Independent vs. Dependent Clauses

A clause consists of a subject, a verb, and either an object or a predicate, and a clause contributes to a longer sentence. To put it another way, each of the following is a sentence: ‘Matthew made grapefruit sorbet.’ ‘Arwen ate some.’ ‘Leia got the last spoonful.’ But when they contribute to a longer sentence, they are clauses: ‘Matthew made grapefruit sorbet and Arwen ate some, but Leia got the last spoonful.’

There are two types of clause: 1) Main (= Independent) and 2) Dependent (= Subordinate).

A Main Clause can stand alone as a sentence and is essentially a statement. If it begins with an Irregular Verb that has independent and dependent forms, the usual rules apply: an affirmative statement takes the independent verb-form and a negative statement takes the dependent verb-form, if one exists.

EXAMPLES OF MAIN CLAUSES:

Chonaic an sionnach silíní, ach ní raibh sé in ann teacht orthu, mar sin dúirt sé gur searbh a bhí siad ar chaoi ar bith.
‘The fox saw cherries, but he couldn’t reach them, so he said that they were sour anyway.’

Mothaíonn Bradán Llyn Llyw crága Iolar Gwernabwy agus tumann sé go domhain chun a namhaid a bhá.
‘The Salmon of Llyn Llyw feels the talons of the Eagle of Gwernabwy and he dives deep to drown his enemy.’

Seo é mo ghealltanas: béarfaidh mé liom do cheannsa nó fágfaidh mé mo cheannsa leat!
‘This is my vow: I will carry off your head or I will leave my head with you!’

The first example refers to a saying, dála an tsionnaigh agus na silíní or dála an mhadra rua agus na silíní ‘like the fox and the cherries’, paralleling the saying ‘sour grapes’ in reference to Aesop’s fable about another unsuccessful fox in pursuit of another unreachable fruit. The second example refers to an event in the Middle Welsh tale Culhwch ag Olwen ‘Culhwch and Olwen’, edited and translated by Patrick K. Ford in The Mabinogi and Other Medieval Welsh Tales (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 119-58. The third example is a typical warrior’s vow from Táin Bó Cúailnge ‘The Cattle-Rustling of Cúailnge’, Recension I, edited and translated by Cecile O’Rahilly (Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1976).

A Dependent Clause cannot stand alone as a sentence and ‘depends on’ (= ‘is subordinate to’) a Main Clause. A Dependent Clause begins with a subordinating conjunction, a relative particle, or an interrogative. Were it not for this initial word, many Dependent Clauses would be Main Clauses.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES:

Abair leis teacht in éineacht linn más féidir leis.
‘Tell him to come with us if he can.’

Feicfidh sibh go bhfuil spás a dhóthain inár ngluaisteán.
‘You will see that there is enough space in our car.’

Bhí sé a cúig a chlog nuair a shroicheamar an bhialann.
‘It was five o’clock when we reached the restaurant.’

Níl a fhios acu cad ba mhaith leo a ithe.
‘They don’t know what they would like to eat.’

Tá an giolla ag oscailt an bhuidéal fíona a thug sé chun an bhoird.
‘The waiter is opening the bottle of wine that he brought to the table.’

Tógaimis suas na gloiní a ndoirteann sé an fíon iontu.
‘Let us raise the glasses into which he pours the wine.’

Note: ‘Main’ and ‘Subordinate’, ‘Independent’ and ‘Dependent’ are the usual pairs of terms. I prefer to pair ‘Main’ and ‘Dependent’ because ‘Main’ suggests a type of clause to which others can be attached, while ‘Dependent’ is a reminder that the dependent forms of Irregular Verbs must be used after the Indirect Relatives a^E and nach^E, the Subordinating Conjunctions go^E, nach^E, and mura^E.

Má^L, dá^E, mura^E, and murar^L are subordinating conjunctions that mark the start of a Dependent Clause. If they are followed by an Irregular Verb, the usual rules for use of dependent forms apply (see Dependent Clauses: Indirect Speech).

As usual the Main Clause may precede or follow the Dependent Clause, but the tense and mood of the verb in the Dependent Clause determine the tense and mood of the verb in the Main Clause, because the events described in the Main Clause cannot occur earlier than the events described in the Dependent Clause.

Dependent Clauses: Direct vs. Indirect Quotation

Quotation reports a person’s speech, thoughts, feelings, or perceptions.

Direct Quotation and Indirect Quotation differ in two respects: 1) how the quotation is identified 2) the degree of accuracy claimed for the quotation.

I. A Direct Quotation is set off by quotation marks and implies a verbatim report of what was said or thought.

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT QUOTATION:

‘I’ve seen you before’, said the cat to the warm milk.

The cynic claimed, ‘There’s no cure for love except marriage.’

Caitríona Pháidín told Big Brian, ‘ I wouldn’t marry you, you ugly scarecrow, if green scums grew on me for want of a man.’

