Born into a noble wealthy family in a Basque province located between modern France and Spain, Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) spent his youth preparing for a position among the military and diplomatic elite in the realms of Navarre and Castile. At the age of thirty, while fighting the French at Pamplona, he was severely injured, and during a long period of convalescence, he read extensively in the biographies of saints, who were portrayed as combining the chivalrous tradition of knighthood with complete devotion to God. Inspired by their example, Loyola in 1522 was converted to an intensely spiritual life and resolved to do penance for his sins by embracing evangelical poverty.93
Leaving his home and renouncing the comforts and ambitions of his past, Loyola spent the ensuing year engaged in spiritual exercises and physical debasement, and made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. But the ecclesiastical authorities were unreceptive to his evangelism, and he decided that he needed a liberal and theological education in order to pursue his mission. Though far beyond the age when most men would have completed the liberal arts, he attempted to study at universities in Spain over the next four years, but was repeatedly arrested and charged with heresy due to his unorthodox behavior and the fact that he had attracted a small band of followers. He therefore moved to the University of Paris in 1528, but again came under the suspicion of church authorities for the same reasons. Nevertheless, he completed his studies and was graduated a Master of Arts in 1534. Ordained as priests, he and a small informal group of followers traveled to Venice and Rome while continuing their private study, prayer, and penance over the next five years.
Deciding to organize formally, the group received papal authorization to establish the Society of Jesus in 1540, and Loyola was elected general, and entrusted with the responsibility of elaborating the brief provisions of the papal bull of 1540 into a code of statutes for the Society. This became his chief work by 1546, and the resulting Constitutions were provisionally completed in Spanish by 1551, when Loyola became severely ill. After his death in 1556, his followers continued revising and produced the summative Spanish edition of 1594. Among the ten parts of the Constitutions, Part IV shaped the policy of all Jesuit colleges and became the foundation for all educational documents subsequently issued by the Jesuits, including the better known Ratio Studiorum (“Plan of Studies”), which detailed procedures in the colleges and was issued in 1599.
Meanwhile, the Society came to regard itself as a teaching order, and when Loyola died in 1556, 33 colleges had been opened. By the time of their centennial in 1640, the Jesuits had established 521 colleges, 49 seminaries, and 280 residences and missions. In 1750, at the peak of its expansion before it began to be suppressed, the Society had founded 669 colleges, whose students in some cases included only candidates for the order, in other cases only “extern” students, and sometimes a combination.
The phenomenal growth of the Jesuit institutions stemmed from several factors. Their organization and methods both inside and outside the classroom were unusually systematic and disciplined, while they balanced that rigor by moderating certain pedagogical strictures of the day through the introduction of regular vacation periods and the reduction of daily class time to 5–6 hours. Further, the student population in Jesuit colleges became dominated by sons of the ruling elites, though this occurred only after the Jesuits became so successful at their original mission of educating and elevating the lower classes that they were criticized by the elites for fomenting social unrest by filling the lower classes with unwarranted aspirations.
Above all, the Jesuits succeeded because they introduced the new “humanistic studies” into the liberal arts of their colleges. It was the Society of Jesus that led Catholic educators in melding humanistic studies with the traditional scholastic program. The Jesuits’ teaching of Greek and Latin letters was unsurpassed, and they did this without following Petrarca’s advice to lay down Aristotle. The resulting program of liberal education, appearing in selection #26, ultimately consisted of a lower course of 3–4 years study in the “humane letters” (consisting of Greek and Latin grammar, poetry, history, and rhetoric) and an upper course of about 3 years in logic and natural, moral, and metaphysical philosophy along with some mathematics.
The humanistic and scholastic strains are clearly apparent in this program, whose overriding purpose was the training of Christian gentlemen, notwithstanding the fact that a four-year course in theology was envisioned after the upper course. That overriding purpose is demonstrated by the gentlemanly subjects available to students of Jesuit colleges, such as “The Knightly Exercises” in dancing and fencing.94 Such exercises, ironically enough, seem more reminiscent of the Ignatius before the battle at Pamplona than the spiritual and ascetic leader afterward. Nevertheless, Loyola’s disciplined commitment to education, serving as a means to spiritual and ecclesiastical advancement, continued to animate the Society of Jesus for centuries after his death in 1556.
