington,” New York Times, June 1, 1877, p. 4. Douglass dealt with this controversy in Life and Times, 463-70.

122 “Packard’s Downfall,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 23, 1877. Some of the best articles on the consequences of Hayes’s Southern policies were written by the journalist Grace Greenwood of the New York Times; see April 7, April 21, May 5, May 15, May 26, June 2, and June 23, 1877. Her articles circulated widely in other newspapers; for example, “Progress of the Surrender,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 24, 1877; “Notes on the New Policy,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, May 8, 1877; “The Forty-Fifth Congress,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), May 12, 1877; “Grace Greenwood on the Chisholm Tragedy,” Daily Rocky Mountain News, May 26, 1877; “Patriotic Words by Grace Greenwood,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), June 7, 1877, p. 282; “The Kemper County, Mississippi, Butchery,” Independent Statesman, June 28, 1877, p. 308; “Grace Greenwood on Morton,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), June 10, 1877. There was a great deal of interest in the success of Greenwood and her fellow women journalists Jane Swisshelm and Mary Clemmer Ames; for example, “The Three Graces of Journalism,” Daily Rocky Mountain News, April 29, 1877.

123 Philadelphia Weekly Times, March 24, 1877, Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction, 379. George Alfred Townsend wrote under the pseudonym “Gath.” Summers, Press Gang, 82-85. For a contrary judgment, see Holt, By One Vote, 248, who argues that there was no significant “voter realignment” as a consequence of the election of 1876; rather, the Democrats triumphed by getting more white voters to the poll—and African Americans would have been disenfranchised anyway.

124 Testimony of William Murrell, Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, pt. 2:521; Painter, Exodusters, 166-67.

125 Senate Report no. 855, 45th Cong., 3rd sess., Report of the United States Senate Committee to Inquire into Alleged Frauds and Violence in the Elections of 1878 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1879), 1:xxviii; Painter, Exodusters, 30, 168-69, 99-100; Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 213; Gilles Vandal, “The Policy of Violence in Caddo Parish, 1865-1884,” Louisiana History 32 (1991): 159-82.

126 Brenham Weekly Banner, December 20, 1878, quoted in Painter, Exodusters, 36-37.

127 Painter, Exodusters, 36-39 (quote, 39); Report of the United States Senate Committee to Inquire into Alleged Frauds and Violence in the Elections of 1878, 1:140-42.

128 New Orleans Times, April 29, 1879; Painter, Exodusters, 170, 172-73, 240-41. This tendency to blame black victims started with the 1876 election; for example, “A Merciless Massacre,” Atlanta Constitution, October 18, 1876. As the St. Louis Times said, “In every instance the negroes have been the aggressors; in every instance the white men have acted on the defensive”; quoted in “About Republican Misrule,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 2, 1876, p. 4. White Southern historians also tended to blame the blacks for violence; for example, John S. Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865-1877 (Columbia, SC: State Co., 1905), 188-90, 344-46, 374-78.

129 Painter, Exodusters, 163. Speaking of the 1877 elections, Sir George Campbell wrote, “It is notorious that in the late elections the free exercise of that vote has been abridged and destroyed by violence and fraud.” Campbell, White and Black, x-xi; see also 225-27, 316-18, 321-22, 330-33, 341-42.

130 Painter, Exodusters, 96-99, 160-74 (quote, 164).

131 Leslie H. Fishel Jr., “The African-American Experience,” in The Gilded Age: Essays on the Origins of Modern America, ed. Charles W. Calhoun (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 139; quoting Edgar T. Thompson, Plantation Societies, Race Relations, and the South: The Regimentation of Populations (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1975), 217; Randel, Centennial, 257; C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction (Boston: Little, Brown, 1951), 53-54; Paul W. Gates, “Federal Land Policy in the South, 1866-88,” Journal of Southern History 6 (1940): 303-30.

132 Painter, Exodusters, 101.

133 Ibid., 2.

134 Testimony of William Murrell, Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, pt. 2:517.

135 Painter, Exodusters, 39, 134.

136 Ibid., 39, 88-93, 137-45 (quote, 138); Campbell, White and Black, 304, 321, 330, 332; George B. Tindall, “The Liberian Exodus of 1878,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 53 (July 1952): 133-45 (quote, 139); De Santis, “The Republican Party and the Southern Negro,” 77.

137 Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, 2:187; Painter, Exodusters, 83-88.

138 Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, 2:108.

139 Testimony of William Murrell, Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, 2:529. Murrell had the vain hope that leaving would serve some purpose in Louisiana, for he added, “As I said to one white man, . . . ‘It is of no use talking; the best thing the negro can do now is to get out of the State and teach these white people a lesson’” (ibid.). See also Painter, Exodusters, 23-24, 92-93.

140 Petition written in Shreveport, September 15, 1877, in Report and Testimony of the Select Committee . . . to Investigate the Causes of the Removal of the Negroes, 2:156.

141 Painter, Exodusters, 115-16.

142 Ibid., 154-56, 159 (quote), 163n6.

143 Edwards, New Spirits, 31; Fishel, “African-American Experience,” 139; Painter, Exodusters, 147.

144 “Relief for the Refugees,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 18, 1879, p. 3. See also “Our Colored Visitors,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 21, 1879, p. 5; “Africa’s Hegira,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, April 17, 1879, p. 6; New Hampshire Methodists,” Independent Statesman (Concord, NH), April 17, 1879, p. 226; “By Telegraph,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), April 22, 1879; “The Exodus,” Southwestern Christian Advocate (New Orleans), May 29, 1879.

145 Campbell, White and Black, 283-84, 187-88, 302, 305-6, 319, 344-45, 357; Painter, Exodusters, 44-53.

146 Blassingame and McKivigan, Frederick Douglass Papers, 4:468; Edwards, New Spirits, 117; Fishel, “African-American Experience,” 144; Blum, Reforging the White Republic , 83-84, 107; Elizabeth Hyde Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands (Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1893) 286; Rayford W. Logan, The Negro in American Life and Thought: The Nadir, 1877-1901 (New York: Dial Press, 1954), 328; Antonio Vinao Frago, “The History of Literacy in Spain: Evolution, Traits, and Questions,” History of Education Quarterly 30 (1990): 586; Harvey J. Gruff, The Legacies of Literacy: Continuities and Contradictions in Western Culture and Society (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987): 299, 361-66.

147 “Women who dared”: W.E.B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (New York, Schocken Books, 1968), 24; “thread of brave”: W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay Toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860-1880 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1935), 708; Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1919), 62.

148 Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 84 (quote); Botume, First Days Amongst the Contrabands, 286; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 317; Williams, Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes, 2:245-53, 351; Louis D. Rubin, ed., Teach the Freeman: The Correspondence of Rutherford B. Hayes and the Slater Fund for Negro Education, 1881-1887, 2 vols. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1959).

149 Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 317; “The Political South Hereafter,” The Nation, April 5, 1877, p. 202; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 150; Stanley P. Hirshson, Farewell to the Bloody Shirt: Northern Republicans and the Southern Negro, 1877-1893 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962), 21-44; Foner, Reconstruction , 582.

150 Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 216; Peter H. Argersinger, “New Perspectives on Election Fraud in the Gilded Age,” Political Science Quarterly 100 (1985): 673-82; Henry George, “Money in Elections,” North American Review 86 (1883): 210-12; Richard F. Bensel, The American Ballot Box in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 194-95, 290.

151 “Outcast states” and “bitterness”: William C. Beecher and Samuel Scoville, A Biography of Rev. Henry Ward Beecher (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1888), 460; “You must not be disappointed” and “patience”: Henry Ward Beecher, “Reconstruction,” New York Independent, July 6, 1865, p. 8; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 88.

152 Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 89-97 (quote, 90).

153 Harriet Beecher Stowe, Palmetto Leaves (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999); Stowe, “Our Florida Plantation,” Atlantic Monthly 43 (1879): 648; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 100-103. Ann Rowe sees continuity in Stowe’s writings based around a romantic vision, but that seems rather hard to accept in light of her attitudes toward the two races and political involvement. Ann Rowe, Enchanted Country: Northern Writers in the South, 1865-1910 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), 1-19.

154 Harriet Beecher Stowe, “Life in Florida,” New York Tribune, February 17, 1877, p. 3; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 101. Stowe claimed credit for persuading fourteen thousand Northerners to follow her example, a view shared by several scholars. Palmetto Leaves, xv; John T. Foster Jr. and Sarah Whitmer Foster, Beechers, Stowes, and Yankee Strangers: The Transformation of Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999), xvii.

155 Atlanta Constitution quoted in Hunter D. Farish, The Circuit Rider Dismounts: A Social History of Southern Methodism, 1865-1900 (Richmond, VA: Dietz Press, 1938), 90-91; Thomas Cary Johnson, The Life and Letters of Robert Lewis Dabney (Richmond, VA: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1903), 378; Blum, Reforging the White Republic , 106; Sean Michael Lewis, “‘Old Times Are Not Forgotten’: Robert Lewis Dabney’s Public Theology for a Reconstructed South,” Journal of Presbyterian History 81 (2003): 163-77.

156 Scholars often miss the racial message of Moody’s revivals, which gave a Christian veneer to the reactionary effort to reclassify blacks as inferior while encouraging the unification of America’s whites. Moody’s explicit rejection of political activism and the integrative goals of Reconstruction carried enormous weight. Edward Blum observed that in “a political and social atmosphere depressed by financial hard times, class conflict, and seemingly interminable sectional bickering, Moody discouraged Protestants from taking an active interest in social reform and instead focused on the conciliatory message of the Christian gospel.” Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 13; William G. McLoughlin, Modern Revivalism: Charles Grandison Finney to Billy Graham (New York: Ronald Press, 1959), 10, 167-70, 229, 272; Martin E. Marty, Righteous Empire: The Protestant Experience in America (New York: Dial Press, 1970), 162-63, 180, 256; Sidney Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), 738-46.

157 “Our Augusta Letter,” Atlanta Constitution, May 4, 1876; “A Respector of Persons,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), May 16, 1876; “A Revival Incident,” New York Times, May 10, 1876, p. 2; Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, May 13, 1876; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 141.

158 Albert Taylor Bledsoe, “Moody and Sankey,” Southern Review (Baltimore) 19 (1876): 186; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 136, 141.

159 A.M.E. conference quotes in “Hasty Action,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), June 21, 1887, p. 7; “Mr. Douglass’ Great Speech,” New York Freeman, May 2, 1885; “The Action Not Hasty,” Inter Ocean, June 25, 1887, p. 16; Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 142.

160 Blum, Reforging the White Republic, 16-18, 124 (quote), 132-35.

161 Du Bois Black Reconstruction, 634, 707; Zuczek, State of Rebellion, 6; Michael Perman, “Counter-Reconstruction: The Role of Violence in Southern Redemption,” in The Facts of Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of John Hope Franklin, ed. Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991), 121-40.

Chapter 3: Bringing Order to the West

1 Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 118.

2 Colorado Springs Gazette, April 7, 1877, p. 2; Colorado Springs Gazette, August 4, 1877, p. 2.

3 See, for example, multiple articles in the Colorado Springs Gazette, February 10, February 17, February 24, and March 31, 1877. On the settlement of Colorado Springs, see Colorado Springs Gazette, August 4, 1877, p. 2.

4 Miriam Leslie, California: A Pleasure Trip from Gotham to the Golden Gate (New York: G.W. Carleton & Co., 1877), 56; Colorado Springs Gazette, March 17, 1877, p. 2. “Those of us who are opposed on principle to the sale of liquor, class such sale with the crimes of arson, theft, and murder, and we have a right to do so; for he who furnished the demon which men put in their mouths to steal away their brains and burn up their manhood, is an accomplice in whatever villainies may flow from indulgence in intoxicating drinks.” Colorado Springs Gazette, February 24, 1877, p. 2; Clare V. McKanna, Homicide, Race, and Justice in the American West, 1880-1920 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1997); Clare V. McKanna, Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2002); Richard W. Slatta, “Comparative Frontier Social Life: Western Saloons and Argentine Pulperias,” Great Plains Quarterly 7 (1987): 155-65.

5 Colorado Springs Gazette, February 24, 1877, p. 2.

6 Colorado Springs Gazette, February 17, 1877, p. 3; Colorado Springs Gazette, March 10, 1877, p. 2; Colorado Springs Gazette, April 7, 1877, p. 2.

7 For example, Colorado Springs Gazette, February 10, 1877, pp. 2-3; Colorado Springs Gazette, March 17, 1877, p. 3; Colorado Springs Gazette, April 21, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, May 12, 1877, p. 2, Colorado Springs Gazette, June 9, 1877, p. 2, Colorado Springs Gazette, July 28, 1877, pp. 1-2, Colorado Springs Gazette, August 4, 1877, pp. 2-3; Colorado Springs Gazette, December 1, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, December 29, 1877.

8 Colorado Springs Gazette, August 4, 1877, p. 2; Colorado Springs Gazette, August 18, 1877, p. 2; Colorado Springs Gazette, August 25, 1877, p. 2; Colorado Springs Gazette, December 1, 1877, p. 2.

9 Colorado Springs Gazette, July 28, 1877, p. 4; Colorado Springs Gazette, November 17, 1877, p. 4 (quote); Colorado Springs Gazette, December 22, 1877, p. 2.

