Kings . . . Lucius Brutus: Tacitus sets the principate within the history of Rome, showing that one-man rule had long been in evidence in one form or another. The notion of the traditional first six kings of Rome owes more to legend than to fact, as does the tradition surrounding Lucius Brutus, who established ‘liberty’, a term that to Tacitus meant essentially the old republic. The traditional date of the first consulship is 509 BC.
decemvirs: successive boards of ten patricians were set up in 451 BC to create a legal code. They produced the law of the Twelve Tables.
military tribunes: before 367, at which point plebeians were allowed to hold the consulship, a temporary expedient was devised of substituting consuls by tribunes with consular authority, open to both plebeians and patricians.
Cinna: the last century BC saw the emergence of powerful generals as the dominating political force in Rome. Cinna, who held four consulships in a row, was killed in 84 BC while marching against his enemy Sulla, who was appointed dictator in 82 BC but gave up the office in the following year.
Crassus: the alliance of Pompey, Julius Caesar, and Crassus in 60 BC is loosely referred to as the first triumvirate. Crassus died at Carrhae in 53, Pompey after the battle of Pharsalus in 43. The second triumvirate, more properly so named, resulted from the partnership, legally established in 43 BC, of Augustus (then Octavian), Antonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Lepidus was a spent force from 36 BC, and the defeat of Antonius, at Actium in 31 left Augustus in effective control.
without rancour or bias: sine ira et studio, possibly the most famous phrase of Tacitus. His evident antipathy towards the Julio-Claudian ruling family makes his claim unconvincing.
Brutus and Cassius: Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, leading figures in the conspiracy against Julius Caesar, committed suicide after the battle of Philippi in 43 BC.
Pompeius: Sextus Pompeius, the son of Pompey, and an able seacommander. He opposed Octavian, over whom he gained two naval victories in 38 BC, but was crushed at the battle of Naulochus off Sicily in 36.
Caesar Octavian: after his adoption by Julius Caesar, Octavius followed Roman custom when he assumed his adopting father’s name with an adjectival form of his own, Octavianus.
provinces: Tacitus plays down the benefits that the principate, with its heightened central control, brought to the provinces, which under the republic had frequently suffered from the greed of corrupt officials.
Augustus: this name was bestowed on Octavian when he reached a settlement with the Senate in 27 BC. It was assumed by each emperor thereafter.
Claudius Marcellus: the betrothal of Marcellus, son of Augustus’ sister Octavia, to his daughter Julia, and his promotion to public office, were the first signs that the emperor hoped to be succeeded from within his own family, one of the features of the monarchical system that Augustus supposedly abjured. Marcellus died in 23 BC.
Marcus Agrippa: a capable and loyal soldier, and one of the main supporters of Augustus, he had been offended by the advancement of Marcellus. After the latter’s death, he was married to Julia and his children Gaius and Lucius were adopted by Augustus. He died in 12 BC.
Tiberius Nero and Claudius Drusus: sons of Augustus’ wife Livia by her former husband. Both were able and distinguished soldiers. Drusus died when crushed by his horse on campaign in 9 BC. Tiberius would succeed Augustus as emperor in AD 14.
Livia: Tacitus consistently depicts Livia as an evil schemer, hell-bent on the succession of her son Tiberius. The deliberate, if imprecise, use of the negative term noverca, ‘stepmother’, reinforces the unsympathetic impression. Other historical sources are far less hostile towards Livia than is Tacitus.
Gaius and Lucius . . . by a wound: the circumstances of their deaths, particularly in the case of Gaius, who died in AD 4 (Lucius died in AD 2), all but preclude sinister agency.
Agrippa Postumus: the posthumous son of Agrippa was exiled in AD 7, ultimately to Planasia, a small island between Elba and Corsica, for reasons that are unclear. He may have been mentally unstable.
Germanicus: the grandson of Livia was married to Augustus’ granddaughter Agrippina (the Elder), and Tiberius was obliged to adopt him as his son at the time of his own adoption by Augustus in AD 4, another clear indication of Augustus’ desire to be succeeded ultimately from within his own line.
adolescent son: Tiberius was married to Julia in her third ‘political’ marriage. To enable this he was obliged to divorce his first wife Vipsania (daughter of Agrippa) of whom he reputedly remained very fond. They had a surviving son, Drusus, born about 13 BC.
Quinctilius Varus: consul in 13 BC with Tiberius, and married to a daughter of Agrippa. His loss of four legions in the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9 was the greatest military setback of Augustus’ reign and marked the end of his ambitions in Germany. Tiberius took command in the area and was largely responsible for preventing the aftermath becoming even more disastrous.
arrogance: the Claudian pride was notorious, and could be traced back to at least Appius Claudius in the mid-fifth century BC, a distinguished lawgiver but also a ruthless defiler of women.
Rhodes: resentment over the advancement of Gaius and Lucius provoked Tiberius to withdraw from Rome in 6 BC and lead a retiring, scholarly life in Rhodes. He remained there for eight years, returning only in AD 2 after the deaths of his supposed rivals.
Fabius Maximus: a literary figure of some standing, Paullus Fabius Maximus was a friend of Ovid and Horace. He was also an intimate of Augustus, held the consulship in 11 BC and was governor of Asia and legate in Spain. He was a plausible individual to be involved in the expedition.
Planasia: the story of Augustus’ supposed reconciliation with Agrippa Postumus and the visit to Planasia is considered by most modern historians to be highly unlikely, perhaps an imaginative reconstruction after the event to provide Livia with a motive for wanting to eliminate her husband.
Whatever the truth: Tiberius had accompanied Augustus and Livia to Campania. He then left them to proceed to his command in Dalmatia; he was soon summoned back to Augustus’ villa at Nola. The story of the guards securing the spot and issuing regular bulletins is suspiciously reminiscent of the measures taken by Agrippina as Claudius lay dying (12.68).
Nola: on a visit to Campania in AD 14, Augustus fell ill and retired to his family estate at Nola, where he died, on 19 August.
The first criminal act: the phraseology is echoed at the beginning of Book 13, when the new reign of Nero is introduced.
The more likely explanation: the supposed roles of Tiberius and Livia in the death of Agrippa are no more than speculation, and the rhetorical use of ‘stepmother’ is once again to be noted.
Sallustius Crispus: the great-nephew and adopted son of Sallust the historian, he was an entrepreneur and close adviser to both Augustus and Tiberius (see 2.40, 3.30).