The first two examples are based on proverbs, ‘Chonaic mé cheana thú’ – mar a dúirt an cat leis an mbainne te “I’ve seen you before’ – as the cat said to the warm milk’, comparable to the pick-up line ‘Haven’t we met before?’ and níl aon leigheas ar an ngrá ach pósadh ‘there’s no cure for love except marriage’. The third example draws on an unforgettable line from Máirtín Ó Cadhain’s Cré na Cille (Baile Átha Cliath: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1949), ‘Ní phósfainn thú a scóllacháin ghránna dhá dteagadh cailemhineogaí orm d’uireasa fir’ ‘I wouldn’t marry you, you ugly scarecrow, if green scums grew on me for want of a man’.

II. An Indirect Quotation is set off by a subordinating conjunction that turns it into a dependent clause. Indirect Quotation implies a recollection or impression of what was said, thought, felt, or perceived.

EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT QUOTATION:

The cat said that it has seen the warm milk before.

The cynic claimed that there is no cure for love, except marriage.

Caitríona Pháidín told Big Brian that she wouldn’t marry him if green scums grew on her for want of a man.

Quotation can report questions, commands, and exclamations as well as statements. A Direct Quotation is enclosed by quotation marks. An Indirect Quotation uses interrogatives (e.g. ‘if’, ‘whether’, ‘which’) to mark the beginning of a question, the infinitive of the verb (e.g. ‘to go’, ‘to be patient’) to mark the beginning of a command in English, and the subordinating conjunction ‘that’ to mark the beginning of a statement or an exclamation.

EXAMPLE OF QUOTATION OF A QUESTION:

‘Have you really seen me before?’, the warm milk asked the cat.	Direct
The warm milk asked the cat if he had really seen it before.	Indirect

EXAMPLE OF QUOTATION OF A COMMAND:

‘Since there is no other cure for love, marry me’, ordered the cynic.	Direct
The cynic ordered his love to marry him.	Indirect

EXAMPLE OF QUOTATION OF AN EXCLAMATION:

‘I would not wed Big Brian if green scums grew on me for want of a man!’, declared Caitríona Pháidín.	Direct
Caitríona Pháidín declared that she would not wed Big Brian if green scums grew on her for want of a man	Indirect

Dependent Clauses: Direct Quotation

Direct Quotation in Irish is exactly the same as it is in English and the same rules apply whether the verb in the quotation is regular, irregular, or the Copula.

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT QUOTATION WITH REGULAR VERBS:

‘Fan go bpósfaidh tú,’ mar a dúirt an fear leis an ngiorria.
‘‘Wait until you’re married,’ as the man said to the hare.’

Cheap an giorria, ‘Má phósaim, an maolóidh mo luas?’
‘The hare thought, ‘If I marry, will my speed decrease?’’

The first example is a proverb, the second an interpretation of it.

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT QUOTATION WITH IRREGULAR VERBS:

D’fhiafraíomar de Philib agus de Mháiréad, ‘An bhfaca sibh an mháthair shúigh?’
‘We asked Pilib and Máiréad, ‘Did you see the squid?’’

D’fhreagair siad, ‘Chonaiceamar, ach níor rugamar uirthi!’
‘They answered, ‘We saw it, but we didn’t catch it!’’

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT QUOTATION WITH THE COPULA:

‘Is fearr liom madraí ná cait,’ a deir Moira.
‘‘I prefer dogs to cats,’ says Moira.’

‘Nach bean chiallmhar tú!’ a deir a madra, Duffy.
‘‘Aren’t you a sensible woman!’ says her dog, Duffy.

Dependent Clauses: Indirect Quotation

Indirect Quotation in Irish is the same as it is in English except that the subordinating conjunction always appears before the dependent clause. English permits either ‘He said that he would be there’ (subordinating conjunction included) or ‘He said he would be there’ (subordinating conjunction implied), but Irish accepts only Dúirt sé go mbeadh sé ansin ‘He said that he would be there’.

This is true of all Indirect Quotations except 1) questions, in which ‘that’ is replaced with an interrogative 2) commands, in which ‘that’ is replaced with a Verbal Noun, and ‘that not’ is replaced with ‘gan + Verbal Noun’ (see The Verbal Noun: Functions).

The subordinating conjunctions for all verbs except the Copula are:

	All Tenses and Moods except the Past	Past Tense only
Affirmative	goE	gurL
Negative	nachE	nárL
Affirmative	anE	arL
Interrogative
Negative	nachE	nárL
Interrogative

Note: If an Irregular Verb has dependent forms, they must be used after a subordinating conjunction of any kind. Fuair, dúirt, and dependent pasttense forms follow go^E, nach^E, and an^E, rather than gur^L, nár^L, and ar^L.