[Preamble] . . . [308] The aim and end of this Society is, by traveling through the various regions of the world at the order of the supreme vicar of Christ our Lord or of the superior of the Society itself, to preach, hear confessions, and use all the other means it can with the grace of God to help souls. Consequently it has seemed necessary to us, or at least highly expedient, that those who will enter the Society should be persons of good life and sufficient learning for the aforementioned work. But in comparison with others, those who are both good and learned are few; and even among these few, most of them already seek rest from their previous labors. As a result, the increase of the Society from such men of letters who are both good and learned is, we find, something very difficult to achieve, because of the great labors and the great abnegation of oneself which are required in the Society.
Therefore all of us, desiring to preserve and develop the Society for greater glory and service to God our Lord have thought it wise to proceed by another path. That is, our procedure will be to admit young men who because of their good habits of life and ability give hope that they will become both virtuous and learned in order to labor in the vineyard of Christ our Lord.96 We shall likewise accept colleges under the conditions stated in the apostolic bull, whether these colleges are within universities or outside of them; and, if they are within universities, whether these universities are governed by the Society or not.97 For we are convinced in our Lord that in this manner greater service will be given to His Divine Majesty, because those who will be employed in that service will be multiplied in number and aided to make progress in learning and virtues.
Consequently, we shall treat first of what pertains to the colleges and then of what concerns the universities. With regard to the colleges, we shall discuss first what pertains to the founders [in Chapter 1]; second, what pertains to the colleges founded in regard to their material or temporal aspects [Chapter 2]; third, what pertains to the [students] who will study in them, in regard to their admission [Chapter 3], preservation [Chapter 4], progress in learning [Chapters 5, 6, 7] and in other means of helping their fellowmen [Chapter 8], and their removal from study [Chapter 9]; fourth, what pertains to the government of colleges [Chapter 10]. . . .
[351] 1. Since the end of the learning which is acquired in this Society is with God’s favor to help the souls of its own members and those of their fellowmen, it is by this norm that the decision will be made, both in general and in the case of individual persons, as to what branches ours ought to learn, and how far they ought to advance in them. And since, generally speaking, help is derived from the humane letters of different languages, logic, natural and moral philosophy, metaphysics,98 scholastic and positive theology,99 and Sacred Scripture, these are the branches which those who are sent to the colleges should study. They will devote themselves with greater diligence to the parts which are more helpful for the end mentioned above, with circumstances of times, places, persons, and other such factors taken into account, according to what seems expedient in our Lord to him who holds the principal charge.100
[352] In addition to grammar, rhetoric is understood to be under the classification of humane letters. [353] If these should not be enough time in the colleges to read the councils, decrees, holy doctors, and other moral subjects, each one could, with the approval of his superiors, read these privately after his departure from studies, especially if he is well grounded in the scholastic doctrine. [354] According to the age, ability, inclination, and basic knowledge which a particular person has, or in accordance with the common good which is hoped for, he could be applied to all these branches or to one or several of them. For one who cannot distinguish himself in all of them ought to try to do so in the case of some one of them.101
[355] 2. In detail, what some or other [students] ought to study will likewise be left to the discretion of the superiors. But when someone has aptitude, the better the foundation he lays in the aforementioned branches, the better will it be. . . .
[357] 3. The rector will consider and decide by means of a suitable examination how much time should be given to one branch, and when the [students] should pass on to another.
[358] 4. The doctrine which they ought to follow in each branch should be that which is safer and more approved, as also the authors who teach it. The rectors will take care of this, by conforming themselves to what is decided in the Society as a whole for the greater glory of God. . . .
[360] 1. In order to make great progress in these branches, the [students] should strive first of all to keep their souls pure and their intention in studying right, by seeking in their studies nothing except the glory of God and the good of souls. Moreover, they should frequently beg in prayer for grace to make progress in learning for the sake of this end.
[361] 2. Furthermore, they should keep their resolution firm to be thoroughly genuine and earnest students, by persuading themselves that while they are in the colleges they cannot do anything more pleasing to God our Lord than to study with the intention mentioned above; likewise, that even if they never have occasion to employ the matter studied, their very labor in studying, taken up as it ought to be because of charity and obedience, is itself work highly meritorious in the sight of the Divine and Supreme Majesty.102
[362] 3. The impediments which distract from study should also be removed, both those arising from devotions and mortifications which are too numerous or without proper order and also those springing from their cares and exterior occupations whether in duties inside the house or outside it in conversations, confessions, and other activities with one’s fellowmen, as far as it is possible in our Lord to excuse oneself from them. . . .
[366] 4. An order should be observed in pursuing the branches of knowledge. The [students] should acquire a good foundation in Latin before they attend lectures on the [liberal] arts;103 and in the arts before they pass on to scholastic theology; and in it before they study positive theology. Scripture may be studied either concomitantly or later on.