10 W. Eugene Hollon, Frontier Violence: Another Look (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974); Patricia Nelson Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: Norton, 1987); Richard Slotkin, The Fatal Environment: The Myth of the Frontier in the Age of Industrialization, 1800-1890 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985); Frank R. Prassel, The Great American Outlaw: A Legacy of Fact and Fiction (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); Robert R. Dykstra, The Cattle Towns (New York: Knopf, 1968); Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991); Rebecca Edwards, New Spirits: Americans in the Gilded Age, 1865-1905 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 209-10.

11 Wallace Stegner, Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West (New York: Penguin, 1992).

12 Ari Hoogenboom, The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 153, 173; Edwards, New Spirits, 260. Congress actually voted for an army of thirty thousand but refused to allocate the additional funds to pay for those troops. Russell Weigley, History of the United States Army (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 275-81.

13 Ray Raphael and Freeman House, Two Peoples, One Place (Eureka, CA: Humboldt County Historical Society, 2007), 286-88; Byron Nelson Jr., Our Home Forever: A Hupa Tribal History (Hoopa, CA: Hupa Tribe, 1978). The Hupa are also known as the Hoopa; Sarah Steinberg et al., In Hoopa Territory (Hoopa, CA: Hoopa Valley Tribe, 2000).

14 “Our Indian Wards,” The Nation, July 13, 1876, pp. 21-22; Othniel C. Marsh, A Statement of Affairs at the Red Cloud Agency, Made to the President of the United States (n.p., 1875); Report of the Special Commission Appointed to Investigate the Affairs of the Red Cloud Agency (Washington, DC: GPO, 1875); “Swindling the Indians,” Boston Daily Advertiser, May 29, 1875; Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), June 2, 1875; “Indian Affairs,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 14, 1875; “The Red Cloud Investigation,” The Congregationalist (Boston), October 28, 1875, p. 4.

15 Sherman quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer: The Parallel Lives of Two American Warriors (New York: Doubleday, 1975), 292; Colorado Springs Gazette, February 10, 1877; Edmund J. Danziger Jr., “Native American Resistance and Accommodation during the Late Nineteenth Century,” in The Gilded Age: Essays on the Origins of Modern America, ed. Charles W. Calhoun (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 164; Edwards, New Spirits, 37.

16 Paul I. Wellman, Death on the Prairie: The Thirty Years’ Struggle for the Western Plains (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987), 130-31, 135-36; Walter Nugent, Into the West: The Story of Its People (New York: Knopf, 1999), 71; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 374-81, 390-97; Edwards, New Spirits, 81; Joseph M. Marshall III, The Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn: A Lakota History (New York: Viking, 2007), 31. Historians often shared the view that “something also had to be done about the Indians”; see Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 17. Robert Utley blamed the Sioux for the war, as they continued to launch raids, “disrupted the management of the reservation Indians,” and “interfered with the sale of the Black Hills”; see Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866-1891 (New York: Macmillan, 1973), 246. The Chicago Times reporter also lay the war at the feet of the Sioux, whose “ungovernable pride” led them to unfairly exclude white men from the northern Plains; see John F. Finerty, War-Path and Bivouac, or: The Conquest of the Sioux (Chicago: Donohue & Henneberry, 1890), 37-38.

17 Perry Belmont, An American Democrat: The Recollections of Perry Belmont (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), 158; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 375, 396-97.

18 Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 129; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 247 (Sherman quote), 281-82, 305; Utley, Frontier Regulars, 111.

19 On Sitting Bull, see Stanley Vestal, Sitting Bull: Champion of the Sioux (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1932); Robert M. Utley, The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull (New York: Henry Holt, 1993).

20 On Crazy Horse, see Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer; Kingsley M. Bray, Crazy Horse: A Lakota Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 2006). On the Little Bighorn, see Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 435-47; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 147-61. There is some debate about whether the Battle of the Rosebud should be credited as a victory for the Sioux, but given that the battle stopped General Crook’s advance, breaking up the planned conjunction with Custer’s forces, it seems fair to consider it a strategic as well as tactical victory for the Sioux. Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 420-24; Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 85-86, 130-31; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 139-46. For the contemporary debate, see “Horrible Catastrophe in the Lower Platte Valley,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), July 25, 1876; “Belligerent Bohemians,” Daily Rocky Mountain News, August 8, 1876; “Gen. Crook and the Rosebud Fight,” Arizona Weekly Miner (Prescott), July 28, 1876; “Crook Corraled,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 29, 1876; “Treating with Crazy Horse,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 31, 1876, p. 4; “The Indian War,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), August 2, 1876, p. 5; Inter Ocean, August 3, 1876, p. 2; “Marching upon the Sioux,” Inter Ocean, August 5, 1876, p. 3; “What the Sioux Say,” Wisconsin State Register (Portage), August 5, 1876; Finerty, War-Path and Bivouac, 111-19; John G. Bourke, On the Border with Crook (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1896), 309-16.

21 Kingsley M. Bray, “Crazy Horse and the End of the Great Sioux War,” in American Nations: Encounters in Indian Country, 1850 to the Present, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie et al. (New York: Routledge, 2001), 21n17.

22 Jack Crawford, The Poet Scout (San Francisco: H. Keller & Co., 1879), 79. The painting is often credited to Otto Becker, as in William Peirce Randel, Centennial: American Life in 1876 (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1969), 134, but Becker was the lithographer. Robert Taft, Artists and Illustrators of the Old West, 1850-1900 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1953), 129-48; Michael A. Elliot, Custerology: The Enduring Legacy of the Indian Wars and George Armstrong Custer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 34-35.

23 New York Herald, July 7, 1876; Oliver Knight, Following the Indian Wars: The Story of the Newspaper Correspondents among the Indian Campaigners (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1960), 219.

24 Sturgis quoted in “The Sioux Slaughter,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 19, 1876, p. 4; Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 221; Charles S. Diehl, The Staff Correspondent (San Antonio: Clegg Co., 1931), 107; Lewis Henry Morgan, “The Hue and Cry Against the Indians,” The Nation, July 20, 1876, pp. 40-41; Lewis Henry Morgan, “The Factory System for Indian Reservations,” The Nation, July 27, 1876, pp. 58-59.

25 Emily FitzGerald to Aunt Annie, September 30, 1876, in Emily McCorkle FitzGerald, An Army Doctor’s Wife on the Frontier: Letters from Alaska and the Far West, 1874-1878, ed. Abe Laufe (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962), 207. See also Sherry Lynn Smith, The View from Officers’ Row: Army Perceptions of Western Indians (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991), 144-47.

26 Chicago Times, July 5, 1876; Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 246. Finerty compared Little Bighorn to Thermopylae and Custer to Leonidas; see Finerty, War-Path and Bivouac, v. For more of his negative opinions on the Sioux, see ibid., 106-8.

27 Finerty, War-Path and Bivouac, 228; Chicago Times, September 5, 1876; New York Herald, September 12, 1876; Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 257, 262. See also Alta California, September 26, 1876; San Francisco Evening Bulletin, September 4, 1876; San Francisco Evening Bulletin, September 5, 1876; New York Herald, August 24, 1876; New York Herald, September 17, 1876; New York Herald, September 21, 1876; Chicago Tribune , September 5, 1876; Finerty, War-Path and Bivouac, 226-32.

28 Charles A. King, Campaigning with Crook and Stories of Army Life (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1890), 167. Crook’s view that the Indians were basically welfare cheats is “a shocking travesty of the facts,” as Stephen Ambrose put it, given that the “Sioux had just signed over lands worth their keep for one hundred years or more, and got nothing in return”; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 455.

29 Chicago Times, July 12, 1876; Chicago Times, September 16, 1876; Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 233-34, 286-87.

30 Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 220, 272.

31 Ibid., 223-24, 241-42, 249.

32 New York Herald, July 16, 1876; Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 241.

33 Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 232-33, 244, 251-53; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 453-56; New York Tribune, July 27, 1876; New York Herald, August 18, 1876; Alta California, August 1, 1876; “Battle Echoes from Montana,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, August 30, 1877; “Another Sensation,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), January 24, 1878, p. 4; “Sitting Bull on the Warpath,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), January 29, 1878; “An Indian Congress,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, June 11, 1878; Weekly Register-Call (Central City, CO), June 22, 1878; Bourke, On the Border with Crook , 316-19, 338-39, 393-94.

34 Bourke, On the Border with Crook, 415; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 132-35.

35 Colorado Springs Gazette, March 17, 1877, p. 3. See also Jerome A. Greene, Nez Perce Summer 1877: The U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis (Helena: Montana Historical Society Press, 2000), 95-96; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 145-64.

36 Knight, Following the Indian Wars, 289; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 162, 172. There is of course some disagreement on the number of warriors. Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 136-37; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 456-58, 462.

37 Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 162n1 (quote), 166-67; Stanley Vestal, Sitting Bull: Champion of the Sioux (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1989), 203-5; Nelson A. Miles, Serving the Republic: Memoirs of the Civil and Military Life of Nelson A. Miles (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1911), 157-60.

38 Iron Horse quoted in Bray, “Crazy Horse and the End of the Great Sioux War,” 35n81; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 458-59.

39 Bray, “Crazy Horse and the End of the Great Sioux War,” 32n68, 36n86.

40 Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 459-63 (quote, 462); Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 136-38; Bray, “Crazy Horse and the End of the Great Sioux War,” 38-39; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 174-75; Belmont, American Democrat, 157-81.

41 Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 139, 141-42; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 176-79; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 463-68.

42 Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 469-72. For several eyewitness accounts, see Robert A. Clark, ed., The Killing of Chief Crazy Horse (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1988).

43 Touch-the-Clouds quoted in Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 473; Crazy Horse quoted in Homer W. Wheeler, Buffalo Days: Forty Years in the Old West (Brooklyn: A.L. Burt, 1925), 200; Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 138, 152; Wellman, Death on the Prairie, 176-78.

44 Marshall, Day the World Ended at Little Bighorn, 142-43; Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 454; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 246.

45 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 236; Fort Benton Record, October 5, 1877.

46 Molchert quoted in Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 237; L.V. McWhorter, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Press, 2000), 199; New York Herald, September 29, 1877; Fort Benton Record, October 5, 1877; L.V. McWhorter, Hear Me, My Chiefs: Nez Perce Legend and History (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Press, 1984), 469-72; Alvin M. Josephy Jr., The Nez Perce Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 611-15. The Nez Perce called themselves the Nee-Me-Poo.

47 See, for instance, “The Indians,” The Congregationalist (Boston), October 10, 1877; “The Last Indian War,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), October 27, 1877; “Chief Joseph,” Colorado Springs Gazette, December 22, 1877; “The Indian Question,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 4, 1878; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 350-51.

48 Colorado Springs Gazette, June 9, 1877, p. 2. See also “Responsibility for the Idaho War,” The Nation, August 2, 1877, p. 69; “A Lesson from the Nez Perces,” New York Times, October 15, 1877, p. 4; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 158; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, xix-xx, 5-15, 543, 557.

49 Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 154-55; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 445-58, 512-13; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 13-14, 25; Charles C. Royce, “Indian Land Cessions in the United States,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1896-97 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1899), pt. 2:864-65.

50 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 14-15; Army and Navy Journal, July 7, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, September 8, 1877; Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners for the Year 1876 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877), 60.

51 Italics in original; McDowell’s words appear as well in the instructions of the Department of the Interior to J.B. Monteith, the Indian agent in Lewiston. Report of the Secretary of War on the Operations of the Department for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1877, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877), 1:7-9, 585-86; The Teller (Lewiston, ID), February 17, 1877.

52 Wilkinson quoted in Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 382-83n45; Army and Navy Journal, August 18, 1877; General O.O. Howard Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:588-97, 594 (Howard quote); O.O. Howard, My Life and Experiences among Our Hostile Indians (Hartford, CT: A.D. Worthington & Co., 1907), 249-56; Joseph, “An Indian’s Views of Indian Affairs,” North American Review 128 (1879): 421-22; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 491-92; Frederick Bancroft, Speeches, Correspondence and Political Papers of Carl Schurz, 6 vols. (New York: Putnam’s Sons, 1913), 4:55.

53 George Crook, General George Crook: His Autobiography, ed. Martin F. Schmitt (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1986), 169; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 23.

54 Joseph, “Indian’s Views of Indian Affairs,” 422; Howard Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:594-95; Howard, My Life and Experiences, 256-57; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 155-56; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 26 (McCarthy quote), 28-29.

55 John D. McDermott, Forlorn Hope: The Nez Perce Victory at White Bird Canyon (1878; Caldwell, ID: Caxton Press, 2003), 3-43; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 156, 158; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 30-32. The three murderers and rapists were Shore Crossing, Red Moccasin Top, and Swan Necklace.

56 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 33.

57 Settles to Captain Perry, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:601; O.O. Howard, Nez Perce Joseph (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1881), 98; Army and Navy Journal, August 18, 1877; McDermott, Forlorn Hope, 49-68.

58 McDermott, Forlorn Hope, 57-68; “The Indians,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), August 22, 1877; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 156-57; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 34-42 (quote, 39); McWhorter, Hear Me, 53-54, 239-52; William R. Parnell, “The Nez Perce War, 1877: Battle of White Bird Canyon,” Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, 1865-1890: The Wars for the Pacific Northwest, 2 vols., ed. Peter Cozzens (Mechanics-burg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002), 2:344-55; Howard, My Life and Experiences, 283-86. The Battle of White Bird Creek is also known as the Battle of White Bird Canyon.