In Rome: the nature of the oath sworn to Tiberius is far from certain, nor is its constitutional significance clear. It does not seem to be the oath of allegiance later taken to uphold the enactments of the emperor.
Seius Strabo: father of Sejanus.
Gaius Turranius: he disappears from the narrative until AD 48 (11.31).
prefect . . . grain supply: the prefectures of the praetorian guard and of the grain supply were the two most important offices open to equestrians.
Germanicus: he enjoyed a special grant of imperium, which gave him authority in Gaul and over the two commanders of Lower and Upper Germany, with their four legions. He had in fact given no sign that he was interested in seeking the principate. All of his actions suggest loyalty to Tiberius.
Vestal Virgins: the temple of Vesta, tended by the special order of Vestal Virgins (normally six), was regularly used for the depositing of important documents.
Livia: the posthumous adoption of Livia was remarkable. Technically, it ensured that Tiberius, already adopted by Augustus, would be a Julian on both sides. Testamentary adoptions were rare (although there was a precedent in Augustus’ own case, since he was adopted by Julius Caesar in his will) and there is no known parallel for such adoptions of females, let alone of wives. Livia’s assumption of the Julian title may have led her to believe that she inherited with it some of the Augustan prerogatives, a belief that caused constant friction between her and Tiberius.
Asinius Gallus: consul in 8 BC, the governor of Asia, son of the famous literary patron Asinius Pollio, consul in 40 BC. The son was considered ambitious by Augustus. Tiberius’ personal dislike and mistrust of him contributed to his arrest in AD 30 and his death later by starvation.
triumphal gate: the gate, of uncertain location, through which generals entered Rome to celebrate their triumphs.
Lucius Arruntius: consul in 3 BC, a distinguished lawyer who incurred the wrath of two guard commanders, Sejanus and Macro. Towards the end of Tiberius’ reign, he was falsely accused of being involved in a plot against the emperor and committed suicide.
Messala Valerius: Marcus Valerius Messalla Messalinus was consul in 3 BC. He was the son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus (see note to p. 155).
deified Julius: there were riots at Caesar’s funeral, when the bier was set on fire in the Forum (Suetonius, Jul. 84; Plutarch, Caes. 68; Dio 44.50).
consulships: Augustus held the office thirteen times, Marcus Valerius Corvinus held it six times in the fourth century BC, Marius seven times between 107 and 86 BC.
marvellously embellished: Suetonius (Aug. 28) famously records Augustus as saying that he had found a city of brick and left one of marble.
consul’s legions: two legions deserted Antonius for Octavian in November 44 BC.
Pompeian party: the old party of Pompey, opposed to Antonius and courted by Octavian out of political expediency.
Hirtius and Pansa: consuls of 43 BC; Pansa was killed as a result of an attack by Antonius; Hirtius was killed at the battle of Mutina. Suspicion was attached to the deaths of both (Suetonius, Aug. 11).
Pompeius: i.e. Sextus Pompeius.
Tarentum and Brundisium: treaties in 40 and 37 respectively. The marriage of Octavia to Antonius bought a temporary truce between the two men.
Lollius: Marcus Lollius, consul 21 BC, was defeated by the Germans in 17 or 16 BC.
Varro, Egnatius, and Iullus: men executed for involvement in conspiracies, or suspicion of involvement. Iullus Antonius (son of Marcus Antonius) was one of Julia’s lovers and was forced to commit suicide.
Nero’s wife: Tiberius Nero seems to have been willing to give up his wife to Augustus, but much criticism attached to the fact that she was pregnant (with Drusus) at the time of her second marriage.
Vedius Pollio: notorious for his wealth and cruelty. His friendship seems later to have been a source of embarrassment to Augustus.
temples: Pergamum was granted the right to construct a temple to Rome and Augustus in 27 BC.
document: Suetonius (Aug. 101) observes that Augustus had deposited three documents, apart from his will: (i) instructions for his funeral; (ii) a list of his achievements (Res Gestae); (iii) an outline of the military and financial resources of the state. It is clearly the last that Tiberius read out loud.
Vipsania: Tiberius had been betrothed to Agrippa’s daughter. Gallus married her after her forced divorce from Tiberius in 11 BC.
Marcus Lepidus: consul in AD 6 and legate of Tiberius in the campaign against the Dalmatians, governor of Nearer Spain in 14, and of Asia in 26. His daughter Aemilia Lepida married Drusus, the son of Germanicus. Older readings of the MS gave M’ instead of M, hence Manius Lepidus, an insignificant grandson of the triumvir.
Gnaeus Piso: consul in 7 BC, he plays a central role in Tacitus’ later narrative (from 2.43 on), where he is implicated in the supposed murder of Germanicus.
Quintus Haterius . . . Scaurus: Haterius, an elderly lawyer, consul in 5 BC, and noted for his excitable oratorical style, was nearly 80 by this stage. Scaurus, consul in AD 21, by contrast, was considered dangerous and unethical, and committed suicide when accused of treason in 32.
adulation: the measures enacted for Livia were extraordinary, including a female version of the important title Pater Patriae (‘Father of the Nation’) and the inclusion of her filiation in Tiberius’ titles. Tiberius, who had a personal aversion to honorifics, no doubt felt that in her case they would elevate her to an official state role.
Augusta: as well as being adopted into the Julian family, Livia received a female form of her husband’s title (Augusta) in his will. The honour was granted sparingly during the Julio-Claudian period, more frequently after that.
lictor: as priestess of the deified Augustus, Livia was entitled to a special attendant or lictor (the emperor had twelve), but Tiberius seems to have restricted its use to the performance of her priestly duties, a restriction exaggerated by Tacitus.
nominated: the process by which the emperor approved candidates for higher office is much disputed.
elections: Tiberius gave control of the elections to the Senate in that they apparently were able to send the names of people to be elected to the popular assemblies for their formal ratification. This measure was revoked by Caligula.
Augustal Games: the Ludi Augustales (see also 1.54) were based on the earlier Augustalia, games established in October 19 BC on Augustus’ return from the East.
Pannonia: at the time it was the home of the Eighth, Ninth, and Fifteenth legions.
Junius Blaesus: consul in AD 10, uncle of Sejanus, a distinguished military commander, and the last private citizen to receive the acclamation of Imperator, for victories in Africa.
so many years: in AD 6 the term of a legionary’s service was fixed at twenty years, followed by several years’ service in a special unit of veterans.
praetorian cohorts: under Augustus, the praetorian guard consisted of nine cohorts. Members enjoyed considerable privileges, including higher pay and shorter terms of service.
eagles: the general Marius (157–86 BC) was the first to give each legion its own standard, a metal eagle at the end of a pole. The smaller units (maniples) within the cohorts also had their own distinctive standards.
camp prefect: he was responsible for the practical day-to-day operations of the legionary camp. He would have field command only in the absence of the legate.