EXAMPLES OF QUOTATION WITH REGULAR VERBS:

Direct Quotation	Indirect Quotation
Statement
‘Teastaíonn deoch uait’, a deir Breandán. ‘‘You need a drink,’ says Breandán.’	Deir Breandán go dteastaíonn deoch uait. ‘Breandán says that you need a drink.’
Exclamation
Dúirt an file, ‘Chaill Dante a chiall!’ ‘The poet said, ‘Dante lost his mind!’’	Dúirt an file gur chaill Dante a chiall! ‘The poet said that Dante lost his mind!’
Question
Fiafraígí de Melanie ‘Ar bhuail tú le do chara in Albain?’ ‘Ask Melanie, ‘Did you meet your friend in Scotland?’’	Fiafraígí de Melanie ar bhuail sí lena cara in Albain? ‘Ask Melanie did she meet her friend in Scotland?’
Negative Question
Cuireadh an cheist ar Jennifer, ‘Nár chuir an blas déistin ort?’ ‘Jennifer was asked the question, ‘Didn’t the taste disgust you?’’	Cuireadh an cheist ar Jennifer nár chuir an blas déistin uirthi? ‘Jennifer was asked the question didn’t the taste disgust her?’
Imperative
Dúirt Tim, ‘Tomhais cén cárta atá agam!’ ‘Tim said, ‘Guess which card I have!’’	Dúirt Tim a thomhas cén cárta atá aige. ‘Tim said to guess which card he has.’
Negative Imperative
Ach dúirt Morgan, ‘Ná tomhais!’ ‘But Morgan said, ‘Don’t guess!’’	Ach dúirt Morgan gan tomhas! ‘But Morgan said not to guess!’
Examples of Quotation with Irregular Verbs:
Statement
‘Tá Beth ag feitheamh leat,’ a deir Katie. “Beth is waiting for you,’ says Katie.’	Deir Katie go bhfuil Beth ag feitheamh leat. ‘Katie says that Beth is waiting for you.’
Exclamation
Chreideadh Dáibhí, ‘Déarfadh Matt rud ar bith!” ‘Dáibhí used to believe, ‘Matt would say anything at all!’’	Chreideadh Dáibhí go ndéarfadh Matt rud ar bith! ‘Dáibhí used to believe that Matt would say anything at all!’
Question
Chualathas Kristin ag rá le Pádraigín, ‘An bhfuair tú an obair bhaile?’ ‘Kristin was heard saying to Pádraigín, ‘Did you get the homework?’’	Chualathas Kristin ag rá le Pádraigín an bhfuair sí an obair bhaile? ‘Kristin was heard saying to Pádraigín did she get the homework?’
Negative Question
Cloisfear Seosamh ag rá le Carol ‘Nár chuala tú nár tugadh obair bhaile don rang?’ ‘Seosamh will be heard telling Carol ‘Didn’t you hear that homework wasn’t given to the class?’’	Cloisfear Seosamh ag rá le Carol nár chuala sí nár tugadh obair bhaile don rang? ‘Seosamh will be heard telling Carol didn’t she hear that homework wasn’t given to the class?’
Imperative
Dúirt Fiona le Tomás, ‘Tabhair dom an scrúdú!’ ‘Fiona told Tomás, ‘Give me the test!’’	Dúirt Fiona le Tomás an scrúdú a thabhairt di. ‘Fiona told Tomás to give her the test.’
Negative Imperative
Ach dúirt Aindrias, ‘Ná tabhair di é’. ‘But Aindrias said, ‘Don’t give it to her!’’	Ach dúirt Aindrias gan é a thabhairt di! ‘But Aindrias said not to give it to her!’
When the verb in an Indirect Quotation is the Copula, the combination ‘Subordinating Conjunction + Verb’ is replaced by either 1) an interrogative form of the Copula, for a question, or 2) a dependent form of the Copula, for anything other than a question.

Here are the dependent and interrogative forms of the Copula:

	Present Tense	Present Tense before Vowel	Past or Conditional	P/C before Vowel or ‘fh + Vowel’
Dependent Affirm.	gur	gurb	gurL	gurbhL
Dependent Neg.	nach	nach	nárL	nárbhL
Interrogative	an	an	arL	arbhL
Neg. Interrogative	nach	nach	nárL	nárbhL

EXAMPLES OF QUOTATION WITH THE COPULA:

Direct Quotation	Indirect Quotation
Statement
‘Is dual do mhac an chait luch a mharú’, a deir Risteard.	Deir Risteard gur dual do mhac an chait luch a mharú.
“It’s natural for the cat’s son to kill a mouse’, says Risteard.’	‘Risteard says that it’s natural for the cat’s son to kill a mouse.’
Exclamation
Freagraíonn úinéir an chait, ‘Níorbh fhéidir leis luch a mharú!’	Freagraíonn úinéir an chait nárbh fhéidir leis luch a mharú!
‘The cat’s owner replies, ‘He couldn’t kill a mouse!’’	‘The cat’s owner replies that he couldn’t kill a mouse!’
Question
Ach bhí Colin ag machnamh, ‘An fíor gur dual dó luch a mharú?’’	Ach bhí Colin ag machnamh an fíor gur dual dó luch a mharú?’
‘But Colin was wondering, ‘Is it true that it’s natural for him to kill a mouse?’	‘But Colin was wondering is it true that it’s natural for him to kill a mouse?’’
Negative Question
D’fhiafródh an cat díobh, ‘Nár mhian libh an fhírinne a fháil amach?’’	D’fhiafródh an cat díobh nár mhian libh an fhírinne a fháil amach?
‘The cat would ask them, ‘Wouldn’t you like to find out the truth?’’	‘The cat would ask them wouldn’t they want to find out the truth?’