59 Howard, Nez Perce Joseph, 117; Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:358-59; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 42-43 (McCarthy quote), 46-48, 389n43.

60 New York Herald, September 10, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 387n31.

61 “The Week,” The Nation, July 5, 1877, p. 1; “Responsibility for the Idaho War,” The Nation, August 2, 1877, 69-70; McWhorter, Hear Me, 239-41; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 36, 41, 388n37; Walter F. Beyer and Oscar Frederick Keydel, Deeds of Valor: From Records in the Archives of the United States Government, 2 vols. (Detroit: Perrien-Keydel Co., 1907), 2:239-44. There was a general sense that Joseph was a superior military commander to General Howard; see “The War in the West: Howard Outgeneraled by Joseph,” Galveston Daily News, July 20, 1877.

62 Colorado Springs Gazette, September 1, 1877, p. 2; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 44, 50 (McCarthy quote).

63 McWhorter, Hear Me, 261-73; Army and Navy Journal, July 14, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 51-58 (quote, 58); McWhorter, Hear Me, 267-71; Josephy, Nez Perce, 535-37; Boise Tri-Weekly Statesman, July 14, 1877. Bird Alighting was also known as Peopeo Tholekt.

64 McWhorter, Hear Me, 279; Boise Tri-Weekly Statesman, July 21, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 73-75, 399n6-7.

65 McCarthy quoted in Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 81-82, 91. See also Army and Navy Journal, July 14, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, August 18, 1877; McWhorter, Hear Me, 298-303, 318-20; Boise Tri-Weekly Statesman, July 14, 1877; “The Walla Walla Region,” Galveston Daily News, July 14, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 67-68, 77-82, 88-91.

66 McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 88-91 (quote, 88); McWhorter, Hear Me, 305, 309-13.

67 C.E.S. Wood, “Chief Joseph, the Nez Perce,” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine 28 (1884): 137; McWhorter, Hear Me, 314-15 (Bird Alighting quote), 323; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 86-97, 105 McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 98-100; Joseph, “An Indian’s Views,” 426.

68 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 100, 106-7 (quote, 107); McWhorter, Hear Me, 332-40; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 104-5, 310-12; Duncan MacDonald, “The Nez Perces: The History of Their Troubles and the Campaign of 1877,” Linwood Laughy, comp., In Pursuit of the Nez Perces: The Nez Perce War of 1877 (Wrangell, AK: Mountain Meadow Press, 1993), 247; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 555-57. The Lolo Trail ran from Montana’s Bitterroot Valley into central Idaho.

69 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 108.

70 Ibid., 110-11; McWhorter, Hear Me, 351n21, 352; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 567-72.

71 Boise Tri-Weekly Statesman, August 21, 1877; Helena Daily Herald July 30, 1877; Portland Daily Standard, September 6, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 112-13, 121-22, 124-27; MacDonald, “Nez Perces,” 251; Report of Colonel Gibbon, September 2, 1877, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:68-69.

72 Charles A. Woodruff, “Battle of the Big Hole,” Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana 7 (1910): 109; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 126-33; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 115.

73 Woodruff, “Battle of the Big Hole,” 109; “Battle Briefs,” Helena Daily Herald, August 23, 1877.

74 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 132-33.

75 Ibid., 131-34; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 118; McWhorter, Hear Me, 376; Beyer and Keydel, Deeds of Valor, 2:244-48.

76 Report of Colonel Gibbon, September 2, 1877, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:70-71; MacDonald, “Nez Perces,” 260-61; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 135-38.

77 Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:56 (quote), 71, 521-22, 553, 562; Gibbon, “Pursuit of Joseph,” 341-43; Army and Navy Journal, August 18, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, August 25, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, September 22, 1877; McWhorter, Hear Me, 384-88; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 138-40, 144-45; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 134-46; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 579-90; August 18, 1877; Beyer and Keydel, Deeds of Valor, 2:244-48.

78 Report of Colonel Gibbon, September 2, 1877, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:9; John Gibbon, “The Pursuit of Joseph,” American Catholic Quarterly Review 4 (1879): 327-29; “Tecumseh’s Tour,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 21, 1877, p. 11; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 120-24; Rex C. Myers, “The Settlers and the Nez Perce,” Montana: The Magazine of Western History 27 (1977): 20-29.

79 Bozeman Times, September 13, 1877; Deer Lodge New North-West, September 14, 1877; “Howard and the Volunteers,” Butte Miner, September 25, 1877, p. 2; Boise Tri-Weekly Statesman, September 18, 1877; New York Herald, September 10, 1877; Cheyenne Daily Leader, August 31, 1877; Cheyenne Daily Leader, November 2, 1877; Helena Daily Independent, June 13, 1896; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 187-88, 194; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 139, 151-216, 232; Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:13, 609-10; O.O. Howard, Nez Perce Joseph: An Account of his Ancestors, His Lands, His Confederates, His Enemies, His Murders, His War, His Pursuit and Capture (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1881), 225-29.

80 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 206-9, 216-33, 242-43 (quote, 229); Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:508, 525-27, 627; Bozeman Times, September 13, 1877; New York Herald, September 29, 1877; Nelson A. Miles, Personal Recollections and Observations of General Nelson A. Miles (Chicago: Werner Co., 1896), 260; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 202-3; McWhorter, Hear Me, 473-74.

81 Miles, Personal Recollections, 265-67; Henry Romeyn, “The Capture of Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce Indians,” Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana (Helena: State Publishing Co., 1896), 2:285-87; Sturgis to Miles, September 13, 1877, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:74; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 245-66; Jerome A. Greene, Yellowstone Command: Colonel Nelson A. Miles and the Great Sioux War, 1876-1877 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press , 2006), 205-13. On this approach to combat, see Robert Wooster, The Military and United States Indian Policy, 1865-1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988), 127, 135-43; Greene, Yellowstone Command, 10-12. On the Washita, see Ambrose, Crazy Horse and Custer, 313-24.

82 McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 205-6; Joseph, “Indian’s Views,” 428; McWhorter, Hear Me, 478-81; MacDonald, “The Nez Perces,” 269.

83 McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 207; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 271-88 (quotes, 274, 282); Portland Daily Standard, November 4, 1877; New York Herald, October 11, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, December 8, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, April 27, 1878; McWhorter, Hear Me, 479-80; Miles, Personal Recollections, 268; Harper’s Weekly, November 17, 1877.

84 Miles, “Report,” Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:528; McWhorter, Hear Me, 485; Army and Navy Journal, October 13, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer , 280-88, 293-94, 299, 306 (quote, 281); Romeyn, “Capture of Chief Joseph,” 287-89; Army and Navy Journal, March 9, 1878; Utley, Lance and the Shield, 193, 371-72n14.

85 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 288-89; New York Herald, October 11, 1877; Portland Daily Standard, November 4, 1877.

86 McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 211 (quote), 215-16, 218; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 285-308, 300-301, 477n28; War Department, Rules of Land Warfare (Washington, DC: GPO, 1914), 88-96; Thomas Wilhelm, A Military Dictionary and Gazetteer: Comprising Ancient and Modern Military Technical Terms, Historical Accounts of All North American Indians, as Well as Ancient Warlike Tribes (Philadelphia: L.R. Hamersly & Co., 1881), 163, 602; report of Colonel Miles, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:528; Miles, Personal Recollections, 274; McWhorter, Hear Me, 488; William F. Zimmer, Frontier Soldier: An Enlisted Man’s Journal of the Sioux and Nez Perce Campaigns, 1877 (Helena: Montana Historical Society, 1998), 123; Joseph, “Indian’s Views,” 428-29; New York Herald, October 30, 1877.

87 Miles quoted in “The Bloody Nez Perces,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 8, 1877, p. 4; Joseph, “Indian’s Views,” 429; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 304-6; Greene, Yellowstone Command, 166-76; Army and Navy Journal, December 8, 1877; Fort Benton Record, October 12, 1877; Romeyn, “The Capture of Chief Joseph,” 289-91; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 220; McWhorter, Hear Me, 495.

88 General O.O. Howard, Supplementary Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:630. The Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune, October 26, 1877, had the earliest published version of Joseph’s surrender speech, which is similar to this one. Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 306-12; Harper’s Weekly, November 17, 1877; Miles, Serving the Republic, 178-79; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 222-24; McWhorter, Hear Me, 493-94.

89 Howard, My Life and Experiences, 299; Inter Ocean (Chicago), October 26, 1877, p. 4; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 310-12, 334; Joseph, “Indian’s Views,” 429; Howard, Supplementary Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:630-31; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 224-26; McWhorter, Hear Me, 496-98; Miles, Personal Recollections, 275; Harper’s Weekly, November 17, 1877. Miles reported a total of 448 prisoners; see Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 313.

90 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 312; Miles to Terry, October 5, 1877, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:515.

91 Walsh quoted in Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 341; Nez Perce woman quoted in McWhorter, Hear Me, 509; McWhorter, Yellow Wolf, 225-26; Zimmer, Frontier Soldier , 128-30; Howard, Supplementary Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:631.

92 Report of Colonel Miles, October 6, 1877, and Howard, Supplementary Report, Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:74-75, 632-33; McWhorter, Hear Me, 486, 501; Fort Benton Record, October 5, 1877; Fort Benton Record, October 12, 1877; Army and Navy Journal, November 24, 1877; Leavenworth Daily Times, November 29, 1877; New York Herald, October 23, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 290-91, 315, 317-19, 325, 332, 350, 368-71, 375-76, 495n28; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 158-59.

93 Miles to Terry, October 17, 1877, in Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 350.

94 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 334; “The Captured Nez Perces,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), October 19, 1877; Chicago Tribune, October 25, 1877; Joseph, “Indian’s Views,” 430-31.

95 Robert H. Steinbach, A Long March: The Lives of Frank and Alice Baldwin (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989), 132; Joseph quoted in “Breaking Promises with the Indians,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), November 23, 1877; Miles, Personal Recollections, 279-80; Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune, November 21, 1877; Bismarck Tri-Weekly Tribune, November 23, 1877; Greene, Nez Perce Summer, 335-36; Army and Navy Journal, December 1, 1877.

96 Greene, Nez Perce Summer, xi (quote), 337; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 160. The Nez Perce split into two groups—150 of them, including Joseph, settling on the Colville reservation in Washington, the remaining 118 moving to the Lapwai reservation. Joseph, “An Indian’s Views,” 431-33; J. Stanley Clark, “The Nez Perces in Exile,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 26 (1945): 213-32; Josephy, Nez Perce Indians, 637-42.

97 Report of the Secretary of War . . . 1877, 1:xv.

98 Utley, Lance and the Shield, 260-67, 291-307; Candy Moulton, Chief Joseph: Guardian of the People (New York: Forge Books, 2005), 216-22.

99 Robert W. Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 1846-1912 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968), 13, 28-29, 54, 117; Article IX of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, U.S. Congress, Senate Doc. no. 357, 61st Cong., 2nd sess., Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols and Agreements Between the United States of America and Other Powers, 1776-1909, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: GPO, 1910), 1:1112. New Mexico had a larger population than Colorado and Nevada. Department of the Interior, Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth Census (Washington, DC: GPO, 1882), 3. The census almost certainly undercounted the number of Indians in New Mexico at just 9,772. There was continual debate over the accuracy and methods of counting the population in New Mexico; see Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 108, 116-19, 124, 212-16.

100 “The State of Colorado,” New York Times, March 5, 1875, p. 4; Cincinnati Commercial , March 3, 1875; Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 121-28. See also Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), February 5, 1875; Chicago Tribune, February 26, 1875; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 5, 1875, p. 4.

101 For an overview of New Mexico’s development, see Warren A. Beck, New Mexico: A History of Four Centuries (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962); Marc Simmons, New Mexico: A Bicentennial History (New York: Norton, 1977); Thomas E. Chavez, New Mexico Past and Future (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006).

102 Robert J. Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest: “The Sacred Right of Self-Preservation” (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1981), 90. Chisum’s nickname came from the odd shape in which the ears of his cattle were cut, serving as an identifying mark to forestall rustling. Rustlers responded by simply cutting off the ears of Chisum’s cattle.

103 Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 93, 95; Phillip J. Rasch, “The Horrell War,” New Mexico Historical Review 30 (1956): 223-31.

104 Rasch, “Horrell War,” 229; Frederick Nolan, The Lincoln County War: A Documentary History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992), 48-54, 306-10, 469, 531n53, 532n61; Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 93-94; William A. Keleher, Violence in Lincoln County, 1869-1881 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1957), 13-15.

105 Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 92-95 (quote, 95); Keleher, Violence in Lincoln County, 38-40; “Pat Garrett’s Version of the Lincoln County War, 1877,” in Documenting American Violence: A Sourcebook, ed. Michael Bellesiles and Christopher Waldrep (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 227.

106 Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 143-45, 170-71, 300 (quote); Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 202-3n47; Phillip J. Rasch, “The People of the Territory of New Mexico versus the Santa Fe Ring,” New Mexico Historical Review 47 (1972): 185-201; “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 227; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 47, 178, 181, 230-31, 236-39.

107 “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 227; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 120-21; Mesilla Valley Independent (Mesilla, NM), June 23, 1877.