Germany: mutinies had broken out among the Rhine legions also (see below), but it is highly unlikely that news of them could have reached Pannonia by this time.
gladiators: almost certainly kept for providing local entertainment.
Drusus: Drusus’ competence and leadership in Pannonia stands in contrast to Germanicus’ handling of the German mutinies (see below).
German: Germans, mainly from Batavia, constituted the main element of the emperor’s private bodyguard. They had been disbanded after the Varian disaster but revived shortly afterwards. They proved to be fiercely loyal.
Aelius Sejanus: this is the first mention of the sinister prefect of the praetorian guard. At this time command was split between two men, but shortly afterwards Sejanus strengthened his position by becoming sole commander.
many campaigns: Tiberius served in Pannonia, 12–9 BC and AD 6–9.
Gnaeus Lentulus: see 2.32, 3.59 and 68, and 4.29; Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus (Augur) was consul in 14 BC and won victories on the Danube against the Getae, probably in 10–6 BC, and was awarded triumphal insignia, perhaps in 9 BC. He was a loyal supporter of the imperial house. He died in AD 25 (see 4.44). According to Seneca (De Beneficiis 2.27.1), he was renowned for his wealth, his stinginess, and his stupidity.
moon: the eclipse occurred at 5 a.m. Universal Time, 27 September, about 6 a.m. in Pannonia. Tacitus’ description perhaps suits the preliminary phase of an eclipse, seen shortly before morning twilight.
Neros and Drususes: Nero and Drusus were the cognomina of the two main branches of the Claudian clan (gens).
two armies: at this time there were, strictly speaking, no German provinces, only two military districts housing four legions each, and each under an overall military commander.
Gaius Silius: consul in AD 13 and a distinguished soldier. He committed suicide in AD 24 when accused of treason (4.18–20). His son was the last lover of Messalina, the wife of Claudius.
Aulus Caecina: consul in 1 BC; his impressive military career has been overshadowed by a celebrated if unfortunate speech in the Senate on the dangers of allowing provincial governors to be accompanied by their wives (see 3.33–4).
levy in Rome: recruits were hastily levied in Rome to fill the gaps left after the Varian disaster.
their name: the cognomen ‘Germanicus’ had been conferred on Germanicus’ father Drusus and his posterity.
sixty . . . number of centurions: after the military reforms of Marius each of the ten cohorts of the legion had six centurions.
Gaius Caesar: Caligula.
Cassius Chaerea: he assassinated Caligula on the Palatine in AD 41. He was afterwards executed by Claudius.
stepmother’s: Livia was the stepmother of Agrippina’s mother, Julia.
victories and triumphs: Tiberius had enjoyed a brilliant military career before his accession; he was awarded an ovation in 9 BC for his campaigns against the Dalmatians and Pannonians, and triumphs in 7 BC for victories over the Germans, and in AD 12 for victories over the Illyrians. Velleius (2.122) claims, however, that he could rightly have claimed four more triumphs.
altar of the Ubii: ara Ubiorum. An altar, probably to Rome and Augustus, had been established in the capital, no doubt with the intention that it might become a cult centre for a whole province, on the analogy of Lugdunum. Here the phrase simply stands for ‘City of the Ubii’.
Munatius Plancus: consul in AD 13 with Gaius Silius. He is probably the brother of Plancina (2.43).
descendant: Agrippina was the daughter of Julia the Elder, and hence Augustus’ granddaughter.
son: their son was the 2-year-old future emperor Caligula, who had been sent by Augustus to join his parents. In the camp he had become a mascot of the soldiers, dressed by his mother in a miniature uniform (1.41).
fertility: Agrippina bore nine children, of whom six survived infancy.
born in the camp: Tacitus is almost certainly mistaken here. Suetonius (Cal. 8.1) provides a useful discussion of the question and is categorical that Caligula was born in Antium (Anzio), and notes that he saw the birth entered there in the public record.
footwear: his miniature uniform included the caligae, or military shoes. His name is a diminutive of this word.
Quirites: originally inhabitants of the Sabine city of Cures. The Romans used the term to refer to themselves in a civil capacity. Suetonius (Jul. 70) places the incident in 70 BC, just before Caesar’s African campaign.
Augustus: Suetonius (Aug. 17.4) records that Augustus dealt with the mutinous troops in Brundisium after Actium by making concessions to them, although he also records without context (Aug. 24.2) that he disbanded the Tenth Legion because of insubordination.
entreaty: Dio (57.6.1) provides a different account, less favourable to Germanicus, that Agrippina and Caligula were seized by the troops and reluctantly released when it was felt that their detention would achieve nothing. Suetonius (Cal. 48.1) reports in a later context that Caligula planned to punish the troops because they had seized him during the revolt.
Augustus: he had gone to Gaul for three years in 16 BC, at the age of 47. At the time of the mutinies Tiberius was 54. Tacitus seems to be overcome by his own rhetoric.
Julia: born in 39 BC, the daughter of Augustus and Scribonia, she had been married to Augustus’ nephew, Marcellus, then to his friend and commander, Marcus Agrippa, then to Tiberius. She was involved in a major sexual scandal in 2 BC, perhaps with political overtones. Although allowed to move to a less arduous place of residence on the mainland, she remained in exile to her death.
Sempronius Gracchus: a kinsman of the Gracchus brothers and the first of the family since his famous ancestors to be mentioned in the historical record.
Lucius Asprenas: consul in AD 6, he was the cousin of Quinctilius Varus and served under him in Germany before becoming governor of Africa.
Augustal brothers: the formal consecration of Augustus as a god took place on 17 September AD 14, and a priestly college was established to tend to his cult. It was modelled on a very ancient order, the Titii Sodales, associated here by Tacitus with the supposed early Sabine king of Rome, although their origins are much disputed.
Maecenas: the trusted friend and adviser of Augustus, and a notable patron of literature. He died in 8 BC.
Bathyllus: a freedman of Maecenas and famous pantomime actor, who by mime gestures would act out familiar mythological stories. Pantomimes were enormously popular, with their own factions of supporters.
triumph: the triumph was the preserve of the emperor and his family. The permission for Germanicus to celebrate one despite achieving little of military significance suggests, despite Tacitus, that Tiberius did not begrudge Germanicus token recognition.