[367] 5. The languages too in which Scripture was written or into which it was translated may be studied either previously or later on,104 according to what seems best to the superior in accordance with the various cases and the diversity of the persons. This too will remain within his discretion. But if the languages are learned, among the ends which are pursued one should be to defend the version which the Church holds as approved. . . .
[369] 6. All those who are studying should attend the lectures of the [university] professors whom the rector will designate for them. It is desirable that these professors should be learned, diligent, and assiduous; and that, whether they be members of the Society or from outside it, they should be eager to further the progress of the students, both during the lectures and in the academic exercises.105 [370] If another procedure is expedient for someone, the superior will consider the matter with prudence and he may grant a dispensation. What has been said about [university] lectures does not exclude private lectures within the college or outside it when these may be necessary or profitable. [371] No member of the Society will give lectures publicly without the approbation and permission of the provincial superior, except in the lower classes or for a time because of some necessity. . . .
[372] 7. There should be a general library in the colleges, if possible, and those who in the judgment of the rector ought to have a key should have one.106 Furthermore, the individuals should have the books which are necessary for them. [373] However, they ought not to write annotations in these books; and he who has charge of the books should keep an account of them.
[374] 8. The [students] should be regular in going to the lectures, diligent in preparing for them beforehand, in repeating them afterwards, in asking about points they do not understand, and in noting down what may be useful to assist the memory later on. . . .107
[376] The superiors should consider whether it will be helpful for those just beginning their studies in the lower classes to have paper notebooks in order to write down the lectures, and note above and in the margin whatever seems useful. Those who are more advanced in the humanities and the other faculties would carry with them paper to jot down what they hear or anything which strikes them as noteworthy. Later on they should rewrite in the paper notebooks, with better arrangement and order, what they desire to keep for the future.108
[377] 9. The rector of the college should also take care to see how all, the teachers as well as the students, are fulfilling their duty in our Lord.
[378] 10. Because of the utility there is in the practice of disputation,109 especially for those who are studying arts and scholastic theology, the [students] should participate in the disputations or ordinary circles of the schools which they attend, even though these schools are not those of the Society itself; and they should endeavor to distinguish themselves both by their learning and by their modesty. Within the college too, after dinner on Sunday or some other day of the week (unless a special reason impedes the exercise), it is good to have someone from each class of the students of arts and theology, whom the rector will designate, defend some theses. During the preceding afternoon these theses will be posted in writing on the door of the schools, that those who wish may come to dispute or to listen. After these defendants have briefly proved their theses, those from within and without the house who wish to object may do so. Someone will preside to direct the disputants, to sum up the doctrine about the subject under discussion and to make it clear for the benefit of those listening, and to give the signal to stop to those who are disputing, meanwhile distributing the time in such a way that there will be room for the disputations of all of [the students]. . . .110
[380] 12. Those who are studying humanities should also have their fixed times to discuss and debate about the matters of their branch in the presence of someone who directs them. After dinner on one Sunday or other designated day they too will defend theses; and on another they will exercise themselves in writing compositions in prose or in verse, whether that is done impromptu to show their facility, or whether they bring a composition previously written and read it publicly there.111 In the first case the subject to write about is given at the place of the exercise, and in the latter case it is given earlier.
[381] 13. All, and especially the students of the humanities, should ordinarily speak Latin,112 and commit to memory what was indicated by their teachers, and bestow much practice upon the style in their compositions, and have someone to correct them.113 Moreover, some with the approval of the rector may read privately some authors besides those on whom they have lectures. After dinner on some day of each week, one of the more advanced students should deliver a Latin or Greek oration about some subject likely to edify those within and without the college and to encourage them to greater perfection in our Lord. . . .114
[383] That the students may be helped more, it would be wise to place together some of equal ability who with holy rivalry may spur one another on. . . . It will also aid them if they are reminded, upon their arrival at the houses, that after their studies they will have to be examined in all the branches which they have learned.
[384] 14. Moreover, especially those studying the arts and theology, but also the rest, ought to have their own private and undisturbed study, that they may better and more profoundly understand the matters treated. [385] In this private study (if the rector thinks it good), they could read some commentary. While they are still attending lectures in a group, there should be one, and that carefully chosen. The students could also write down what seems likely to be more useful to them.
[386] 15. Just as it is necessary to restrain those who are running too rapidly, so is it proper to stimulate, urge on, and encourage those for whom this is necessary. . . .115 If it is seen that someone is wasting his time in the college because either he does not care to advance or cannot, it is better to remove him from it and to let someone else enter in his place who will make better progress for the end sought, the service of God. [387] If someone should be unfit to study but fit for other ministries, he could be employed within the colleges or houses of the Society in something judged proper. But if he entered to become a [student] and should be unfit for both study and the other ministries, he may be dismissed. However, it will be good for the rector, after considering the case, to inform the provincial or general and to follow his order.