Dependent Clauses: Direct Relative Clauses

In a Direct Relative Clause, the antecedent of the Direct Relative Particle (DRP) is either the Subject or the Direct Object of the following verb. Since a Direct Relative Clause in which the DRP has a subject antecedent is grammatically identical to a Direct Relative Clause in which the DRP has an object antecedent, the intended role of the antecedent must be determined from context, and usually one interpretation is more logical than the alternative.

For example, chonaic sí an capall a d’ith an t-úll could mean either ‘she saw the horse that ate the apple’ or ‘she saw the horse that the apple ate’. But unless this sentence occurred in a passage about carnivorous fruit, an apple-eating horse is more likely than a horse-eating apple, so an capall ‘the horse’ must be the subject rather than the object of the verb.

The forms of the DRP for all verbs except the Copula are:

	Present, Future, Imperfect, Conditional	Past
Affirmative	aL	aL
Negative	nachE	nárL

Note: If an Irregular Verb has dependent forms, they must be used after the negative DRP. Fuair ‘got’, dúirt ‘said’, and dependent past-tense forms follow nach^E rather than nár^L.

EXAMPLES OF THE DRP WITH SUBJECT ANTECEDENT:

Cuirfidh an dúchas a bhrisfidh trí shúile an chait eagla ar an luch.
‘The nature that will break through the eyes of the cat will scare the mouse.’

An gcloiseann tú tafann teann an mhadra ghearr atá ina chlós féin?
‘Do you hear the confident bark of the short dog that is in his own yard?’

Is olc an chearc nach scríobann di féin.
‘It’s a poor hen that does not scratch for herself.’

Is oth leis an bhfear nár phós anuraidh gur phós a leannán fear eile.
‘The man who did not marry last year regrets that his love married another man.’

Fiafraigh de na mná nach raibh ag ól cár imigh an leann!
‘Ask the women who were not drinking where the liquor went!’

Bhí an cat nach bhfaca an luch ag rince as baile.
‘The cat that did not see the mouse dancing was away from home.’

All examples except for the fifth are based on proverbs: briseann an dúchas trí shuíle an chait ‘nature breaks through the cat’s eyes’, is teann gach madra gearr i ndoras a thí féin ‘every short dog is confident in his own doorway’, is olc an chearc nach scríobann di féin ‘it’s a poor hen that does not scratch for herself’, ní ólann na mná leann ach imíonn sé lena linn ‘women don’t drink alcohol but it vanishes in their presence’, nuair a bhíonn an cat as baile bíonn an luch ag rince ‘when the cat is away, the mouse is dancing’.

EXAMPLES OF THE DRP WITH OBJECT ANTECEDENT:

Féach ar an luch a mharaigh mac an chait!
‘Look at the mouse that the cat’s son killed!’

Cad as ar tháinig an scread a chuala na hUltaigh?
‘Whence came the scream that the Ulstermen heard?’

Is dall an chiaróg nach n-aithníonn ciaróg eile.
[is blind the beetle that doesn’t recognize a beetle other]
‘It’s a blind beetle that doesn’t recognize another beetle.’

Níor baineadh san fhómhar an barr nár cuireadh san earrach.
‘The crop that was not planted in the spring was not harvested in the fall.’

Ithimis an phraiseach nach raibh doirte amach.
‘Let us eat the porridge that wasn’t spilled.’

Ní gá duit luí sa leaba nach ndearna tú.
‘You need not lie in the bed that you didn’t make.’

The first, third, and fourth examples are based on proverbs: céard a dhéanfadh mac an chait ach luch a mharú? ‘what would the cat’s son do but kill a mouse?’ comparable to ‘like father, like son’ or ‘the apple doesn’t fall far from the tree’, aithníonn ciaróg ciaróg eile ‘a beetle recognizes another beetle’ comparable to ‘it takes one to know one’, and mura gcuirfidh tú san earrach ní bhainfidh tú san fhómhar ‘if you don’t plant in the spring you won’t harvest in the fall’. The second example refers to the story Longes mac nUislenn ‘Exile of the Sons of Uisliu’. The fifth example was suggested by the saying tá an phraiseach doirte amach ‘the porridge is spilled’, i.e. things are in a mess and there’s no going back.

There is no need for DRP when the Copula is the verb in a Direct Relative Clause because the Copula has special direct-relative forms. The present-tense direct-relative forms of the Copula mean ‘that is/are’ or ‘who is/are’, and the past/conditional direct-relative forms mean ‘that was/were’, ‘who was/were’, or ‘that/who would be’.