Arminius: the legendary German leader of the Cherusci, he held Roman citizenship and had served in the Roman army, but became Rome’s bitterest enemy. He was responsible for the defeat of Varus. He was killed in AD 17, and later became a symbol of German nationalism, especially during the Napoleonic wars. The massive Hermannsdenkmal was erected in the Teutoburg Forest in the early nineteenth century.
Segestes: father-in-law of Arminius and a bitter opponent of him.
Lucius Apronius: consul in AD 8, a distinguished military commander, who would be awarded triumphal insignia for this campaign. He went on later to be the commander in Lower Germany and to serve in Africa against Tacfarinas.
priest: his duties would have included the cult of the deified Augustus.
appropriate point: the account of the insult must have been covered in the lost books (see 2.10 and 46).
youth: in fact, Germanicus and Arminius were more or less the same age.
Pedo: Albinovanus Pedo was a friend of Ovid and wrote a verse account (now lost) of Germanicus’ campaign of the following year.
first camp: the historical accounts of the battle in Dio, Florus, Velleius, and Tacitus are confused and contradictory. Most likely the first camp is not Varus’ semi-permanent headquarters but a marching camp which had been abandoned and to which the remnant of the army retreated after the major attack.
augurate: there was a general taboo on Roman priests handling dead bodies, although the severity of the prohibition may have varied from college to college. Suetonius (Cal. 3) has him actually handling dead bodies, which seems to have been sanitized in Tacitus’ account.
Lucius Domitius: Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul in AD 16, was married to Antonia the Elder, daughter of Antonius and Augustus’ sister Octavia, and grandfather of the emperor Nero. He led Roman troops across the Elbe in 2 BC (4.44; Dio 55.10a.2–3).
fortieth season: Tacitus may be using round numbers, since at 3.33, by which time (AD 21) Caecina had served at the very least in one further campaign (in AD 16), he similarly refers to his service in forty campaigns.
successes and reverses: Tacitus no doubt has in mind Caecina’s less than impressive handling of the mutinies in the previous year, but Velleius (2.112.3–6) also expresses concerns about his leadership abilities in Pannonia in AD 7.
Gaius Plinius: this is one of the few occasions where Tacitus explicitly names his source, Pliny the Elder’s twenty books on the wars in Germany (Bella Germaniae). Pliny had served there and was supposedly asked by Drusus in a dream to record his achievements.
Agrippina: if the traditional year for the birth of Agrippina the Younger (AD 15) is correct, and we know that the month was November, Agrippina the Elder must have been in an advanced stage of pregnancy during the bridge incident, which occurred just before the autumn equinox (1.70).
woman: Tiberius had very firm views on the appropriate role for women, and especially on their involving themselves in military matters. The concerns about Agrippina will be echoed later in the account of the behaviour in Syria of Plancina, wife of Calpurnius Piso (2.55).
Publius Vitellius: uncle of the later emperor, he commanded troops in Germany under Germanicus and was later one of those who accused Piso of murdering Germanicus (2.74, 3.13). He would commit suicide in AD 31 when accused of embezzlement (6[5].8).
equinox: the autumn equinox, in late September, marked the usual end of the campaigning season.
triumphal insignia: Germanicus, as the emperor’s (adopted) son, celebrated a triumph in his own right.
Cassius Severus’: a vitriolic orator, banished in AD 8 or 13. His final place of exile was the barren island of Seriphos, where he died in AD 32 (see 4.21). The ban on his works was lifted by Caligula.
votaries of Augustus: the reference is not to the official college of Augustus, the sodales Augustales, but to the worship of Augustus in private homes.
perjury: the swearing of oaths by the genius of Augustus occurred during that emperor’s lifetime, from about 12 BC. Rubrius apparently had sworn a false oath by Augustus’ name.
consuls: the involvement of the consuls shows that this case was brought before the Senate, not the praetor’s court. The senatorial court seems to have emerged towards the end of Augustus’ reign.
games: Livia established a three-day festival on the Palatine in honour of Augustus, which was celebrated by subsequent emperors.
type of livelihood: in the absence of a public prosecutor in Rome, accusations were instigated by private individuals (delatores), who were rewarded if the prosecution was successful. The vagueness of the maiestas laws encouraged the emergence of a professional class of delatores who saw accusations as a source of wealth.
first: Roman senators voted according to a strict order of precedence. The emperor could use the tribunician intercession to intervene at any stage.
embezzlement: oddly, when the charge against Marcellus is noted at the beginning of the chapter there is no mention of embezzlement.
board of assessors: a board of three or more judges (reciperatores), with a long history, established originally to handle cases involving legal issues between Roman and foreign states. It is difficult to determine a specific competence for the board in the imperial period.
praetors of the treasury: from 23 BC the treasury had been under the charge of two praetors, selected by lot.
financial problems: membership of the Senate required a census-rating that by the end of Augustus’ life was set at one million sesterces.
authorized: the increasing uses of curatores, officials with responsibility for specific administrative taxes, was one of the hallmarks of the principate. Dio ascribes to this period the establishment of a permanent board to deal with the problems of the flooding of the Tiber. Ateius Capito had in AD 13 been appointed curator aquarum, responsible for Rome’s water-supply. He died in 22 (3.75).
Achaea and Macedonia: the division of responsibility of the provinces made by Augustus underwent a number of adjustments. Tiberius placed these two provinces under the authority of the legate of Moesia, which would have relieved them of the considerable expenditures of the proconsul and his staff. They were restored to the Senate by Claudius in 44.
Haterius Agrippa: consul in AD 22, he was the son of Quintus Haterius. As tribune, he was able to invoke the privilege of vetoing legislation.
not subject to floggings: this is misleading. Augustus had imposed a restriction on magistrates wanting the authority to inflict summary scourging at any time. Actors could still be scourged if convicted of specific infractions.
theatre: actors were restricted to public performances, so that the state could maintain control over them.
temple: this was the first temple to be dedicated to the deified Augustus alone.
one per cent sales tax: the 1 per cent inheritance tax instituted by Augustus was very unpopular. Tiberius was under constant pressure to remove it and he does seem to have reduced it, but only temporarily, to 0.5 per cent. It was abolished by Caligula.
military treasury: the establishment of a treasury, funded by the 1 per cent tax, to provide soldiers’ pensions was one of Augustus’ deftest moves, since it removed the danger that discharged soldiers would look to their individual commanders to provide for them.
colonies: these were originally settlements of Roman veterans, but by this period the status could be conferred on other communities. They were distinguished from municipalities by greater privileges, in particular a greater degree of self-government.