108 Nolan, Lincoln County War, 121, 505, 536n16; Weekly New Mexican (Santa Fe), January 30, 1877.

109 “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 227; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 540-41n9; Weekly New Mexican (Santa Fe), January 6, 1877.

110 “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 228; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 148-49; Arizona Weekly Star (Tucson), August 23, 1877; Arizona Weekly Star, August 25, 1877. Bonney was born Henry McCarty in New York City in 1859.

111 Nolan, Lincoln County War, 64, 154-55, 175-76, 507-8, 542n32, 544n19 (quotes, 64, 175); Mesilla Valley Independent (Mesilla, NM), August 8, 1877; Mesilla Valley Independent, September 8, 1877; Mesilla Valley Independent, November 3, 1877; Mesilla Valley Independent, November 10, 1877.

112 “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 229. The story of the Lincoln County War is further confused by the misidentification of several key figures. For instance, many accounts of Tunstall’s murder state that William Brady led the posse; e.g., see Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 138-39. But Frederick Nolan’s meticulous documentary reconstruction of these events shows that Brady was not present at the murder; see Lincoln County War, 196-99. Pat Garrett also states that Morton led the posse; see “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 229.

113 “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 229; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 219-20, 228.

114 Nolan, Lincoln County War, 220-23, 233-49, 257-58, 320-331; “Pat Garrett’s Version,” 229-30.

115 Larson, New Mexico’s Quest for Statehood, 123, 299-300; “Colorado,” New York Times, March 5, 1875, p. 4; Nolan, Lincoln County War, 347-48, 402-26; Bellesiles and Waldrep, Documenting American Violence, 225-26, 230; Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 94-98 (see also 99-110 for similar violence in another part of New Mexico). Catron would live long enough to be one of the first U.S. senators from New Mexico in 1912.

116 Nolan, Lincoln County War, 72, 534n20.

117 Rosenbaum, Mexicano Resistance in the Southwest, 37-52, 68-90.

118 James B. Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 1875 to 1881, ed. Milo M. Quaife (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925), 130; Walter Prescott Webb, The Texas Rangers: A Century of Frontier Defense (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1935), 307. The bias of Webb is further demonstrated when he falsely states, “The people, resenting the presence of federal troops and hating the ‘buffalo soldiers’ in the army posts, were ready to call their Rangers and willing to pay them.” Webb also denies the legitimacy of Republican governor Davis since he was elected only by “enfranchising their former slaves.” See ibid., 220.

119 Robert M. Utley, Lone Star Justice: The First Century of the Texas Rangers (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 143-44 (quote), 169-70; Webb, Texas Rangers, 292-93.

120 Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 130-32, 239; Webb, Texas Rangers, 292.

121 Webb, Texas Rangers, 293-94.

122 James D. Richardson, comp., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789-1897, 10 vols. (New York: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1897), 10:4358; Rebecca Edwards, New Spirits: Americans in the Gilded Age, 1865-1905 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 46; William Peirce Randel, Centennial: American Life in 1876 (Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1969), 271.

123 “Ord’s Orders,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 2, 1877; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 164, 168, 192-93; Webb, Texas Rangers, 259; “The Raids Across the Rio Grande,” New York Times, June 25, 1877, p. 5; “Editorial Brevities,” Galveston Daily News, July 31, 1877; “The Frontier Imbroglio,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 18, 1877; Ari Hoogenboom, The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1988), 174-76.

124 “What May Lead to War,” Galveston Daily News, August 14, 1877; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 161. See also ibid., 163-64; “How Is This, Diaz?” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 14, 1877; p. 4; “Washington: The Mexican Revolutionists,” North American (Philadelphia), August 15, 1877; “Outrage by the Mexicans at Rio Grande City,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, August 14, 1877; “Lively Times in Mexico,” Galveston Daily News, August 16, 1877; “The Mexican Question,” Galveston Daily News, August 17, 1877; “The Rio Grande Frontier,” Galveston Daily News, August 21, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, August 18, 1877, p. 2; “Mexican Border,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), August 21, 1877.

125 Colorado Springs Gazette, December 1, 1877, p. 2. See also Colorado Springs Gazette, August 25, 1877, p. 2; “The Mexican Border,” New York Times, November 13, 1877, p. 5; “Hankering for Mexican Territory,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 5, 1877, p. 5; “The Mexican Question,” Galveston Daily News, October 12, 1877; “Notes and Opinions,” Galveston Daily News, December 25, 1877.

126 “The Lerdo Revolution,” Galveston Daily News, July 8, 1877; “Texas News by Telegraph,” Galveston Daily News, July 20, 1877; “The Mexican Problem,” Galveston Daily News, July 28, 1877; “Border and Frontier,” Galveston Daily News, August 3, 1877; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 168, 192-93; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 174-76; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 104.

127 These population figures remain in dispute; see Utley, Lone Star Justice, 188-89; Webb, Texas Rangers, 345. There is also some disagreement on the distance and travel time: Webb puts it at 600 miles requiring “thirty or more days” to reach El Paso; see Webb, Texas Rangers, 345. Utley states it is 500 miles; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 188. Gillett held El Paso was 750 miles from Austin yet took only a week to get there; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 197. Mapquest places the distance at 580 miles.

128 Webb, Texas Rangers, 346; C.L. Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2000), 112-13; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 194; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 191. Webb disagrees, insisting that the salt lakes had been discovered only in 1862, apparently assuming the building of the road indicated the acknowledgment of the lake’s existence; Webb, Texas Rangers, 347.

129 Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 195; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 190-91, 196; Webb, Texas Rangers, 351, 356; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 113-14, 119-23, 127-28; testimony of G.N. Garcia, U.S. Congress, House Exec. Doc. no. 93, 45th Cong., 2nd sess., El Paso Troubles in Texas (Washington, DC: GPO, 1878), 106-7. Webb credits Cardis with controlling the Hispanic vote in the region, labeling him “a Machiavelli,” praising Howard as “a man of undoubted courage . . . and an excellent pistol shot”; Webb, Texas Rangers, 348-49.

130 Webb, Texas Rangers, 345.

131 A few days before the onset of violence around El Paso, the Galveston Daily News reported that the county’s grand jury heard just a single indictment, which they took as evidence “that the population of El Paso county is composed of good, peaceable and law-abiding citizens”; “State News,” Galveston Daily News, September 28, 1877.

132 El Paso Troubles, 3-4, 50-54, 68-78, 100, 106; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 195-96; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 191, 196; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 111-12, 122-23, 127-30. Webb, Texas Rangers, 351, 356; “State Press,” Galveston Daily News, September 20, 1877.

133 “Howard’s Statement,” Mesilla Independent, October 6, 1877; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 130.

134 Testimony of Father “Peter” Bourgade, El Paso Troubles, 100; see also 26-27, 98-101. Traditional narratives of the Salt War grant “sinister power” to Father Antonio Borajo, a sort of Mexican Rasputin; see Utley, Lone Star Justice, 190. Webb called him “an evil spirit” who manipulated the “ignorant rabble” of Mexicans into acts of violence; Webb, Texas Rangers, 348, 350. But the evidence for his machinations is largely nonexistent, based on the statements of white Democrats, and clearly intended to imply that the Hispanics were unjustified in their uprising. See, for instance, the letter of A.J. Fountain to Major John Jones, March 4, 1878, El Paso Troubles, 127-29, which states that Borajo conspired to bring the salt lakes under his control for monetary purposes. See also ibid., 24-25.

135 “Mexican Invasion of Texas,” North American (Philadelphia), October 8, 1877; “Mexico,” North American, October 9, 1877; “Death to Gringos!” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), October 7, 1877; “Death to Gringos,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 7, 1877; “Texas News by Telegraph,” Galveston Daily News, October 3, 1877; “Texas News by Telegraph,” Galveston Daily News, October 6, 1877; “The El Paso Trouble,” Galveston Daily News, October 7, 1877; “Texas,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), October 7, 1877; “Foreign News,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 8, 1877; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 8, 1877; “Trouble on the Mexican Border,” Lowell Daily Citizen, October 8, 1877. Most newspaper accounts of the crisis were based on the reporting of the Galveston Daily News. Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 130-31; “Howard’s Statement,” Mesilla Independent, October 6, 1877; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 191-92; Webb, Texas Rangers, 351-52; testimony of Jesus Cobas, Vidal Garcia, Father Bourgade, and G.N. Garcia, El Paso Troubles, 71-74, 98-108; Kerber to Steele, October 5, 1877, El Paso Troubles, 151-52. Sheriff Kerber published his version of these events, which had Cardis targeting Howard for assassination; see “Cardis Against Howard,” Galveston Daily News, October 24, 1877.

136 Blacker to Hubbard, October 9, 1877, and Kerber to Hubbard, October 10, 1877, El Paso Troubles, 141-42.

137 Webb, Texas Rangers, 352; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 132.

138 The Daily News had the integrity to print this article; “An End of Extradition,” Galveston Daily News, October 9, 1877; “Shall We Invade?” Galveston Daily News, October 13, 1877.

139 Sheridan quoted in “Washington,” North American (Philadelphia), October 17, 1877; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 193, 333n11. Sheridan’s comments persuaded many commentators that the war scare was overblown. North American, October 8, 1877; “The Affair at El Paso,” North American, October 10, 1877; The Congregationalist (Boston), October 10, 1877, p. 8; “The Mexican Imbroglio,” Galveston Daily News, October 14, 1877; “Troubles Between Mexicans and Americans,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, October 18, 1877, p. 2.

140 Utley, Lone Star Justice, 193; El Paso Troubles, 102, 151-54; “The El Paso Trouble,” Galveston Daily News, October 11, 1877.

141 “El Paso Troubles,” Mesilla Independent, October 6, 1877; testimony of Wesley Owens, El Paso Troubles, 59; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 132.

142 Testimony of Lt. Leonard Hay, El Paso Troubles, 62.

143 Testimony of Jesus Gonzales, A. Krakauer, Leopold Sender, and Wesley Owens, El Paso Troubles, 59-64 (quote, 59); Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 196; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 193-94; Mesilla Independent, October 18, 1877; Webb, Texas Rangers, 353. Curiously, in reporting on Cardis’s murder, the Galveston Daily News did not identify him as a member of the state legislature, but as “the leader of the mob” in El Paso; “The El Paso Imbroglio,” Galveston Daily News, October 13, 1877. See also “Mexican Mobs: A Reign of Terror at El Paso,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 15, 1877.

144 El Paso Troubles, 64.

145 Kerber to Steele, November 14, 1877, El Paso Troubles, 156.

146 Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 197-98; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 194-95; Webb, Texas Rangers, 354-56, 355-56. Major Jones did accept a bond from Howard for his good behavior. Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 139; testimony of Joseph Magoffin, El Paso Troubles, 80.

147 Kerber quoted in Webb, Texas Rangers, 355; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 197-98; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 194; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 137-38.

148 Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 141-42; Testimony of Jesus Cobas, El Paso Troubles , 71-72; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 198.

149 Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 137, 141-42 (Bourgarde quote); Jones to Steele, El Paso Troubles, 99, 154-55; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 196.

150 El Paso Troubles, 55-59, 78-79, 100-109, 157-58; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 196-97; “The El Paso Trouble—A Salt Riot,” Galveston Daily News, October 13, 1877; “State Press,” Galveston Daily News, October 13, 1877; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 142; Webb, Texas Rangers, 358; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878.

151 “War in El Paso Again!” Galveston Daily News, December 15, 1877; Governor Hubbard’s telegrams, El Paso Troubles, 144-48; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 144; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 201. The Daily News argued that there was no contradiction between wanting a weak central government and calling for its aid to deal with “foreign aggression”; see “Texas, Federal Protection and a ‘Strong Government,’” Galveston Daily News, October 25, 1877.

152 Unsigned letter from Juan Nepa Garcia to Mesilla Independent, January 7, 1878, El Paso Trouble, 97-98; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 198; Utley, Lone Star Justice , 197; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 145.

153 El Paso Troubles, 37, 57, 81, 96-101; Mesilla Independent, December 22, 1877; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878; Mesilla Independent, January 17, 1878; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 146 Mesilla Independent, 48; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 198.

154 Testimony of J.B. Tays, El Paso Troubles, 81. See also El Paso Troubles, 55-58, 72-74, 82, 98-102; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 198-99; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 148-49.

155 Testimony of Mary A. Cooper, El Paso Troubles, 74. See also El Paso Troubles, 30, 57, 66, 74, 78-79, 96-98, 158; Webb, Texas Rangers, 361-62; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 149-52; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878; Mesilla Independent, January 12, 1878; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 199-200; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 199-200, 205.

156 Tays quoted in Utley, Lone Star Justice, 201; Webb, Texas Rangers, 362; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 152-53; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878; El Paso Troubles, 82, 113, 158.

157 Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 153; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 201, 334n31.

158 Colonel Edward Hatch to Colonel Jonathan King, February 8, 1878, “Orders of December 24, 1877,” El Paso Troubles, 87-88. See also El Paso Troubles, 28, 78-79, 83-95, 102-3, 112-17, 145-50; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 201-3; Sonnichsen, Ten Texas Feuds, 152-54; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 200-201; Mesilla Independent, January 5, 1878; Webb, Texas Rangers, 362-63.