The direct-relative forms of the Copula are:

	Present Tense	Present Tense before Vowel	Past or Conditional	P/C before Vowel or ‘f + Vowel’
Direct Relative	is	is	baL	abL
Neg. Dir. Relative	nach	nach	nárL	nárbhL

EXAMPLES OF DIRECT-RELATIVE FORMS OF THE COPULA:

Is é Jeaic na Scolóige an fear is maith le Caitríona Pháidín.
[is Jeaic na Scolóige the man who is good by Catríona Pháidín]
‘Jeaic na Scolóige is the man whom Caitríona Pháidín likes.’

Ba í a deirfiúr Neil an bhean ab fhuath léi.
[was her sister Neil the woman who was a hate by her]
‘Her sister Neil was the woman whom she hated.’

Is í ‘Nóra na gCosa Lofa’ an bhean nach maith le Caitríona Pháidín.
[is Nóra na gCosa Lofa the woman that is not good by Caitríona Pháidín]
‘Nóra na gCosa Lofa is the woman whom Caitríona Pháidín doesn’t like.’

Chuimhnigh sí ar an masla nárbh fhéidir léi a mhaitheamh.
[remembered she the insult that was not a possibility by her to forgive]
‘She remembered the insult that she wasn’t able to forgive.’

These examples refer to events in Máirtín Ó Cadhain’s Cré na Cille (Baile Átha Cliath: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1949), a book which itself merits the learning of Modern Irish.

Dependent Clauses: Indirect Relative Clauses

In an Indirect Relative Clause, the antecedent of the Indirect Relative Particle (IRP) can be anything except the subject or direct object of the following verb. By itself the IRP indicates merely that some kind of indirect-relative relationship exists between the antecedent and the verb, and that translation of the IRP will include ‘which’, ‘whom’, or ‘whose’. The IRP is always paired with:

1) a Possessive Adjective,

2a-b) a Simple Preposition, or

3) a Prepositional Pronoun that completes the meaning of the IRP and specifies the nature of the indirect-relative relationship (e.g. ‘of which’, ‘for whom’, ‘to whose’).

In an affirmative Indirect Relative Clause, the IRP may be paired with 1) a Possessive Adjective, 2a-b) a Simple Preposition, or c) a Prepositional Pronoun.

In a negative Indirect Relative Clause, the IRP may be paired with 1) a Possessive Adjective or 3) a Prepositional Pronoun, but not with 2a-b) a Simple Preposition.

Whereas Direct Relative Clauses in Irish always translate as Direct Relative Clauses in English, Indirect Relative Clauses in Irish sometimes translate as Direct Relative Clauses in English, e.g. the Indirect Relative Clause an té a bhfuil an peann aige [the person at whom the pen is] translates idiomatically into English as the Direct Relative Clause ‘the person who has the pen’. In the following examples, if the Indirect Relative Clause is undetectable in the ‘idiomatic translation’, look for it in the [literal translation].

The forms of the IRP for all verbs except the Copula are:

	Present, Future, Imperfect, Conditional	Past Only
Affirmative	aE	arL
Negative	nachE	nárL

I. When an IRP is paired with a Possessive Adjective, the Possessive Adjective immediately follows the IRP.

EXAMPLES OF THE IRP WITH A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE:

Cé acu díobh an fear a raibh a mhac pósta cheana?
[which at them of them the man whom was his son married already]
‘Which of them is the man whose son was married already?’

Cogar, an iadsan na deirfiúracha a bhfuair a n-athair bás?
[whisper, are they the sisters whom got their father death]
‘Say, are they the sisters whose father died?’

Seo an fear nár chosain a dheartháir é.
[This is the man whom not did defend his brother him]
‘This is the man whose brother didn’t defend him.’

IIa. When an IRP is paired with a Simple Preposition that has a Final Consonant, the Simple Preposition directly precedes the IRP.

EXAMPLES OF THE IRP WITH A SIMPLE PREPOSITION WITH A FINAL CONSONANT:

Níor theach coitianta an teach as ar tháinig sí.
[was not a house ordinary the house out of which came she]
‘The house out of which she came was no ordinary house.’

Cloiseann an cat ceol á sheinm istigh sa teach ina dtéann sé.
[hears the cat music at its playing inside the house into which goes he]
‘The cat hears music being played inside the house into which he goes.’

Ní thuigfeadh an té ag a mbeadh a dhóthain an duine ar a mbeadh ocras.
[not would understand the person at whom would be his fill the person on whom would be hunger]
‘The person who would have his fill would not understand the person who would be hungry.’

The third example paraphrases a proverb, ní thuigeann an sách an seang ‘the sated does not understand the starving’.

IIb. When an IRP is paired with a Simple Preposition that has a Final Vowel, the Simple Preposition combines with the IRP.