Poppaeus Sabinus: consul in AD 9 and grandfather of Nero’s second wife Poppaea, he served as Augustus’ legate in Moesia for two years and was subsequently reappointed continuously by Tiberius for twenty-two years until his death in 35. Protracted periods of service were not a Tiberian innovation. In about AD 6, Augustus had started to extend the terms of his legates to meet the crisis posed by the serious military situation in that year. Moesia comprised what is now Serbia and Bulgaria.
for the first time: candidates for AD 15 had been designated before Augustus died.
surmised: the precise procedure followed by Tiberius here is very obscure. Tacitus may possibly mean that Tiberius handed over all the names submitted to him and left it to the Senate to make the actual election, but the situation is far from clear.
Parthians: the events in Parthia during the period covered by the Annals are confused and obscure. In stating that difficulties started at this period, Tacitus simplifies. Eastern affairs had long been in chaos.
Arsacid family: the ruling dynasty of Parthia, named after Arsaces I (c.247–217). Phraates IV, who ruled from about 38 to 3/2 BC, handed over his children to the care of Augustus (Strabo 16.1.28). They included his son Vonones I, who ruled briefly in AD 8/9.
Crassus . . . Antonius: Crassus was defeated by the Parthians at the battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and Antonius by Phraates IV in 36.
Artabanus: Artabanus II, ruler of Parthia AD 10/11–38.
Artavasdes: Artavasdes II came to power in 54 BC. He was captured by Antonius in 34 BC and handed over to Cleopatra, who put him to death.
Artaxias: Artaxias II ruled Armenia from 34 to 20 BC. On his assassination in 20 BC Tigranes III, also the son of Artavasdes, ruled until about 6 BC.
his children’s: the children of Tigranes III, Tigranes IV and his sister Erato, ruled jointly from 6 BC as husband and wife. Their rule was a chequered one, as they at one point lost then regained their kingdom, and after Tigranes’ death Erato briefly recovered the throne in her own right. Tacitus has chosen not to recount these complex events in detail.
Gaius Caesar: he was sent to the eastern province in 1 BC, and was wounded in Armenia in AD 3, dying of his wounds the following year. As ruler of Armenia he appointed Ariobarzanes, who died soon thereafter, to be succeeded by Artavasdes III, who remained until AD 12.
Creticus Silanus: Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus Silanus was consul in AD 7.
appropriate point: at 2.68.
For Tiberius . . . the vagaries of fortune: Tacitus’ account of Germanicus’ campaigns in AD 16 is not totally convincing, and he fails to explain why Germanicus withdrew his forces if his victories had been as decisive as presented. Another problem is Tacitus’ failure to explain why so little use was made of the fleet, so carefully prepared. Finally, Tacitus’ characterization of Tiberius’ motives must be viewed with caution. The emperor no doubt feared that Germanicus was placing Roman troops in a seriously exposed position.
Publius Vitellius: see note to p. 43.
fleet: the ships used in AD 15 had proved unsuitable for coastal waters (1.70) and a new fleet had to be built.
Where it borders Germany: this is the Old Rhine, very minor, flowing through Leiden and Utrecht.
Drusian Fosse: this refers both to the canal, about two miles long, that Drusus built between the northern section of the Rhine and the Yssel, and also to the widened section of the Yssel itself.
left side: the passage is very confused and the precise picture that Tacitus is trying to convey has been much disputed.
Angrivarii: the reference is confusing. In 2.19 they are placed east of the Weser. For them to be to the rear of Germanicus at least part of the tribe must have been settled to the west of the river, as implied also by Germ. 34, which has them bordering the Frisians.
speak with his brother: the account is dubious, given the width of the Weser.
Permission was granted: some words have evidently dropped out of the text at this point. It must be assumed that in the missing section Flavus was accompanied down to the river.
hundred sesterces: that is, the equivalent of 25 denarii. Given that the annual pay for a legionary rate was 225 denarii, a promise of a daily rate of 25 would not have been taken very seriously. The mutineers in AD 14 demanded one denarius a day (1.17).
no fighting: with the friendship or neutrality of Maroboduus to the south and the Suebi beyond the Elbe there would be no serious opposition.
his father and his uncle: Drusus had reached the Elbe in 9 BC and Tiberius in AD 5.
praetorian: two praetorian cohorts had similarly been sent with Drusus to Illyricum (1.24).
victory: the speed with which the Germans regrouped demonstrates that this claim is highly exaggerated.
Imperator: Tiberius’ coins do not in fact record an extra salutation until AD 20 (Imperator VIII) and the honour may have been declined on this occasion.
Seius Tubero: friend of Tiberius, relative of Sejanus (Velleius 2.127.3) and consul in AD 18. In Germany he had presumably replaced Lucius Apronius, who is recorded at this time in Rome (2.32).
reducing the tribes: this is a considerable exaggeration, since Germanicus had not even reached the Elbe and withdrew after each campaign. How closely Tacitus follows the original wording of the inscription is not clear. The precedence of Mars over Jupiter might suggest some creativity.
Angrivarii: the MS reading here may be incorrect. The action is described as taking place ‘presently’, hence after the return to the Ems, and a reference here to a western section of the tribe must be assumed.
summer now far advanced: July. Germanicus returned early, presumably fearing the equinoctial gales he had experienced in the previous year (1.70).
islands: presumably near the mouth of the Ems or Weser. There is in fact no rocky island closer than Heligoland and the reference here is probably a piece of literary embellishment.
Ocean: the Romans thought of Oceanus as a great expanse of water that encircled the world. The term was used especially of the North Sea.
Chatti: Rome’s most powerful German enemy at this time.
return for the triumph: Germanicus had been awarded a triumph in AD 15 (see 1.55). Tiberius was in an awkward position. He by now perhaps had reason to question Germanicus’ competence as a commander in the field, but had to avoid any public confirmation of this lack of confidence.
Libo Drusus: the precise nature of Drusus’ activities is difficult to determine. The Fasti of Amiternum (13 September) speak of his nefaria consilia (‘wicked plans’) against Tiberius and his family and other leading citizens. By focusing on the charges about astrologers and passing over those of conspiracy, Tacitus plays down the seriousness of the case against Libo. Seneca comments that he lacked imagination (stolidus) and had ambitions far beyond his talents (Ep. 70.10).