[388] 16. When the subject matter of one faculty has been completed, it will be good to review it, by reading, with the rector’s approval, one or more authors than the one used the first time, and by making, also with his approval, a compendium of what pertains to that branch. This compendium can be briefer and more accurately digested than the first notes which the [student] composed while he did not yet have the understanding of the matter which he has after his courses have been completed . . .116
[390] 17. At the times designated for them they should prepare themselves for the public acts of examinations and replies. Those who after careful examination are found to deserve their degrees may receive them. But to avoid every appearance of ambition or inordinate desires, they should not take special places. Rather, they should place themselves in a group independently of rank, even though indications of rank are customarily given in the university where they are studying.117 Moreover, they should not make expenditures inappropriate for poor men when they take their degrees, which should be received without detriment to humility, for the sole purpose of being better able to help one’s fellowmen for glory to God.
[391] 18. The superior should consider whether it is advisable for those who have finished their studies to lecture in private or in public for their own progress or for that of others. He should make provision according to what seems more expedient in our Lord. . . .
[446] 1. Since the end of the Society and of its studies is to aid our fellowmen to the knowledge and love of God and to the salvation of their souls; and since the branch of theology is the means most suitable to this end, in the universities of the Society the principal emphasis ought to be put upon it. Thus diligent treatment by highly capable professors should be given to what pertains to scholastic doctrine and Sacred Scripture, and also to the part of positive theology which is conducive to the aforementioned end, without entering into the part of the canons which is directed toward trials in court.
[447] 2. Moreover, since both the learning of theology and the use of it require (especially in these times119) knowledge of humane letters and of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, there should be capable professors of these languages, and that in sufficient number. Furthermore, there may also be teachers of other languages such as Chaldaic, Arabic, and Indian, where these are necessary or useful for the end stated, with attention given to the diversities of place and reasons which may move us to teach them.
[448] Under the heading of humane letters is understood, in addition to grammar, what pertains to rhetoric, poetry, and history.120
[449] When a plan is being worked out in some college or university to prepare persons to go among the Moors or Turks, Arabic or Chaldaic would be expedient; and Indian would be proper for those about to go among the Indians; and the same holds true for similar reasons in regard to other languages which could have greater utility in other regions.121
[450] 3. Likewise, since the arts or natural sciences dispose the intellectual powers for theology, and are useful for the perfect understanding and use of it, and also by their own nature help toward the same ends, they should be treated with fitting diligence and by learned professors. In all this the honor and glory of God our Lord should be sincerely sought.
[451] Logic, physics, metaphysics, and moral philosophy should be treated, and also mathematics in the measure appropriate to secure the end which is being sought. To teach how to read and write would also be a work of charity if the Society had enough members to be able to attend to everything. But because of the lack of members these elementary branches are not ordinarily taught.
[452] 4. The study of medicine and laws, being more remote from our Institute, will not be treated in the universities of the Society, or at least the Society will not undertake this teaching through its own members.122
[453] 1. To give such treatment of both the lower branches and also of theology, there should be a suitable arrangement and order both for the morning and the afternoon.
[454] 2. And although the order and hours which are spent in these studies may vary according to the regions and seasons, there should be such conformity that in every region [what is done should be judged] most conducive to greater progress in learning.
[455] Concerning the hours of the lectures, their order, and their method, and concerning the exercises both in compositions, which ought to be corrected by the teachers, and in disputations within all the faculties, and in delivering orations and reading verses in public—all this will be treated in detail in a separate treatise, approved by the general. This present constitution refers the reader to it, which the remark that it ought to be adapted to places, times, and persons, even though it would be desirable to reach that order as far as this is possible.123
[456] 3. Furthermore, there should be not only lectures which are delivered in public but also different masters according to the capacity and number of the students. These masters should take an interest in the progress of each one of their students, require them to give an account of their lessons, and make them hold repetitions. They should also make those who are studying humane letters gain practice by ordinarily speaking Latin, and by composing in a good style and delivering well what they have composed. They should make them, and much more those studying the higher branches, engage in disputations often. Days and hours should be designated for this; and in these disputations the students should debate not only with the members of their own class, but those who are somewhat lower down should dispute about matters they understand with students who are more advanced, and conversely those who are more advanced should debate with those lower down by coming down to subjects which these latter are studying. The professors too ought to hold disputations with one another, always preserving the proper modesty and having someone preside to stop the debate and give the doctrinal solution. . . .124
[460] 4. Likewise, it will always be the function of the rector to see to it himself or through the chancellor125 that the newcomers are examined and placed in those classes and with those teachers that are suitable for them. . . . According to the difference of abilities, ages, and other circumstances that must be considered, it will be the rector’s function to investigate how far each student should progress into these branches and how long he should apply himself to them, although it is better for those who have the age and ability to advance and distinguish themselves in all these areas for the glory of God our Lord. . . .