159 Col. Edward Hatch, commander of U.S. forces in New Mexico, and Lt. Col. William H. Lewis compiled a report in Annual Report of the Secretary of War for the Year 1878 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1878), 50-57. See also El Paso Troubles, 1-33; Webb, Texas Rangers, 366-67; Gillett, Six Years with the Texas Rangers, 214; Utley, Lone Star Justice , 203-5. Most of the sources on the Salt War are by Anglos, but there are some documents from Hispanics and Mexicans in El Paso Troubles.

160 Edwards, New Spirits, 46; Utley, Lone Star Justice, 168, 192-93; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 174-76. There had been numerous suggestions that the best solution to the border problems was to expand the railroad network, which would bring progress and prosperity to the region; see “Railroads and the Mexican Problem,” Galveston Daily News, October 12, 1877.

161 Richard Buitron Jr., The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913-2000 (New York: Routledge, 2004); Julio Noboa, Leaving Latinos Out of History: Teaching U.S. History in Texas (New York: Routledge, 2005).

162 Ken Gonzales-Day, Lynching in the West, 1850-1935 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 235.

163 Ibid., 93-94. The postcard can be seen in plate 4.

164 Ibid., 93-95, 99 (quote). The Colorado Springs Gazette justified the lynching of a murderer—who had been identified by a surviving victim—as “quiet and orderly but determined”; see “Lynching at La Veta,” Colorado Springs Gazette July 28, 1877, p. 4.

165 Gonzales-Day, Lynching in the West, 99-100; “A Desperado Lynched,” Inter Ocean (Chicago) July 14, 1877, p. 2. There were three known lynchings in 1879 and none in 1880; see Gonzales-Day, Lynching in the West, 235.

166 Josiah Royce, California, from the Conquest in 1846 to the Second Vigilance Committee in San Francisco: A Study of American Character (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1886), 263-64.

167 “The Chinese,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, March 1, 1877; “The Workingmen,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, December 29, 1877; “The Mongolian Workingmen,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, January 15, 1878; “Romish Plans,” The Congregationalist (Boston), August 7, 1878; p. 5; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy , 3, 53-66; Lucy M. Cohen, Chinese in Post-Civil War South: A People Without History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1984); Ronald T. Takaki, Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans (Boston: Little, Brown, 1989); Sucheng Chan, The Bittersweet Soil: The Chinese in California Agriculture, 1860-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).

168 Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese Immigration (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1909), 498-504; George Anthony Peffer, If They Don’t Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female Immigration before Exclusion (Urbana: University of Illinois, 1999), 43-56; Najia Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-82 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 178-79; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 3-8.

169 Sidney I. Pomerantz, “Election of 1876,” in History of American Presidential Elections, 1789-1968, ed. Arthur M. Schlesinger (New York: Chelsea House, 1971), 2:1439, 1442; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 180-86; U.S. Senate Report no. 689, 44th Cong., 2nd sess., Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, Feb. 27, 1877 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1877), 275-88, 942, 951-68, 1133-34, 1241-48; Roger Daniels, Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1990), 45-54.

170 Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, 1051; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 185.

171 Report of the Joint Special Committee to Investigate Chinese Immigration, v; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 183. In August 1877, the California legislature conducted its own investigation, hearing John Boalt, for whom the University of California at Berkeley Law School is named, inform the committee that contact with the “Mongolians” aroused “an unconquerable repulsion” among whites and was reason enough to not only end all Chinese immigration, but also expel those Chinese already living in the United States. State of California, Senate, Chinese Immigration: Its Social, Moral, and Political Effect (Sacramento: State Office, 1878), 258-84. The state delivered ten thousand copies to members of Congress and the newspapers. Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 187-89.

172 Winfield J. Davis, History of Political Conventions in California, 1849-1892 (Sacramento: State of California, 1893), 365-93; Ira B. Cross, A History of the Labor Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1935), 88-129; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 113-32; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 190; Kenneth C. Wenzer, ed., Henry George: Collected Journalistic Writings, 4 vols. (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2003), 1:161-68, 175, 179-81.

173 Wenzer, Henry George, 1:169-70, 173.

174 “A Chinese Massacre Exciting California,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), March 17, 1877; Butte Record, March 18, 1877; “Woe and Wickedness,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, April 6, 1877, p. 4; “Outrage on Chinamen,” New York Times, March 16, 1877; “The Massacre of Chinamen,” New York Times, March 17, 1877; “The California Massacre,” editorial, New York Times, March 18, 1877, p. 4; New York Times, March 19, 1877; “The Chinese Question,” New York Times, March 21, 1877, p. 2; “Gleanings from the Mail,” New York Times, March 24, 1877, p. 2; Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 2007), 64-74; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 8-9.

175 There are numerous stories on these riots in the San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin , July 24-28, 1877; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 114-16. Several prominent West Coast ministers defended Kearney; see, e.g., “The San Francisco Pulpit,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 19, 1877.

176 “Irishmen vs. Chinamen,” Colorado Springs Gazette, November 24, 1877; Colorado Springs Gazette, August 4, 1877, p. 2; “Communism in California,” New York Times, November 4, 1877; William Deverell, Railroad Crossing: Californians and the Railroad, 1850-1910 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 34.

177 Henry George, “The Kearney Agitation in California,” Popular Science Monthly 17 (1880): 448, 451; “Trial of the Agitators,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, January 18, 1878; Davis, History of Political Conventions in California, 367.

178 Kearney quoted in Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 44; Neil L. Shumsky, “Dissatisfaction, Mobility, and Expectation: San Francisco Workingmen in the 1870s,” Pacific Historian 30 (1986): 21-28.

179 “Order or Disorder?” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 1, 1877; “Arrest of a Communist,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 4, 1877, p. 3; “California: Communism in San Francisco,” North American (Philadelphia), November 5, 1877; “The Incendiary Agitators,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 5, 1877; “The Interior Press on the San Francisco Incendiaries,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 6, 1877; “Putting the Case Upside Down,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 9, 1877; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 116, 119-20.

180 “The Incendiary Agitators”; “Denis Kearney: An Interview with Him in the County Jail,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 6, 1877; “The Incendiary Business,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 8, 1877; “Kearney in the Criminal Court,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 13, 1877; “Kearney and Confederates,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 14, 1877; “Careless Law Making,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 15, 1877; “Open Air Meeting,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, November 16, 1877; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 119-21.

181 Kearney was mentioned in the San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin nearly every day through the last three months of 1877, often several times. See, for instance, “Order or Disorder?” November 1, 1877; “The Incendiary Agitators”; “Kearney Shows His Teeth,” November 6, 1877; “Kearney’s Sedition,” November 9, 1877; “The Labor Agitation,” November 14, 1877; “Workingmen’s Parties,” November 24, 1877; “Kearney Meetings: Communistic Ideas Expressed,” November 26, 1877.

182 It is difficult to determine the party loyalty of many of the convention delegates, which leads to some contrary figures. See Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 47 (quote); Carl B. Swisher, Motivation and Political Technique in the California Constitutional Convention, 1878-1879 (Claremont, CA: Pomona College, 1930), 24; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 123-27.

183 The first quote is by William White of Santa Cruz, the Workingmen’s Party candidate for governor in 1880; the second is by Charles Kleine of San Francisco. E.B. Willis and P.K. Stockton, comp., Debates and Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of California, 3 vols. (Sacramento: State Office, 1881), 1:569, 600.

184 Deverell, Railroad Crossing, 49; Davis, History of Political Conventions in California, 374-93; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 191-92; Debates and Proceedings of the 1878 Constitutional Convention of the State of California; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 127-32.

185 Henry George, “The Kearney Agitation in California,” Popular Science Monthly 17 (1880): 448; Davis, History of Political Conventions in California, 393-421; Raphael and House, Two Peoples, 263; Daniel Cornfield, Workers and Dissent in the Redwood Empire (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 129-30; Swisher, Motivation and Political Technique, 101-10.

186 Richardson, Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 9:4466-72; Hoogenboom, Presidency of Hayes, 177-81; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 133, 137.

187 Lucile Eaves, A History of California Labor Legislation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1910), 158-59; Saxton, Indispensible Enemy, 138-39; Swisher, Motivation and Political Technique, 112-14; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 192; Eaves, History of California Labor Legislation, 159-60.

188 R. David Arkush and Leo O. Lee, ed. and trans., Land Without Ghosts: Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 57; Henry Sienkiewicz, Portrait of America: Letters of Henry Sienkiewicz, ed. and trans. Charles Morley (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), 264n6; Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, 5; Charles J. McCalin, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 147-220. On expulsion of the Chinese from Western communities, see the outstanding work of Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out.

Chapter 4: The Terror of Poverty

1 Terence Powderly, The Path I Trod: The Autobiography of Terence V. Powderly (Brooklyn: AMS Press, 1968), 27.

2 “Some Pictures of Poverty,” Cincinnati Commercial, January 7, 1877, reprinted in Lafcadio Hearn’s America: Ethnographic Sketches and Editorials, ed. Simon J. Bronner (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002), 78-86 (quotes, 83-84).

3 See for instance, “Sicilians in New Orleans,” Cincinnati Commercial, December 27, 1877, in Lafcadio Hearn’s America, 63-65.

4 Elizabeth Bisland, ed., Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923), 155; Adam Rothman, “Lafcadio Hearn in New Orleans and the Caribbean,” Atlantic Studies 5 (2008): 265-83. Helen Campbell and Jacob Riis wrote their exposés of poverty in the 1880s, publishing them as books in 1887 and 1890, respectively: Helen Campbell, Prisoners of Poverty: Women Wage-Workers, Their Trades and Their Lives (Boston: Little, Brown, 1887); Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Live: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1890).

5 Bisland, Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn, 59.

6 Oliver P. Morton, “American Constitution,” North American Review 124 (1877): 345; “Macaulay on Democracy,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, January 29, 1877, p. 4; “Concerning Tenements,” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 6, 1877; “Middlemen and Laborers,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 26, 1877, p. 6; Henry Carey Baird, “Money and Its Substitutes: Commerce and Its Instruments of Adjustment,” Atlantic Monthly 37 (1876): 355; William A. Zulker, John Wanamaker, King of Merchants (Wayne, PA: Eaglecrest Press, 1993), 17-38; “New Books,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 26, 1877, p. 3; “Literary Notices,” North American (Philadelphia), March 16, 1877.

7 “The French Bourgeoisie,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), April 4, 1877; “Gov. Rice’s Address,” Boston Daily Advertiser, January 5, 1877; Baird, “Money and Its Substitutes,” 355; Bond quoted in “The Labor Question,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 27, 1877, p. 3; “Gotham’s Gloomy Outlook,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), May 8, 1877.

8 “Beggared”: “California’s Dark Days,” Lowell Daily Citizen, May 25, 1877; “Financial Freaks,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 15, 1877, p. 3; visit to secondhand dealers in “The Pressure on the Middle Class,” from the New York Graphic, Boston Daily Advertiser, August 9, 1877; “The General Court,” Boston Daily Advertiser, March 13, 1877; “The Ideal House,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, February 17, 1877; “Real Estate,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 17, 1877, p. 7; “Business in Philadelphia,” North American (Philadelphia), April 5, 1877; “Real Estate: The Market Still Apathetic,” Inter Ocean (Chicago) April 28, 1877, p. 6.

9 “Home Politics,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 29, 1877; “Wendell Phillips on the Labor Question,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 19, 1877.

10 “Help, or We Perish!” Inter Ocean (Chicago), January 13, 1877, p. 6.

11 Quotes from the following sources, in order: “Tramps Raiding in Pennsylvania,” Galveston Daily News, September 11, 1877; “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 24, 1877; “Tramps,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 21, 1877.

12 Quotes from the following sources, in order: “A War with the Tramps,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), September 18, 1877; “March of the Tramps”; “Encouraging Tramps,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, March 12, 1877, p. 4; “The Tramp Question and Wholesale Pauperism,” Galveston Daily News, December 30, 1877.

13 Even fifty years later, the excellent historian Allan Nevins took what he read in the newspapers of the late 1870s as fact and reported on the “tramp evil” sweeping the country, with its hordes of criminals raping, pillaging, and murdering across the country. Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America, 1865-1878 (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 301-2.

14 Board of Charities quoted in “The Tramp Nuisance,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), July 21, 1877, p. 341; “people will be overrun”: “The Tramps,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 21, 1877.

15 Eric H. Monkkonen, ed., Walking to Work: Tramps in America, 1790-1935 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 5.

16 Monkkonen, Walking to Work, 9; Walter Van Bru, ed., Duluth and St. Louis County Minnesota: Their Story and People, 3 vols. (Chicago: American Historical Society, 1921), 1:243-44; Michael Davis, “Forced to Tramp: The Perspective of the Labor Press, 1870-1900,”in Monkkonen, Walking to Work, 156-57; National Labor Tribune (Pittsburgh), December 1, 1877 (quote). Allan Pinkerton also used this wording in his Strikers, Communists, Tramps and Detectives (New York: G.W. Carleton & Co., 1878), 134.

17 The first such use of “tramps” as a pejorative noun that I can locate is in the Eighth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities of Massachusetts (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1872), lxxviii, which speaks of the need to “accurately discriminate between the worthy traveler and the professional tramp.” The first use in a newspaper appears to be “Tramps in Maine,” Yankton (SD) Press and Union and Dakotaian, December 4, 1873. Though he offers no supportive citation, Jack Beatty places the first use of “tramp” in the New York Times sometime in 1874; see Jack Beatty, Age of Betrayal: The Triumph of Money in America, 1865-1900 (New York: Knopf, 2007), 293. Paul T. Ringenbach locates that first usage of “tramp” in the New York Times, February 6, 1875, as does Tim Cresswell. See Paul T. Ringenbach, Tramps and Reformers, 1873-1916: The Discovery of Unemployment in New York (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973), 4; Tim Cresswell, The Tramp in America (London: Reaktion Books, 2001), 48.