Chaldeans: the name of this ancient people of Babylonia is frequently used as a synonym for astrologers.
Pompey: Libo’s mother Pompeia was the daughter of Sextus Pompeius and of Scribonia, niece of Augustus’ first wife; hence Libo would have been a distant cousin of Julia (Scribonia’s daughter by Augustus). It has been argued that he was the champion of a disaffected Julian faction. There was a further link to the imperial family, in that his father had been adopted by Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, father of Livia.
a praetorship: it is not clear to what year this refers; it is likely that he had been designated praetor for the following year, but a praetorship in 16 cannot be ruled out.
dinner-parties: a prized honour. Vespasian is said to have thanked Caligula publicly for just such an invitation (Suetonius, Vesp. 2).
Fulcinius Trio: a notorious delator and consul in 31 at the time of Sejanus’ fall, he will reappear on a number of occasions, and will commit suicide in 35 (3.10, 19; 5.11; 6.38).
Gaius Vibius: he later became governor of Spain (4.13).
one by one: this would ensure that the charges would be argued separately without a lengthy speech from either side.
torture: slaves were obliged to give their testimony under torture even if they were willing to volunteer it. Otherwise it would not be valid.
old decree: even in Cicero’s time there were exceptions to the rule that slaves could not testify against their master. The restriction was waived in cases involving incest and in special situations such as conspiracy.
legal precedents: Dio (55.5.4) in fact claims that this device was employed by Augustus as early as 8 BC.
treasury agent: Tacitus’ term is actor publicus, an official whose responsibilities are unknown.
Publius Quirinius: Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was consul in 12 BC, married to Aemilia Lepida, a descendant, like Libo, of Pompey (see 3.22, 48).
swore: it is by no means clear why Tiberius needed to make this declaration on oath.
divided: traditionally, the estate of those who committed suicide before condemnation was not confiscated, but the accusers were still entitled to a share, usually one-fourth. Unusually, in this case the whole estate seems to have been divided among them.
Cotta Messalinus: consul in AD 20, son of the famous Corvinus (see note to p. 8), he was much despised by Tacitus, though admired by Ovid. He will reappear several times in the Annals (4.20, 5.3, 6.5).
image: a similar restriction was placed on the effigies of Brutus and Cassius (3.76), which could be owned privately but not displayed in public.
cognomen: this prohibition had republican antecedents. According to Dio, in 30 BC it was decreed that no member of the gens Antonia could carry the praenomen of Marcus.
Pomponius Flaccus: consul in 17.
Gallus Asinius: see note to p. 8.
Lucius Apronius: see note to p. 34.
decrees: Dio (57.15.8) describes the stringent measures taken against astrologers.
rock: the Tarpeian Rock, from which condemned criminals were hurled.
ancient manner: the head was fastened by the neck in a fork and the body beaten to death with rods. This form of death was decreed for Nero (Suetonius, Nero 49).
Quintus Haterius: see note to p. 12.
vessels for serving food: a distinction was made between the plate used at banquets and that intended for sacred rituals.
Lucius Piso: (augur), consul in 1 BC and brother of Gnaeus Piso (see note to p. 12), whom he will defend in his trial for the murder of Germanicus. Himself charged in 24, Lucius died before his own case was heard (4.21).
Urgulania: the grandmother of Claudius’ wife Plautia Urgulanilla and of the consul Plautius Urgulanius.
Augusta: during Augustus’ lifetime Livia had projected an image of self-effacing modesty. As Tiberius’reign progressed, she became increasingly conscious of her elevated status.
Vestal Virgins: Tacitus does not introduce Urgulania as a Vestal, but his comment, that the action taken did not conform to the usual practice applied to Vestals, implies very strongly that she belonged to the order.
suspension of public business: a reference to the vacation of the law courts and the Senate. An embarrassing point had arisen that if the vacation was timed to suit the convenience of the emperor it would coincide with the presence in Rome of a large number of Italians and provincials with legal business to be concluded.
five-year period: the precise nature of Asinius’ proposal is not clear. Tacitus seems to suggest that it would somehow have limited Tiberius’ authority. It was perhaps intended that all the magistracies for the next five years would be assigned, and that in succeeding years magistrates would be elected annually five years ahead. This would presumably ensure a greater independence among the men elected, since they would not depend on the immediate favour of the emperor.
Marcius Hortalus: his family had suffered many vicissitudes. The orator Hortensius was famously wealthy and extravagant. His son Quintus was killed at the battle of Philippi and the family property was presumably confiscated through proscription. A grandson, Hortensius Corbio, was a notorious pervert.
Palatium: the meeting would have taken place in the library in the portico of the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill, where the images of great orators were displayed. Meetings of the Senate in this location were especially common in the later years of Augustus.
eloquence: it was said that only Hortensius’ daughter inherited his eloquence (Val. Max. 8.3.3).
dictators: much exaggerated. In fact, from the Hortensii only one dictator (287 BC), one consul (69 BC), and one consul-designate (108 BC) can be found in the record. The Marcii could claim one dictator (356 BC).
Agrippa was alive: such fraudulent survivals were a feature of the period. Germanicus’ son, Drusus, was similarly said to have survived (5.10) and a pseudo-Nero emerged after the death of that emperor (Suetonius, Nero 57; Tacitus, Hist. 2.8; Dio 66.19.3).
his own slave: Agrippa’s slaves would have belonged to the familia of his adoptive father, Augustus; on the death of Agrippa, they would have passed to Tiberius as Augustus’ heir.
standards: see 1.60, 2.25. The third eagle was in fact recovered under Claudius (Dio 60.8).
Bovillae: the association with the Julii is explained by the claim of the town to be a daughter city of Alba Longa, founded by Iulus, the son of Aeneas.
triumph: this was something of a sham, and the fact that Arminius, still pursuing the war, was not one of the captives, should have been a clear sign of how fraudulent it was.
Drusus’s advantage . . . Marcellus: Drusus had died in 9 BC at the age of 30 and Marcellus in 21 BC at 20 (see notes to p. 4).
fifty years: presumably Tacitus is counting up to the accession of Tiberius in AD 14, since Archelaus was established in Cappadocia by Antonius in 36 BC. Augustus had enlarged Archelaus’ kingdom with the addition of Armenia Minor and part of Cilicia.
impeached: the charges are unknown, as is the outcome. Archelaus may have died during the course of the trial.
reduced: Dio (58.16.2) claims that the tax was raised to its former amount after the fall of Sejanus.