Simple Preposition	Simple Prep. + aE	Simple Prep. + arL	Meaning of Either Combination
de ‘of/off/from’	dáE	darL	‘of/off/from which’ or ‘of/off/from whom’
do ‘to/for’	dáE	darL	‘to/for which’ or ‘to/for whom’
i ‘in’	inaE	inarL	‘in which’ or ‘in whom’
faoi ‘under/about’	faoinaE	faoinarL	‘under/about which’ or ‘under/about whom’
ó ‘of/from’	ónaE	ónarL	‘of/from which’ or ‘of/from whom’
le ‘with/by’	lenaE	lenarL	‘with/by which’ or ‘with/by whom’
trí ‘through’	trínaE	trínarL	‘through which’ or ‘through whom’

EXAMPLES OF THE IRP COMBINED WITH A SIMPLE PREPOSITION:

Bhuail sé in éadan na seilf dar thit na miasa.
[knocked he against the shelf from which fell the dishes]
‘He knocked against the shelf from which the dishes fell.’

D’oibríodh sí sa siopa dá gceannaíteá earraí.
[used to work she in the shop for which you used to buy merchandise]
‘She used to work in the shop for which you used to buy merchandise.’

An cuimhin libh an scioból ina n-imrímis?
[is a memory by you the barn in which we used to play]
‘Do you remember the barn in which we used to play?’

Seo í an fheirm faoina bhfuarthas an uaimh.
[is this the farm under which was found the cave]
‘This is the farm under which the cave was found.’

Cén t-ainm atá ar an gcathair óna bhfillfidh siad?
[what is the name that is on the city from which will return they]
‘What is the name of the city from which they will return?’

Nár aithin tú an duine lenar labhair tú?
[did not recognize you the person with whom you spoke]
‘Didn’t you recognize the person with whom you spoke?’

Is geal na súile trína mbrisfeadh dúchas an chait.
[are very bright the eyes through which would break nature of the cat]
‘The eyes through which the cat’s nature would break are bright.’

III. When an IRP is paired with a Prepositional Pronoun, the Prepositional Pronoun must match the gender and number of the IRP’s antecedent. The Prepositional Pronoun appears after the IRP and frequently at the end of the entire clause.

EXAMPLES OF THE IRP WITH A PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUN:

Bhuail sé in éadan na seilf ar thit na miasa di.
[knocked he against the shelf which fell the dishes from her]
‘He knocked against the shelf from which the dishes fell.’

D’oibríodh sí sa siopa a gceannaíteá earraí dó.
[used to work she in the shop which you used to buy merchandise for it]
‘She used to work in the shop for which you used to buy merchandise.’

An cuimhin libh an scioból a n-imrímis ann?
[is a memory by you the barn which we used to play in him]
‘Do you remember the barn in which we used to play?’

Seo í an fheirm a bhfuarthas an uaimh fúithi.
[is this the farm which was found the cave under her]
‘This is the farm under which the cave was found.’

Cén t-ainm atá ar an gcathair a bhfillfidh siad uaithi?
[what is the name that is on the city which will return they from her]
‘What is the name of the city from which they will return?’

Nár aithin tú an duine ar labhair tú leis?
[did not recognize you the person whom you spoke with him]
‘Didn’t you recognize the person with whom you spoke?’

Is geal na súile a mbrisfeadh dúchas an chait tríothu.
[are bright the eyes which would break nature of the cat through them]
‘The eyes through which the cat’s nature would break are very bright.’

Note: The constructions explained in IIA-B and III are interchangeable and equally common.

There is no need for an IRP when the Copula is the verb in an Indirect Relative Clause because the Copula has special indirect-relative forms. The present-tense indirect relative forms of the Copula mean ‘which/whom is’ or ‘which/whom are’, and the past/conditional indirect relative forms of the Copula mean ‘which/whom were’ or ‘which/whom would be’.

The Indirect Relative Copula is always paired with:

1)a Possessive Adjective,

2)a Simple Preposition, or

3)a Prepositional Pronoun that completes the meaning of the Indirect Relative Copula and specifies the nature of the indirect-relative relationship (e.g. ‘of which is’, ‘for whom was’).

The indirect-relative forms of the Copula are:

	Present Tense	Present before Vowel	Past or Conditional	P/C before Vowel or ‘fh + Vowel’
Indirect Relative	ar	arb	arL	arbhL
Neg. Ind. Relative	nach	nach	nárL	nárbhL

I. When an indirect-relative form of the Copula is paired with a Possessive Adjective, the Possessive Adjective follows the predicate because the predicate is the first word after the Copula.

EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT-RELATIVE FORMS OF THE COPULA WITH POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES:

Chualamar an scéal sin ón mbuachaill arb iascaire a athair.
[heard we that story from the boy whom is a fisherman his father]
‘We heard that story from the boy whose father is a fisherman.’

Inis é don chailín nach maighdean mhara a máthair!
[tell it to the girl whom is not a maiden of the sea her mother]
‘Tell it to the girl whose mother isn’t a mermaid!’

II. When an indirect-relative form of the Copula is paired with a Simple Preposition that has a final vowel, the Simple Preposition may combine with the Copula (see also The Copula: Combined Forms).