[462] 5. Just as steady application is necessary in the work of studying, so also is some relaxation. The proper amount and the times of this relaxation will be left to the prudent consideration of the rector to determine, according to the circumstances of persons and places. . . .
[464] 1. In general, as was stated in the treatise of the colleges,126 in each faculty those books will be lectured on which are found to contain more solid and safe doctrine; and those which are suspect, or whose authors are suspect, will not be taken up. But in each university these should be individually designated. In theology there should be lectures on the Old and New Testaments and on the scholastic doctrine of St. Thomas; and in positive theology those authors should be selected who are more suitable for our end.
[465] Even though the book is without suspicion of bad doctrine, when its author is suspect it is not expedient that it be lectured on. For through the book affection is acquired for the author; and some part of the credence given to him in what he says well could be given to him later in what he says unsoundly. Furthermore, it rarely occurs that some poison is not mixed into what comes forth from a heart full of it.127
[466] The [Book of Sentences] will also be lectured on. But if in time it seems that the students will draw more help from another author, as would be the case through the writing of some compendium or book of scholastic theology that seems better adapted to these times of ours, it will be permitted to make this book the subject of the lectures, after much weighing of counsel and examination of the matter by the persons deemed fit in the whole Society and with the superior general’s approval. . .128
[468] 2. In regard to the books of humane letters in Latin or Greek, in the universities as well as in the colleges, lecturing to the adolescents on any book which contains matters harmful to good habits of conduct should be avoided, as far as possible, unless the books are previously expurgated of the objectionable matters and words. [469] If some books, such as Terence, cannot be expurgated at all, it is better that they should not be lectured on, in order that the nature of the contents may not injure the purity of the minds.129
[470] 3. In logic, natural and moral philosophy, and metaphysics, the doctrine of Aristotle should be followed, as also in the other liberal arts. In regard to the commentaries, both on these authors and on those treating humanities, a selection should be made. Those which the students ought to see should be designated, and also those which the masters ought to follow by preference in the doctrine they teach.
[471] 1. In the study of humane letters and the languages a definite period of time for their completion cannot be established, because of the difference in abilities and knowledge of those who attend the lectures. . . . [472] In the case of beginners of good ability, an effort should be made to discern whether a semester in each of the four lower classes would be enough, and two semesters in the highest class spent in studying rhetoric and the languages. But a definite rule cannot be given.
[473] 2. In the arts, it will be necessary to arrange the terms in which the natural sciences are to be lectured upon. It seems that less than three years would be insufficient for them. Another half year will remain for the student to review, perform his academic acts, and take the degree of master in the case of those who are to receive degrees. In this way the whole curriculum enabling a student to become a master of arts will last three years and a half.130 Each year with the help of God one such cycle of treatises will begin and another will come to its end. . . .
[478] 4. In the matter of the degrees, both of master of arts and of doctor of theology, three things should be observed. First, no one, whether a member of the Society or an extern, should be promoted to a degree unless he has been carefully and publicly examined by persons deputed for this office, which they should perform well, and unless he has been found fit to lecture in that faculty. Second, the door to ambition should be closed by giving no fixed places to those who receive degrees; rather, they should “anticipate one another with honor” [Romans 12: 10], without observing any distinction which arises from places. Third, just as the Society teaches altogether gratis, so should it confer the degrees completely free, and only a very small expenditure, even though it is voluntary, should be allowed to the extern students, that the custom may not come to have the force of law and that excess in this matter may not creep in with time. The rector should also take care not to permit any of the teachers or other members of the Society to accept money or gifts, either for themselves of for the college, from any person for anything he has done to help him. For according to our Institute, our reward should be only Christ our Lord, who is “our reward exceedingly great” [Genesis 15: 1].
[479] If it appears, for sufficiently weighty reasons, that someone ought not to be examined publicly, with the permission of the general or provincial that may be done which the rector judges will be for the greater glory of God our Lord.
[480] Thus, banquets should not be permitted, nor other celebrations which are costly and not useful for our end. Neither should there be any conferring of college caps or gloves or any other object.