18 The Congregationalist (Boston), November 26, 1874, p. 8; Lowell Daily Citizen and News, August 4, 1875; “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 24, 1877; “the tramp nuisance”: Boston Daily Advertiser, November 23, 1877; “The Tramp Evil,” The Nation, January 24, 1878, p. 50. This analysis is based on a study of just over two thousand articles in thirty-two newspapers and magazines, 1875-1878.

19 Priscilla Ferguson Clement, “The Transformation of the Wandering Poor in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia,” in Monkkonen, Walking to Work, 59-61; Monkkonen, “Introduction,” Walking to Work, 8.

20 Clement, “Transformation of the Wandering Poor,” 56-84; Josiah Flynt Willard, Tramping with Tramps (New York: Century Co., 1899), 99; Philadelphia Telegraph, June 19, 1876; Monkkonen, Walking to Work, 9-10.

21 “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 24, 1877; Karl Marx, The Civil War in France: The Paris Commune (New York: International Publishers, 1984); Martin Phillip Johnson, The Paradise of Association: Political Culture and Popular Organizations in the Paris Commune of 1871 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 153; Howard Jay Graham, Everyman’s Constitution: Historical Essays on the Fourteenth Amendment, the “Conspiracy Theory,” and American Constitutionalism (Madison: State Historical Society of Wisconsin, 1968), 124-25; George L. Cherry, “American Metropolitan Press Reaction to the Paris Commune of 1871,” Mid-America 32 (1950): 3-12.

22 First three quotes from “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), March 18, 1877; remaining three quotes from “Vagrants and Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), February 4, 1877.

23 “Disgusted Tramps,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, January 1, 1877, p. 2; San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, January 11, 1877; San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, June 15, 1877, citing the Buffalo Express.

24 “Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 14, 1877; “Tramp Nuisance.” See also San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, August 1, 1877; Galveston Daily News, August 25, September 11, 1877.

25 “Tramp Nuisance”; “Depredations of Tramps,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 22, 1877; “Virginia Outrages by a Gang of Tramps,” North American (Philadelphia), September 22, 1877.

26 “Fond du Lac Tramps,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 30, 1877, p. 5; “Tramp Nuisance.”

27 Lowell Daily Citizen, September 7, 1877; Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 141-70; Henry James to William James, January 12, 1877, in Henry James Letters, 4 vols., ed. Leon Edel (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974-84), 91.

28 San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, from the Albany Argus, February 17, 1877; “Depravity Grouped,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 23, 1877; “Robbed by a Tramp,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 24, 1877; “A War on the Nomads,” North American (Philadelphia) November 20, 1877.

29 “Crime and Criminals,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 14, 1877, p. 5; “Robbery in Foxborough: Arrest of the Thieves,” Boston Daily Advertiser, March 13, 1877; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, April 28, 1877, p. 8.

30 “A Freight Train Boarded by Half a Hundred Tramps,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 3, 1877, p. 3; “Tramps Robbing Mongolian Graves,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, December 27, 1877; “Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 14, 1877.

31 “Ragamuffins”: North American (Philadelphia) July 26, 1877; Macon City taken over by tramps: St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 3, 1877, p. 3; Inter Ocean (Chicago) July 28, 1877, p. 11; “Depredations of Tramps,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 22, 1877; “Curiosities of Crime,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 8, 1877, p. 5; Inter Ocean, July 28, 1877, p. 11.

32 “Villainous tramp”: “The General Criminal Calendar,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 14, 1877, p. 2; “an Inoffensive Young Man”: “Lawlessness,” Inter Ocean, August 22, 1877 “Murder and Suicide,” Boston Daily Advertiser, May 14, 1877.

33 “Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 14, 1877; “Tramps Raiding in Pennsylvania”; Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), November 6, 1877; “Virginia: Tramps behind the Bars,” North American (Philadelphia), September 24, 1877.

34 “Depredations of Tramps,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 22, 1877; “Virginia: Outrages by a Gang of Tramps,” North American (Philadelphia), September 22, 1877; “Virginia: Tramps behind the Bars”; San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, October 5, 1877; “Depredations of Tramps,” Boston Daily Advertiser, September 22, 1877. For similarly undramatic stories, see “How a Thieving Gang of Tramps Were [sic] Foiled by a Telegrapher,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 31, 1877, p. 3; “A Thieving Tramp,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), September 18, 1877, p. 5; “A Party of Tramps Routed by Chinamen,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, October 5, 1877.

35 “Ingratitude of a Tramp,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), August 27, 1877, p. 5; “Eloped with a Tramp,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 27, 1877.

36 Hartford Times quoted in the Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 21, 1877. See also “Organized Tramps,” Wisconsin State Register (Portage), September 8, 1877; “Tramps Raiding in Pennsylvania.”

37 “Tramp Nuisance.”

38 “Swarm”: “Virginia,” North American (Philadelphia), September 24, 1877; remaining quotes from Galveston Daily News, August 25, 1877. See also “Organized Tramps”; “The Third Day of the American Association at Saratoga,” Boston Daily Advertiser , September 7, 1877.

39 “Tramps,” Galveston Daily News, September 25, 1877; David R. Johnson, American Law Enforcement: A History (St. Louis: Forum Press, 1981), 41-43; Kenneth L. Kusmer, Down and Out, On the Road: The Homeless in American History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 43.

40 “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), March 18, 1877; “Utilising the Tramps,” from New York World, Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock) September 9, 1877.

41 Hartford Times quoted in the Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, April 21, 1877; Galveston Daily News, January 14, 1877 (this paper favored the same policy for Galveston).

42 “The Tramp Question,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 1, 1877, p. 3; “To Suppress Tramps,” Wisconsin State Register (Portage), May 5, 1877; McCook, “Tramp Census and its Revelations,” Forum 15 (August 1893): 156, 765; Cresswell, Tramp in America, 52; Harry A. Millis, “The Law Affecting Immigrants and Tramps,” Charities Review 7 (September 1897): 587-94.

43 “Utilising the Tramps”; “The Tramp Question,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 1, 1877, p. 3; “The Tramp Question and Wholesale Pauperism,” Galveston Daily News, December 30, 1877.

44 The South being “overrun” and “whipping post” in New York Tribune quoted in North American (Philadelphia), July 26, 1877; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, September 11, 1877, p. 4; Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 294; Kusmer, Down and Out, 99; Amy Dru Stanley, “Beggars Can’t Be Choosers: Compulsion and Contract in Post-Bellum America,” Journal of American History 78 (1992): 1265-93.

45 For these laws, see Orlando F. Lewis, Vagrancy in the United States (New York: for the author, 1907); Michigan State Library, Laws of the Various States Relating to Vagrancy (n.p.: Michigan State Library, 1910); Jeffrey S. Adler, “A Historical Analysis of the Law of Vagrancy,” Criminology 27 (1989), 209-29; Elbert Hubbard, “The Rights of Tramps,” Arena 9 (April 1894): 593-600.

46 Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 295; William Cohen, “Negro Involuntary Servitude in the South, 1865-1940: A Preliminary Analysis,” Journal of Southern History 42 (1976): 31-60; “The Tramp Question and Wholesale Pauperism,” Galveston Daily News, December 30, 1877; Boston Daily Advertiser, November 23, 1877; Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 39-83.

47 Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the State of Connecticut (Hartford: The Bureau, 1887), 140-42; “Virginia: Tramps behind the Bars”; Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 162.

48 Lucilius Emery, “The Constitutional Right to Bear Arms,” Harvard Law Review 28 (1915): 476; Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 162; Samuel Leavitt, “Tramps and the Law,” Forum 2 (1886): 190-200.

49 National Labor Tribune, November 10, 1877.

50 State v. Hogan, 63 Ohio (1900) 215; National Labor Tribune, December 1, 1877; National Labor Tribune, January 12, 1878; Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 162-63.

51 Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 144.

52 The North American (Philadelphia), July 10, 1877, published two articles on this meeting, “The Tramp” and “The Tramp Nuisance.”

53 “Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 14, 1877; “The Tramp Nuisance,” North American (Philadelphia), July 10, 1877; Beatty, Age of Betrayal, 293; Robert V. Bruce, 1877: Year of Violence (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959), 68-69.

54 “The Tramp Nuisance,” North American (Philadelphia), July 10, 1877; “The Tramp,” North American, July 10, 1877.

55 “Move On: The War on the Pestiferous Tramp—He Must Be Suppressed,” North American (Philadelphia), July 14, 1877; “The Tramp: What Will Be Done with Him,” North American, July 23, 1877; San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, August 1, 1877.

56 “Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 14, 1877; “March of the Tramps”; “Tramps Raiding in Pennsylvania.”

57 “No fear”: “March of the Tramps”; “vigilance committees”: “Tramps,” Galveston Daily News, September 25, 1877 (this article attributes a similar opinion to the Pittsburgh Post). See also “A War on the Nomads,” North American (Philadelphia), November 20, 1877.

58 “A War with the Tramps”; Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger , October 30, 1877; “A War on the Nomads,” North American (Philadelphia), November 20, 1877.

59 First four quotes from Boston Daily Advertiser, November 23, 1877; remaining two quotes in “Utilising the Tramps.”

60 “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), March 18, 1877. See also Rev. W.H. Throop, “Pious Pabulum,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, November 26, 1877, p. 3; Christian Union, November 7, 1877, p. 392; “Shelter for the Idle,” New York Times, February 12, 1877, p. 2.

61 Boston Daily Advertiser, November 23, 1877. On the anti-charity campaign, see Leah H. Feder, Unemployment Relief in Periods of Depression: A Study of Measures Adopted in Certain American Cities, 1857 through 1922 (New York: Russell Sage, 1936), 41-44, 47.

62 Quoted in “Utilising the Tramps.”

63 Lowell Daily Citizen, January 18, 1877. The more common form is that a granite contractor offers six tramps at a police station work, and they all make excuses for not taking the job; “The Non-Laboring Class,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), December 15, 1877; p. 239.

64 “Encouraging Tramps”; “The Tramp’s Paradise,” Boston Daily Advertiser, November 15, 1877.

65 “Paupers and Tramps,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, November 18, 1877, p. 7; “Tramp’s Paradise”; “Utilising the Tramps”; Feder, Unemployment Relief in Periods of Depression , 50.

66 Murray: Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 31, 1877; “sack and burn”: “Synopsis of a Practical Sermon,” Wisconsin State Register (Portage), July 27, 1878; Hill: “Tramps,” North American (Philadelphia), July 30, 1877.

67 Quoted in “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 24, 1877.

68 Indianapolis: Feder, Unemployment Relief in Periods of Depression, 47, 49, 52-53, 57; Davis, “Forced to Tramp,” 147; “tramping for several months”: “Tramps Fire a Barn in Order to Get into Prison,” North American (Philadelphia), August 30, 1877; “A Hero and a Martyr,” New York Times, March 20, 1877, p. 4.

69 Daniel S. Gregory, Christian Ethics: or, The True Moral Manhood and Life of Duty (1875; Philadelphia: Eldridge & Brother, 1883), 224; Henry Ward Beecher, Plymouth Pulpit: Sermons Preached in Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, 4 vols. (Boston: Pilgrim Press, 1875), 4:463. On this point, see Henry F. May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America (New York: Harper & Row, 1967), 65-70; Richard T. Hughes, Myths America Lives By (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004), 126-30.

70 “On the Tramp,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 30, 1877, p. 4, is the first use of “social Darwinism” I can locate. See also Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, June 18, 1877, p. 7. Generally “social Darwinism” is said to have first appeared in an 1879 article by Oscar Schmidt in Popular Science, which is clearly not the case. In her brilliant book The Age of American Unreason (New York: Pantheon Books, 2008), 61, Susan Jacoby states, “I use the phrase ‘social Darwinism’ even though no one employed it in nineteenth-century America or England.” On Spencer’s influence, see Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (New York: George Braziller, 1965); Barry Werth, Banquet at Delmonico’s: Great Minds, the Gilded Age, and the Triumph of Evolution in America (New York: Random House, 2009); Louis Menand, The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001), 141-43, 177-200, 210-11.

71 “Universal Suffrage,” The Nation, December 27, 1877, p. 391.

72 Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Vintage, 1954), 211-12.

73 “Truth and Life,” The Congregationalist (Boston), January 17, 1877, p. 2; “Philosophy and Science in American Colleges,” The Congregationalist (Boston), April 4, 1877, p. 2; “Religious,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, April 9, 1877, p. 7; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel , July 19, 1877, p. 7; “Boston Monday Lectures,” Boston Daily Advertiser, October 31, 1877; “Church and Pulpit,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), June 16, 1877, p. 9.

74 “Educational,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 23, 1877, p. 7. See also, “In Memoriam,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), April 20, 1877, p. 5; “Our Curiosity Shop,” Inter Ocean, May 26, 1877, p. 12.