Simple Prep.	Simple Prep. + a	Simple Prep. + arb	Simple Prep. + aL	Simple Prep. + arbhL
do ‘to, for’	dar	darb	darL	darbhL
de ‘of, off, from’	dar	darb	darL	darbhL
le ‘with, by’	lenar	lenarb	lenarL	lenarbhL
i ‘in’	inar	inarb	inarL	inarbhL
ó ‘of, from’	ónar	ónarb	ónarL	ónarbhL
faoi ‘under’	faoinar	faoinarb	faoinarL	faoinarbhL
trí ‘through’	trínar	trínarb	trínarL	trínarbhL

EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT-RELATIVE FORMS OF THE COPULA COMBINED WITH SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS:

Is é an príomhcharachtar bean darb ainm Caitríona Pháidín.
[is the main character a woman to whom is a name Caitríona Pháidín]
‘The main character is a woman whose name is Caitríona Pháidín.’

Arb é Áit an Phuint an áit inarbh fhearr le Caitríona bheith curtha?
[is Place of the Pound the place in which would be better with Caitríona to be buriedl]
‘Is the Pound Plot the place in which Catríona would prefer to be buried?’

The examples in II. and III. refer to characters in Máirtín Ó Cadhain’s Cré na Cille (Baile Átha Cliath: Sáirséal agus Dill, 1949). The Pound Plot is the graveyard in which each space for burial cost an Irish pound, convincing Caitríona that the Pound Plot is a classier resting-place than the cheaper Fifteen-Shilling Plot.

III. When an indirect relative form of the Copula is paired with a Prepositional Pronoun, the Prepositional Pronoun must match the gender and number of the Copula’s antecedent, and the Prepositional Pronoun follows the predicate, because the predicate is the first word after the Copula.

EXAMPLES OF INDIRECT-RELATIVE FORMS OF THE COPULA WITH PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS:

Is é an príomhcharachtar bean arb ainm di Caitríona Pháidín.
[is the main character a woman whom is a name to her Caitríona Pháidín]
‘The main character is a woman whose name is Caitríona Pháidín.’

Arbh í Caitríona an deirfiúr arbh fhuath léi Neil?
[was Caitríona the sister whom was a hatred by her Neil]
‘Was Caitríona the sister who hated Neil?’

Note: The constructions explained in IIA-B and III are interchangeable in meaning, but III is far commoner in spoken Irish.

Dependent Clauses: ‘If’ and ‘If Not’

A question, answer, or statement that uses ‘if’ or ‘if not’ normally consists of two clauses:

1) a Dependent Clause that sets forth a condition, e.g. má tá an naíonán thuas i mbarr crainn ‘if the baby is up in a treetop’

2) a Main Clause that sets forth an observation about, a consequence of, or a response to that condition, e.g. tá sé i gcontúirt titim ‘he is in danger of falling’, beidh eagla air nuair a dhúisíonn sé ‘he will be afraid when he awakes’, tabhair anuas ar an toirt é! ‘bring him down at once!’

Since the condition described in the Dependent Clause is the cause of the observation, consequence, or response described in the Main Clause, the tense and mood of the verb in the Dependent Clause cannot imply a later time of occurrence than the tense and mood of the verb in the Main Clause.¹⁸

I. ‘IF’: MÁ^L AND DÁ^E

Irish has two words for ‘if’, má^L and dá^E. They imply different degrees of probability, possibility, and doubt on behalf of the speaker/writer, so they are not interchangeable.

What follows má^L is probable, possible, or believed to be true by the speaker/writer, e.g. má bhriseann an chraobh, titfidh an cliabhán ‘if the branch breaks, the cradle will fall’.

Má^L is also used when ‘if’ is equivalent to ‘whenever’, e.g. má shéideann an ghaoth, luascann an cliabhán ‘if/whenever the wind blows, the cradle rocks’.

Má^L is followed by a verb in the indicative mood. The verb in the Main Clause can be in the indicative mood, the imperative mood, or the present subjunctive.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH má^L:

Má bhuaileann tú leis an nGarda Fox, abair leis gur goideadh do lampa rothair ort.
‘If you encounter Policeman Fox, tell him that your bicycle-lamp was stolen.’
Present Tense in Dependent Clause, Imperative Mood in Main Clause

Má ghlacann sibh mo chomhairle, rachaidh sibh go dtí an Stáisiún Gardaí is gaire dúinn.
‘If you take my advice, you will go to the nearest Police Station.’
Present Tense in Dependent Clause, Future Tense in Main Clause

Má bhíonn a bhosca airgid ag Philip Mathers amárach, beidh sé san airdeall ar ghadaithe.
‘If Philip Mathers has his cashbox tomorrow, he will be on the alert for thieves.’ Present Habitual in Dependent Clause,¹⁹ Future Tense in Main Clause

Má léinn de Selby, ní thuiginn leath dar scríobh sé.
‘If I used to read de Selby, I used not understand half of what he wrote.’
Imperfect Tense in Dependent Clause and in Main Clause

The examples in this subsection refer to Flann O’Brien’s The Third Policeman (1967; London: Paladin, 1989).