Commagene: this was the final remnant of the great empire of the Seleucids, with whom Antiochus claimed kinship.
Philopator: he in fact held only a minor principality to the west of Cilicia.
declining years: the tone is exaggerated. Tiberius was only 59, Germanicus 31, Drusus about 29.
greater authority: the Piso Decree records that Germanicus would have greater imperium in any province he passed through than the proconsul of that province (Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre 34–5).
Gnaeus Piso: see note to p. 14; he held the consulship with Tiberius in 7 BC and served at some point as governor of Africa. In some accounts he was one of those considered by Augustus as a potential successor and bold enough to accept it if it was offered. If there were secret instructions given to Piso they may have been more benign than as described by Tacitus, and may merely have commissioned him to act as a senior adviser to Germanicus in order to try to avert a repetition of the German adventures.
consulship: the father was consul in 23 BC.
Plancina: a close friend of Livia and daughter of the Munatius Plancus who had headed the commission sent in AD 14 to investigate the mutinies in Germany (see 1.39).
Pomponius Atticus: Marcus Agrippa’s first wife was Pomponia; their daughter Vipsania was the first wife of Tiberius and mother of Drusus.
Livilla: confusingly, Tacitus calls her Livia, but the form Livilla is found in Suetonius and Dio and their practice is followed here for the sake of clarity. She was the daughter of the elder Drusus, brother of Tiberius.
Illyricum: the nature of Drusus’ command is not made clear. It presumably included Pannonia, perhaps also Noricum, Raetia, and Moesia.
Maroboduus: Tacitus implies that his request for help was only a pretext for Drusus’ mission, but in fact his kingdom was close to collapse, and opened up an opportunity for the Romans.
twelve legions: this seems to be an exaggeration, although it cannot be ruled out entirely. In AD 6 there were five legions in Germany, two in Raetia, and five in Illyricum, but it is unlikely that all would have been used.
equal terms: in AD 6 the initial plan had been to crush the newly emerged power of Maroboduus; the projected invasion had to be cancelled because of the major rebellion of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which was seen to pose a direct threat to Italy.
earthquake: the catastrophe of this year and Tiberius’ generosity in dealing with it are covered in other sources: Strabo 13.3.5, 4.8; Seneca, QN 6.1.13; Pliny, NH 2. 200; Bianor, Anthologia Palatina 9.423; Phlegon 36 J; Suetonius, Tib. 48.2; Dio 57.17.7; Jerome, Chronicle P. 172H.
treasury or imperial exchequer: the distinction between the public treasury and the emperor’s private funds grew difficult to maintain, since the emperor’s income derived in large part from sources that might seem to belong more properly to the state, but was at the same time used to finance many public enterprises.
Aemilia Musa: the name Musa suggests that she was a freedwoman. It may be that the family of her former owner could not be definitively established and thus her property would fall to the state. Her name may simply have provided a pretext for Tiberius to help a noble family in need.
Aemilius Lepidus: he is presumably the Lepidus, probably Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, referred to later as being of limited means (3.72; see note to p. 12).
Marcus Servilius: consul in AD 3, possibly father of the consul of 35.
Liber, Libera, and Ceres: this temple was reputedly vowed by Aulus Postumius before the battle of Regillus in 496 BC and built three years later.
Publicius: the brothers Lucius and Marcus are said to have imposed fines for the illegal occupation of public lands and to have used the proceeds to establish the festival of Flora in 241 or 238 BC.
Gaius Duilius: he defeated the Carthaginians at the battle of Mylae in 260 BC.
Aulus Atilius: he was consul in 258 or 257 and 254 BC, and dictator in 249.
Appuleia Varilla . . . sister: in fact, she was the granddaughter of the elder Octavia, his half-sister (his full sister was the younger Octavia).
Julian law: the law (de Adulteriis et Stupris) was passed by Augustus in 17 BC as part of his policy to regulate Roman morality. The implication is that Tiberius did not wish her adultery to be considered under the heading of maiestas.
heavier penalty : one-third of her property and half her dowry, and relegation to an island.
tradition: this refers, not to the penalty, which would have been more severe in earlier times, but to the role given to the relatives.
Haterius Agrippa: Haterius’ father was married to a daughter of Agrippa. Agrippina, Germanicus’ wife, was also Agrippa’s daughter.
law: the Lex Papia Poppaea, which among other things gave fathers an advantage in appointments, and accelerated their prospects according to the number of children they had (see 3.25, 28).
Tacfarinas: we have little information about him beyond what Tacitus provides. His previous service with the Romans parallels the career of Arminius. He was a formidable adversary.
legion: unusually Africa, although a senatorial province, housed a legion, the Ninth, at this time under the command of the proconsul.
regainer: Furius Camillus defeated the Gauls after the battle of the Allia in 390 BC. In fact, the grandson of this Furius had celebrated a triumph in 338 BC, but Tacitus seems to confuse him with his son. Marcus Furius Camillus, the descendant, was consul in AD 8.
consul: Tiberius was consul for only a few days, and was succeeded by Lucius Seius Tubero.
as I noted: see 2.43.
lictor: Germanicus would normally have been attended by twelve lictors. The usual tradition for a magistrate when entering a ‘free’ city, such as Athens, would be to have no lictors. The single lictor, the appurtenance of a priest, did not enforce official authority, and was in a sense equivalent to none at all.
Samothracian Mysteries: the rituals are those of the mystery religion of the Cabiri.
our own origins: Aeneas, the founder of the Roman nation, escaped from Ilium/Troy as it fell.
disasters: Attica suffered severely from Philip of Macedon (359–336) and Athens itself was stormed by Sulla in 86 BC.
trashy collection: the notoriously easy purchase of Athenian citizenship had been prohibited by Augustus (Dio 54.7.2).
Polemo: Polemo I had received his kingdom of Pontus and Armenia Minor from Antonius, and Augustus had added the Bosporus. He died about 8/7 BC and the kingdom was then ruled by his widow Pythodoris, assisted by her son, Polemo II, who succeeded her. Zeno, their other son, proved a highly successful monarch.
Quintus Veranius: Veranius was an ally of Germanicus (2.74, 3.10–19). Soon after these events he was back in Rome (2.74).
a praetor: Commagene was under the jurisdiction of the legate of Syria, who held the rank of propraetor.
Quintus Servaeus : he was not appointed as permanent governor. He would later be involved in the prosecution of Piso (see 3.13, 19), and eventually be accused of being an ally of Sejanus (6.7).
concern: Suetonius (Tib. 52) in fact speaks of a very serious famine, which Tacitus seems to downplay.