75 William A. Halliday, “Theories of Labor Reform and Social Improvement,” Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review 5 (1876): 425. In the same journal J. Elliot Condit noted that while the Presbyterian church conducted eleven missions among the Indians, it spent one-fifth what it did in 1857. “Our Indians and the Duty of the Presbyterian Church to Them,” Presbyterian Quarterly and Princeton Review 5 (1876): 76-92.

76 “Literary,” Boston Daily Advertiser, March 1, 1877; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 8, 1877, p. 3; “Spencer’s Sociology,” Boston Daily Advertiser, May 21, 1877; “At Home and Abroad,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), September 8, 1877, p. 7; St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 7, 1877, p. 4; “Mining,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), March 1, 1877; “A Stroke of Love Lightning,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, August 17, 1877.

77 Jacoby, Age of American Unreason, 68-73; Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, 29-31, 51-70 (quote, 54); Werth, Banquet at Delmonico’s, 126-27.

78 Henry James Letters, 2:98, 102.

79 Jacoby, Age of American Unreason, 61-81; Dee Brown, The Year of the Century: 1876 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1966), 306; Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life (New York: Free Press, 1988), 104-5; Thomas J. Schlereth, Victorian America: Transformations in Everyday Life, 1876-1915 (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 288. On Sumner’s influence, see the extended discussions in Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, and Werth, Banquet at Delmonico’s.

80 Darwin’s 1871 edition of The Descent of Man seems to have anticipated and dismissed the direction in which Spencer was taking his work with a discussion of the “instinct of sympathy”; see Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: D. Appleton, 1909), 100-136, 624-26.

81 Herbert Spencer, Social Statics: Or, the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and the First of Them Developed (New York: Appleton, 1865), 414-15; Henry Demarest Lloyd, “The New Conscience,” North American Review 147 (1888): 336.

82 “Bloomington Brevities,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), January 3, 1877, p. 6; “The President’s Order,” Inter Ocean, June 26, 1877, p. 4; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 19, 1877, p. 7; Inter Ocean, December 31, 1877, p. 2; Inter Ocean, January 1, 1878, p. 4.

83 “Wanderlust”: Monkkonen, Walking to Work, 6; “The Tramp: The Disease of Mendicancy a Result of the War,” reprinted from Scribner’s Monthly in the Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), January 26, 1877; reprinted as “The Tramp” without attribution in the Hinds County Gazette (Raymond, MS), February 28, 1877. See also Joaquin Miller’s poem “The Tramp of Shiloh,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), January 3, 1880, p. 324.

84 First two quotes from “The Tramp Question and Wholesale Pauperism,” Galveston Daily News, December 30, 1877; “The Tramp,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), March 18, 1877.

85 National Labor Tribune, January 13, 1875; National Labor Tribune, December 23, 1876, Davis, “Forced to Tramp,”147-48.

86 “South St. Louis Tramps,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, February 5, 1877, p. 8; Clement, “Transformation of the Wandering Poor,” 65, 77; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus, Ohio, 1860-1885 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), 112-16, 132, 143-44, 147, 160.

87 “The Third Day of the American Association at Saratoga,” Boston Daily Advertiser , September 7, 1877. See also “Tramps,” Lowell Daily Citizen, September 7, 1877. Wayland’s name is often spelled Weyland; see, e.g., Cresswell, Tramp in America , 94.

88 “Treatment of Tramps,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), September 13, 1877; Lowell Daily Citizen, September 7, 1877. See also “Tramps,” Galveston Daily News, September 25, 1877.

89 “The Molly Maguires,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, May 1, 1877; Kevin Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 10-12.

90 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 103, 111-12, 117-20, 126-28, 202-3 (quote, 112); Anthony F.C. Wallace, St. Clair: A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town’s Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988), 249-313; Alexander Trachtenberg, The History of Legislation for the Protection of Coal Miners in Pennsylvania, 1824-1915 (New York: International Publishers, 1942), 38-39, 53-60.

91 Francis P. Dewees, The Molly Maguires: The Origin, Growth, and Character of the Organization (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1877), 44; Allan Pinkerton, The Molly Maguires and the Detectives (1877; New York: G.W. Dillingham, 1905).

92 Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 13-17, 148, 152, 235, 243, 258, 334, 455.

93 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 156, 167, 170-73.

94 Ibid., 129, 131-32, 143, 148.

95 New York Labor Standard, March 17, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 181-82; Wallace, St. Clair, 403-31.

96 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 8-10, 13, 62; Wallace, St. Clair, 133-41, 372-75; Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 355-56.

97 Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 457-58.

98 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 210-11.

99 James D. Horan and Howard Swiggett, The Pinkerton Story (New York: Putnam, 1951), 139-54; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 5, 10, 110-17.

100 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 213.

101 Harold D. Aurand, “The Anthracite Mine Workers, 1869-1897,” PhD diss., Pennsylvania State University, 1969, 57; quoted in Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 213.

102 Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 506, 508, 553; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 235. Pinkerton published one of Gowen’s closing statements; see Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 510-41.

103 Aurand, “Anthracite Mine Workers,” 57; quoted in Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 213; see also ibid., 95, 215.

104 “The Mollie Maguires,” New York Times, May 14, 1876, p. 6; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 213-15.

105 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 229-33.

106 Ibid., 213-14, 231, 270.

107 Ibid., 8, 85. Some records indicate a total of fifty arrests; see ibid., 186. The earliest reference to the Molly Maguires I can locate in a U.S. newspaper is in reference to events in Ireland: “News from England,” Boston Daily Atlas, January 25, 1845. In 1857, a Mississippi newspaper refers to a new Democratic political club in Philadelphia called the Molly Maguires; “The ‘Molly Maguires,’” Hinds County Gazette (Raymond, MS), November 4, 1857; see also the Ripley (OH) Bee, November 7, 1857; “A New Secret Order,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, December 9, 1857. The first reference to a workers organization called the Molly Maguires is in the New York Times, March 22, 1867; see also Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, March 23, 1867.

108 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 85.

109 Pinkerton, Molly Maguires and the Detectives, 510; “Jack Kehoe’s Doom,” Galveston Daily News, February 1, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 85, 226-28.

110 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 272-74; “A Jack in a Box,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, December 18, 1878, p. 5; “Eternity Entered,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, December 19, 1878, p. 5; “Kehoe’s Last Day,” New York Times, December 18, 1878; “The Dance of Death,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, December 19, 1878, p. 4.

111 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 238; John T. Morse Jr., “The ‘Molly Maguire’ Trials,” American Law Review 11 (1877): 233-60.

112 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 241-42; “What’s This For?” Inter Ocean (Chicago), February 12, 1877, p. 5; Catholic Standard (Philadelphia), February 17, 1877; “State Items,” North American (Philadelphia), March 16, 1877.

113 The governor seeks “to dispatch as many murderers on the same day as the circumstances would admit”; see “The Doomed Molly Maguires,” Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (New York), June 16, 1877, p. 253. See also Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper , June 16, 1877; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, June 30, 1877; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, July 7, 1877; “Ten Drops,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 21, 1877; “The End of the ‘Mollie Maguires,’” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 21, 1877; numerous articles in the New York Times, June 19-22, 1877; “Stern Justice,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), June 22, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 246-51, 254.

114 “The Mollie Maguires,” Boston Daily Advertiser, June 18, 1877; “Artistic Neckties,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), June 19, 1877; “Gone to Glory,” Daily Arkansas Gazette, June 22, 1877; “Retribution,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, June 22, 1877; “The Molly Maguires Will Swing on the Day Appointed for Their Execution,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 19, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 245-46, 249, 253; “We Are Eleven,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, June 22, 1877; “Death on the Gallows,” New York Times, June 22, 1877.

115 New York Herald, June 22, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 240-42, 254-55, 268-69; “Death on the Gallows,” New York Times, June 22, 1877.

116 “Molly Maguires Will Swing on the Day Appointed for Their Execution”; “Artistic Neckties,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), June 19, 1877; New York Sun, June 22, 1877, quoted in Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 256.

117 Philadelphia Public Ledger, June 21, 1877; Philadelphia Inquirer, June 22, 1877; North American (Philadelphia), May 24, 1877; Chicago Tribune, June 22, 1877; Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 258.

118 “More Molly Maguires,” Newark Advocate (Newark, OH), February 23, 1877; “The Molly Maguires,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, May 1, 1877.

119 “Molly Maguires at Home,” from Baltimore Gazette, in St. Louis Globe-Democrat, February 24, 1877, p. 2; “Molly Maguireism,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), March 31, 1877. See also “Molly Maguires,” Daily Rocky Mountain News, April 27, 1877.

120 Miner’s Journal, June 14, 1878, quoted in Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 272. Donnelly’s execution evoked a single sentence in the North American (Philadelphia), June 12, 1878.

121 Kenny, Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, 272.

122 “The Vilest of the Vile,” New York Times, January 7, 1877; Irish World, June 3, 1876; Boston Pilot, June 28, 1877; Boston Pilot, June 30, 1877; Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour: An Autobiography (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925), 139; “Molly Maguires,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, March 14, 1877; multiple stories in the New York Herald, June and July 1877; New York Tribune, June 26, 1877. These conflicted sentiments were shared in the novel by Rollin Edwards, Twice Defeated: Or, the Story of a Dark Society in Two Countries (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1877).

123 “The Tramp on the War Path,” Galveston Daily News, September 11, 1877; Carolyn Ashbaugh, Lucy Parsons: American Revolutionary (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1976), 55.

Chapter 5: The Great Insurrection

1 Twain to Mrs. Fairbanks, August 6, 1877, in Mark Twain to Mrs. Fairbanks, ed. Dixon Wecter (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1949), 208.

2 Washington National Republican, August 4, 1877; Philip S. Foner, The Great Labor Uprising of 1877 (New York: Monad Press, 1977), 211; “The No Property Flag Raised,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), August 14, 1877; “Our Labor Troubles,” Cedar Rapids Times, August 9, 1877, p. 2; “The Workingmen’s Party,” Chicago Daily Tribune, August 27, 1877, p. 4; “Communism in America,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger, April 30, 1878; “Communism in America,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, May 17, 1878.

3 W.W. Grosvenor, “The Communist and the Railway,” International Review 4 (1877): 585-86. Grosvenor was widely quoted; see, for instance, “Magazines and Books,” Boston Daily Advertiser, August 25, 1877; “Literary Review,” The Congregationalist (Boston), August 29, 1877, p. 6; Inter Ocean (Chicago), September 3, 1877, p. 4. On the Grangers as communists, see Inter Ocean, September 3, 1877, p. 4; Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), August 14, 1877.

4 Louisville Courier-Journal, July 30, 1877; “Table Talk,” North American (Philadelphia), September 15, 1877; “St. Louis Communism,” Chicago Tribune, July 29, 1877, p. 4. The Tribune added, “The Communist anywhere is a lazy, dissolute, sneaking, dangerous vagabond, and the St. Louis Communist seems to be the worst of the whole worthless class.”

5 Pittsburgh Leader, July 20, 1877, reprinted in “The Commune in the United States,” New York Tribune, July 25, 1877; Secretary of the Navy Richard W. Thompson to Tom Scott, August 5, 1877, in Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 101; Gerald Grob, “The Railroad Strike of 1877,” Midwest Journal 6 (1954-55): 16-34; “The American Commune,” Washington National Republican, July 21; “The American Commune,” Galveston Daily News, August 14, 1877; Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 25, 1877; St. Louis Globe-Democrat , July 28, 1877.

6 “St. Louis . . . The Commune,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 27, 1877, p. 5; “The American Commune,” Galveston Daily News, August 2, 1877; “A Colored Woman Joins the Commune and Defies Her Husband’s Authority,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, August 5, 1877, p. 2.

7 On the place of the strikes of 1877 in labor history, see Jeremy Brecher, Strike!, rev. ed. (Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 1997), 13-37; Philip S. Foner, History of the Labor Movement in the United States, 2 vols. (New York: International Publishers, 1998), 1:464-74; Joseph G. Rayback, A History of American Labor (New York: Free Press, 1966), 129-44.

8 Troops were used during the Civil War against employees of the Reading Railroad and in the coal mines of Pennsylvania, and in smaller strikes in St. Louis, Louisville, and Cold Springs, New York; Richard B. Morris, “Andrew Jackson, Strikebreaker,” American Historical Review 55 (1949): 54-68; Foner, History of the Labor Movement, 1:327-29.

9 “The Value of Railroad Transportation,” Chicago Tribune, July 23, 1877, p. 4; John L. Ringwalt, Development of Transportation Systems in the United States (Philadelphia: Railway World, 1888), 211-22, 258-61; Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 1845-1890: The Business Mind in Action (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953), 94-108, 126-40; John F. Stover, American Railroads (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 61-132; John F. Stover, The Routledge Historical Atlas of the American Railroads (New York: Routledge, 1999), 32-43.

10 Poor’s Manual of Railroads for 1877 (New York: Henry V. Poor, 1877); “Railroad Earnings,” Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York), July 14, 1877, pp. 30-31, “Shall the Railroad Interest Support Labor,” Commercial and Financial Chronicle, August 11, 1877, pp. 125-27; “What Shall Limit Railroad Dividends,” August 18, 1877, pp. 148-49; Railroad Gazette 9 (August 10, 1877): 365; “Railroad Wages,” The Nation, August 16, 1877, pp. 99-100.