What follows dá^E is improbable, impossible, or known to be false by the speaker/writer, e.g. dá mbeadh ciall ag máthair an naíonáin, ní fhágfadh sí thuas sa chrann é ‘if the baby’s mother had sense, she would not leave him up in the tree.’

Dá^E can be followed by a verb in the conditional mood or the past subjunctive.²⁰ The verb in the Main Clause must be in the conditional mood.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH dá^E:

Dá mbeadh an fear sin neamhchiontach, ní bheadh sé i bpríosún. or
Dá mbíodh an fear sin neamhchiontach, ní bheadh sé i bpríosún.
‘If that man were innocent, he would not be in prison.’
Conditional Mood in Dependent Clause and in Main Clause or
Past Subjunctive in Dependent Clause, Conditional Mood in Main Clause

Dá gcuirfí an cillín faoi ghlas, ní éalódh an príosúnach. or
Dá gcuirtí an cillín faoi ghlas, ní éalódh an príosúnach.
‘If the cell had been locked, the prisoner would not have escaped.’
Conditional Mood in Dependent Clause and in Main Clause or
Past Subjunctive in Dependent Clause, Conditional Mood in Main Clause

II. ‘IF NOT’: MURA^E AND MURAR^L

Mura^E ‘if not’ is the negative of má^L and dá^E and can be followed by a verb in the conditional, the past subjunctive, or any tense in the indicative mood except the past. The verb in the Main Clause can be in any tense or mood except the past.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH mura^E:

Mura n-itheann sé a chuid praisí, ní thabharfar bainne dó.
‘If he doesn’t eat his porridge, he will not be given milk.’
Present Tense in Dependent Clause, Future Tense in Main Clause

Mura dtabharfaidh tú do shloinne, tabhair d’ainm baiste.
‘If you will not give your surname, give your first name.’
Future Tense in Dependent Clause, Imperative Mood in Main Clause

Mura gcreideadh sé i nDia, creideann sé anois Ann, agus sa Diabhal freisin.
‘If he used not to believe in God, he believes in Him now, and in the Devil too.’
Imperfect Tense in Dependent Clause, Present Tense in Main Clause

Mura n-éistfeadh an Garda Fox leis an nGarda MacCruiskeen, ní rachadh sé as a mheabhair. or
Mura n-éistíodh an Garda Fox leis an nGarda MacCruiskeen, ní rachadh sé as a mheabhair.
‘If Policeman Fox had not listened to Policeman MacCruiskeen, he would not have gone out of his mind.’
Conditional Mood in Dependent Clause and in Main Clause or Past Subjunctive in Dependent Clause, Conditional Mood in Main Clause

Murar^L ‘if not’ can be followed by the past tense only and so is the past-tense negative of má^L only; dá^E cannot be followed by the past tense. The verb of the Main Clause can be in any tense or mood.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH murar^L:

Murar aithin tú é, breathnaigh arís ar a aghaidh.
‘If you didn’t recognize him, look again at his face.’
Past Tense in Dependent Clause, Imperative Mood in Main Clause

Murar tháinig siad ar rothair, is dócha gur shiúil siad.
‘If they didn’t come on bicycles, it’s likely that they walked.’
Past Tense in Dependent Clause, Present Tense in Main Clause

Murar léigh sibh na fonótaí, níor léigh sibh an chuid is fearr den leabhar.
‘If you didn’t read the footnotes, you didn’t read the best part of the book.’
Past Tense in Dependent Clause and in Main Clause

III. ‘MÁ^L, MURA^E, MURAR^L AND DÁ^E+ Copula’

Má^L, mura^E, and murar^L combine with some forms of the Copula (see The Copula: Combined Forms), but dá^E does not. The Dependent Clause can be only in the present or the past/conditional because the Copula has no other tenses or moods. The Main Clause can be in any tense or mood consistent with the rules given in I. and II. above.

EXAMPLES OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH THE COPULA:

Más féidir leat, abair liom cad atá istigh sa bhosca seo.
‘If you can, tell me what is in this box.’
Present-Tense Copula in Dependent Clause, Imperative Mood in Main Clause

Murar maith leis, ní íosfaidh sé é.
‘If he doesn’t want to, he won’t eat it.’
Present-Tense Copula in Dependent Clause, Future Tense in Main Clause

Má ba chóir dom an cheist a chur ort, ba chóir duit freagra a thabhairt orm.
‘If it was proper for me to ask you the question, it was proper for you to give me an answer.’
Past-Tense Copula in Dependent Clause, Past Tense in Main Clause

Murarbh fhéidir liom an bosca is lú a fheiceáil, bhí mé cinnte go raibh sé ann mar sin féin.
‘If I couldn’t see the smallest box, I knew it was there nevertheless.’
Past-Tense Copula in Dependent Clause, Present Tense in Main Clause

Dá mb’fhearr leis an Sáirsint The Dolly Mixture, ní cheannódh sé The Carnival Assorted.
‘If the Sergeant had preferred The Dolly Mixture, he would not have bought The Carnival Assorted.’
Conditional Mood Copula in Dependent Clause and Main Clause.