11 “Interview with J.M. McCullough,” Chicago Times, December 28, 1873; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 21; “Probable Strike of the Railroad Engineers,” New York Times, November 19, 1873, p. 2.

12 Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 18 (quote); John F. Stover, History of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 1987), 62, 135-36; “Railroad Wages,” p. 99; Edith Abbott, “The Wages of Unskilled Labor in the United States,” Journal of Political Economy 13 (1905): 363.

13 “We have sympathized”: “The Employes’ Complaint,” from Pittsburgh Commercial , in Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), July 27, 1877; “simply that the men”: Thomas A. Scott, “The Recent Strikes,” North American Review 125 (1877): 353-54; “The Rights of Labor,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), August 2, 1877, p. 4; Pennsylvania General Assembly, Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots in July, 1877 (Harrisburg: State of Pennsylvania, 1878), 903-5.

14 Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 671. The significance of Ammon’s organizing is clearly reflected in the official investigation; see Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 3, 21-22, 460, 464-65, 507-9, 661-90, 791-97, 826-29, 949-54.

15 Ibid., 671-75, 684 (quote); Baltimore Sun, July 15, 1877; Baltimore Sun, July 16, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 34; “The Railroads,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 13, 1877, p. 8.

16 “Railroad Strikers,” North American (Philadelphia), July 17, 1877; “Railroad Employes on a Strike,” New York Times, July 17, 1877.

17 “Railway News,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 17, 1877, p. 3; Chicago Daily Tribune , July 18, 1877, p. 4; “Firemen’s Fight,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 18, 1877.

18 Martinsburg Statesman, July 17, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 35; “Cause of the Strike, and a Remedy,” Chicago Tribune, July 23, 1877, p. 4; Biennial Message of Governor Henry M. Mathews to the Legislature of West Virginia (Wheeling: State of West Virginia, 1879), 1-2; “Serious Railroad Strike,” New York Times, July 18, 1877, p. 5; “The Railroad Men’s War,” New York Times, July 19, 1877; “The Baltimore and Ohio Strike,” New York Times, July 18, 1877, p. 4; Wheeling Intelligencer, July 17, 1877; Wheeling Intelligencer , July 18, 1877; “Riotous Strikers,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 18, 1877, p. 5; “A Real Railroad War,” Galveston Daily News, July 18, 1877; “A Desperate Band,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 19, 1877.

19 Martinsburg Statesman, July 24, 1877; Martinsburg Statesman, July 31, 1877, Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 36; “The Stokers’ Strike,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 19, 1877; “Railroad Rioters,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 19, 1877, p. 4; Biennial Message of Governor Henry M. Mathews, 3.

20 “The Railroad Outbreaks,” Commercial and Financial Chronicle (New York), July 28, 1877, p. 73 (quote); Biennial Message of Governor Henry M. Mathews, 4; “‘Stop Her!’” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 20, 1877; “A Railroad War,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel , July 20, 1877.

21 Scranton Republican, July 29, 1877, from the Baltimore Gazette; Baltimore Sun, July 19, 1877 (quote); Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 37-38; “Furious Firemen,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 18, 1877, p. 4; “Desperate Men on Strike,” New York Times, July 20, 1877; “West Virginia,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 21, 1877; Biennial Message of Governor Henry M. Mathews, 4; “A Real Railroad War Strike at Martinsburg,” Galveston Daily News, July 18, 1877; “Long and Strong,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 20, 1877; “By Telegraph,” Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Georgia Journal & Messenger (Macon), July 24, 1877.

22 “The Railway Riot,” Boston Daily Advertiser, July 19, 1877 (quote); “‘Stop Her!’”

23 Hayes’s proclamation was published in most newspapers; see, for instance, “Strike on the B. & O. Road,” Galveston Daily News, July 19, 1877. Ari Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes: Warrior and President (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995), 295-302; “The States and Their Domestic Police,” Galveston Daily News, July 20, 1877; “Insurrection,” Galveston Daily News, July 21, 1877; “In Washington,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22, 1877, p. 2; “The Strikers’ Insurrection,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, July 23, 1877; “The Railway Disorders,” Hartford Daily Courant, July 23, 1877, p. 2; “The New Rebellion,” Boston Daily Advertiser, July 24, 1877; “Is This a Rebellion?” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 27, 1877, p. 8.

24 “Heroines”?: New York Sun, July 20, 1877; King quoted in Baltimore Sun, July 20, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 43-44; “‘Stop Her!’” On July 21, King had to admit that the strike was far from broken; see “The Great Riots,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, July 23, 1877.

25 Wheeling Register, July 21, 1877; New York Herald, July 20, 1877; Reading Daily Eagle, July 21, 1877 (quotes); Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 4, 44-45.

26 “The Afflicted Railroads,” Hartford Daily Courant, July 21, 1877, p. 3; “Bloodshed,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 21, 1877; “Maryland,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22, 1877, p. 2; “Like Wild-Fire: Strikes Spreading with Frightful Rapidity,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat , July 21, 1877; Wheeling Intelligencer, July 21, 1877 (quote); Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 37.

27 “Working people everywhere”: Philadelphia Inquirer, July 23, 1877; “a respectable body”: Wheeling Intelligencer, July 20, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 37, 45-46; “there is no disguising”: “Glutted with Gore!” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 22, 1877; “Precautions of the Government,” New York Times, July 22, 1877, p. 7.

28 “Shot Down,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 21, 1877; “Insurrection,” North American (Philadelphia), July 21, 1877.

29 Baltimore Sun, July 21, 1877; Baltimore Sun, July 22, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 46-48; “The Great Riots”; “The Nation’s Woe,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 23, 1877.

30 “Glutted with Gore!”; “The Nation’s Woe”; “Bread or Blood!” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 22, 1877.

31 “The Great Railroad Strike Still Growing,” Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), July 22, 1877; “The Nation’s Woe”; “Go Slow!” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 24, 1877; “Crush It Out,” Inter Ocean, July 27, 1877.

32 Joseph A. Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes in the United States (Chicago: L.T. Palmer, 1877), iii; Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), July 19, 1877; “King Mob, the Strike Degenerating into Lawlessness,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 23, 1877; “The Strike Spreading,” Lowell Daily Citizen, July 23, 1877; “The Great Strike: It Is Still Spreading with Frightful Rapidity,” Daily Arkansas Gazette (Little Rock), July 24, 1877; “The Great Strike: It is Still Spreading in All Directions,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 24, 1877; “The New Rebellion”; “Riotous Outbreaks Still Increasing,” Lowell Daily Citizen, July 24, 1877; “The Contagion Still Spreading,” San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, July 25, 1877; “Bloodshed,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 26, 1877; “Fire and Blood, Pillage, Confusion, Anarchy,” North American (Philadelphia), July 23, 1877; “Chaos Reigns Supreme,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 20, 1877; “The Strike in the East,” Colorado Springs Gazette, July 28, 1877; “The Railroad Commune,” Galveston Daily News, July 24, 1877. The subheads to this last article give a sense of the panic: The Great Conspiracy, Reign of Terror, Triumph of the Torch, Disastrous Defeat of the State Militia, Millions of Magnificent Railroad Property Give to the Flames, Uncle Sam the Country’s Only Hope of Deliverance!

33 Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 273-74; see also 817-23.

34 William B. Sipes, The Pennsylvania Railroad: Its Origin, Construction, Condition, and Connections (Philadelphia: Passenger Department, 1875), 255; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 55-56. Starting with Farwell v. Boston & Worcester Railroad, 45 Mass. 49 (1842), in which Justice Lemuel Shaw reasoned that workers had to be aware of the dangers and “bargained” away safety for income: “In legal presumption, the compensation is adjusted accordingly.” See also Lossee v. Buchanan et al., 51 N.Y. 476 (1873), 484. In general, on this point, see Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1780-1860 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).

35 David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 178, 180.

36 Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 60.

37 Ibid., 75-76, 140 (quote), 143-46, 389-91, 442-46; “The Labor Outbreak: The City of Pittsburgh vs. The Pennsylvania Railroad,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), September 11, 1877, p. 5.

38 “Reckless to the verge of criminality”: “Causes of the Strike,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 25, 1877, p. 4; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 59-60, 75-80, 139-46, 176-79, 184 (Fife quote), 373-81, 387-89, 818 (Pittsburgh Critic quote).

39 Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 18 (quote); “Military Blunder—Uncalled for Bloodshed,” Pittsburgh Critic, July 22, 1877.

40 Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 7-11, 19-20, 52-54, 176-79, 610, 698-99, 822-23, 907-10.

41 “Incidental,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22, 1877, p. 2 (quote); “A Terrible Day in Pittsburgh,” New York Times, July 22, 1877; Army Journal, August 4, 1877; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 10-11, 377, 477, 480-81, 620, 631, 786-88.

42 Grand jury report in “The Pittsburgh Riots,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), November 20, 1877, p. 4; “Relic of the Riots,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 28, 1877; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 785-816; multiple articles, New York Times and Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22-24, 1877; Army Journal, August 4, 1877; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 112-28; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 59-63.

43 “Labor Outbreak”; “Increase the National Army,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 26, 1877, p. 4; “Gen. Pearson’s Arraignment,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 1, 1877, p. 4: “First Blood,” Pittsburgh Sunday Globe, July 22, 1877; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 806-7 (quotes).

44 Multiple articles, New York Times and Chicago Daily Tribune, July 22-24, 1877; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 13-19, 54-56, 88-93, 192-95, 242-45, 253-56, 326-29, 881-903; James A. Henderson, “The Railroad Riots in Pittsburgh: Saturday and Sunday, July 21st and 22nd, 1877,” Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 40 (1928): 194-97.

45 “The Great Strikes,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, July 24, 1877; Daily Rocky Mountain News (Denver), August 3, 1877; “By-the-By, Where Is Major Buffington?” North American (Philadelphia), August 20, 1877; “The Labor Riots,” North American, March 23, 1878; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 14, 254-55, 264-70, 450-60, 522, 914-15, 960-62, 978-82; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 129-42.

46 “The Railway Troubles,” Galveston Daily News, July 28, 1877; “Echoes of the Strikes,” Galveston Daily News, July 31, 1877; multiple articles, New York Times and Chicago Daily Tribune, July 26-27, 1877; Michael Bellesiles and Christopher Waldrep, eds., Documenting American Violence: A Sourcebook (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 160-64.

47 Quotes from the following sources, in order: “King Mob”; “The Strikers’ Insurrection”; “The Contagion of Violence,” Boston Daily Advertiser, July 25, 1877; “Local Aspect of the Strike,” New York Times, July 23, 1877, p. 2. On the collapse of civilization, see “The Lessons of the Week,” New York Times, July 29, 1877, p. 6; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 328; “The Great Strike,” Inter-Ocean (Chicago), July 23, 1877, p. 4.

48 “The New Rebellion”; “Carnival of Blood,” North American (Philadelphia), July 24, 1877; Pittsburgh Post, July 24-26, 1877; Report of the Committee Appointed to Investigate the Railroad Riots, 493-95, 514-16.

49 Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 69-70; Philip English Mackey, “Law and Order, 1877: Philadelphia’s Response to the Railroad Riots,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 96 (1972): 183-202; George B. Stitchter, “The Schuylkill County Soldiery in the Industrial Disturbances in 1877, or the Railroad Riot War,” Publications of the Historical Society of Schuylkill County 1 (1907): 193-215.

50 Hartranft quoted in Gerald G. Eggert, Railroad Labor Disputes: The Beginnings of Federal Strike Policy (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967), 32; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 172-73. Hoogenboom writes that Hayes did not supply troops “to break the strike” but to keep the peace, a distinction lost on the striking workers; see Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 330.

51 All quotes from Reading Daily Eagle, July 23-24, and July 27-29, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 72-73; “By Telegraph,” Bangor Daily Whig & Courier, August 9, 1877; “Dwindling Away,” North American (Philadelphia), July 28, 1877; “The Situation,” North American, August 8, 1877.

52 Terre Haute Express, July 25-26, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 96-97; “Railroad Employes,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 1, 1877, p. 3; “Glutted with Gore!” and “Situation in St. Louis,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 22, 1877; “The Nation’s Woe”; “Rough Raillery,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 24, 1877; “Go Slow!”; “Railraiders,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 24, 1877.

53 Terre Haute Express, July 25-27, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 96-97; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 292-94.

54 “An Afflicted City,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), January 10, 1877, p. 4; quotes from Indianapolis Sentinel, July 24-25, 1877; Foner, Great Labor Uprising, 98-99, 194; “Go Slow!”; “Rail Rulers,” Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, July 25, 1877; “Line Entering Indianapolis,” New York Times, July 25, 1877, p. 5; Dacus, Annals of the Great Strikes, 293-95, 305-6; Matilda Gresham, The Life of Walter Quintin Gresham, 1832-1895, 2 vols. (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1919), 1:382-90; Hoogenboom, Rutherford B. Hayes, 333; Robert V. Bruce, 1877: Year of Violence (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959), 288-89.

55 Multiple articles, Indianapolis Sentinel, July 26-29, 1877; “No Temporizing,” Inter Ocean (Chicago), July 28, 1877, p. 5; “Crush It Out”; “More Bloodshed,” Inter Ocean, August 2, 1877, p. 5; “The Situation in Indianapolis,” New York Times, July 27, 1877, p. 5; Terre Haute Express, July 30-31, 1877; Gresham, Life of Walter Quintin Gresham , 1:390-408.