Publius Scipio : Livy ascribes this behaviour to Scipio under 204 BC (29.19.11–13).
permission : senators were not allowed to enter Egypt without the permission of the emperor.
Rhamses: Rhamses II, the great Egyptian king of the Nineteenth Dynasty, in the thirteenth century BC. Tacitus refers to his territories as stretching from the Black Sea (Pontus) to the northern Mediterranean.
Memnon: the reference is to one of two enormous seated statues of Amenophis III (1417–1379), identified as Memnon by the Greeks. The upper part had broken off in an earthquake, possibly in 27 BC, and consequently the lower part at sunrise emitted a sound like that of a broken harp string, until the statue was repaired by Septimius Severus, which brought the musical performances to an end.
lake: Lake Moeris; see Herodotus 2.149–50.
depths: Herodotus (2.28.4–5) tells the story of Psammeticus, who attempted to determine the depth of the Nile with a rope.
Red Sea: Tacitus might be referring to the modern Red Sea, or to the Persian Gulf. If the latter he would be writing after AD 116, to reflect Trajan’s conquests in that area.
that year : there is a serious chronological problem in the following chapters. Germanicus’ Egyptian tour clearly took place in AD 19, but the opening of chapter 62 refers to activities in AD 18. Also, the reports of Maroboduus’ fall and the elevation of Artaxias reach Rome at the same time (chapter 64), but a year divides the two events. Moreover, Drusus left for Illyricum in AD 17, but nothing is apparently heard of him until 19. Some transpose chapters 62–7 to follow 58, so as to place events in Germany and Thrace in AD 18.
enemy territory : an interesting aspect of Tacitus’ (or Drusus’) preconceptions; the area had not been hostile since AD 6.
trading privileges: these were probably granted in the agreement between Maroboduus and Rome in AD 6.
Philip: see note to p. 78.
Pyrrhus or Antiochus: Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, fought a series of campaigns against the Romans between 280 and 275 BC. Antiochus III (the Great), who succeeded to the Seleucid throne in 223, fought against the Romans in Greece and Asia Minor between 191 and 188 BC.
Rhoemetalces: he died in AD 12.
Cotys’ wife: Antonia Tryphaena, daughter of Polemo and Pythodoris.
sons of Cotys: Rhoemetalces, Cotys, and Polemo. They did not return to Thrace but were held by Tiberius in Rome and raised with Caligula, who would later be their generous supporter (Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes 4.145).
Marcus Lepidus: consul in 187 and 175 BC, reputedly sent to be guardian of the sons of Ptolemy Epiphanes on the latter’s death in 181 (Val. Max. 6.6.1, Justin 30.3.4). The story is doubted by modern authorities.
mentioned above: at 2.58.
senior soldier: a veteran cited for special service, with the status and insignia of a centurion.
decided to leave: the Piso Decree states that Piso deserted Syria while Germanicus was still alive (Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone Patre 47-9); Tacitus, however, claims (2.70) that most authorities say that Germanicus ordered Piso from the province, and his friends after his death made the assumption that Piso had been dismissed.
Piso . . . remove: Piso’ s actions are baffling. It may be that we have a distorted account of public demonstrations that got out of hand.
lead tablets: these were used for ‘defixions’ by which the image of the targeted person was transfixed by a nail. Alternatively the name was written on the tablet with curses.
children: in addition to the infant Julia Livilla, Germanicus was accompanied by Caligula. His other children had stayed in Rome.
renouncing: this was a formal act between individuals, and even between states.
pride: an interesting admission that Agrippina was tactless and undiplomatic.
expired: 10 October AD 19.
his leniency with the enemy: Tacitus’ generous assessment is not borne out by Germanicus’ savagery in Germany (1.51, 2.21).
thirty: Germanicus died in his thirty-fourth year, Alexander in his thirty-third.
poisoning: Suetonius (Cal. 1) reports that there were dark spots on the body and foam at the mouth, and that the heart would not burn. The last point was used by the prosecution at Piso’s trial to prove poisoning (Pliny, NH 11.187).
discussion . . . Syria: it appears that in the case of a sudden vacancy in provincial command, authority fell on the senators present, who could appoint an interim legate. Sentius’ appointment was confirmed by Tiberius, and inscriptional evidence places him still in office in AD 21 (CIL 3.6703). Gaius Vibius Marsus was consul in AD 17 and later governor of Africa (27–30); see 6.47–8, 11.10. It is curious that Germanicus did not appoint Piso’ s successor.
Centurions: these would be from the Syrian legions, presumably men who owed their promotion to Piso.
taken from him: this seems to confirm the suggestions recorded in chapter 70 that Germanicus had formally deprived him of the province.
legate’s authority: the advice of Celer does suggest very strongly that there was a genuine confusion over the precise authority of Germanicus in Syria. Celer’s argument is that Germanicus could not countermand an official commission from the emperor.
deserters: the surprising allusion to large numbers of deserters suggests that Tacitus has given us a heavily edited account of the events in Syria.
the petty kings of the Cilicians: since the death of Philopator there remained only two kingdoms in Cilicia: Olba and Trachaea, in the western part of the province, ruled by Archelaus of Cappadocia.
when the praetor . . . and his accusers : Piso responds to Vibius with a double taunt, in which he is technically correct, that any case would follow the normal formalities of the law and Vibius’ citations would have force only when a day had been determined for the appearance of both parties, usually the tenth day after the charges were received. Piso would doubtless have realized that, if there was deemed to be a case, it would almost certainly be taken directly to the emperor or, at the very least, to the Senate.
veteran: Tacitus seems to be using the word in a non-technical sense of experienced soldiers, in contrast to raw recruits.
fleet: the reference is to the Classis Syriaca, mentioned in inscriptions.
Drusus: he allegedly had republican sympathies (see 1.33); Suetonius (Claud. 1.4) links these sympathies to the rumour of his poisoning, a rumour he rejects, and Livy (Per. 142) asserts that his death was an accident.
mourning: the Fasti of Ostia record that a period of mourning was declared on 10 December, in AD 19, following the death on 10 October, which is surprising, since it would hardly have taken two months for the news to reach Rome from Alexandria. Suetonius (Cal. 6) reports that the period of mourning lasted through the Saturnalia, in December, to the following March, although that may have represented informal mourning.
Honours: on the honours decreed for Germanicus, see Introduction, p. xxiii.
Saliarian hymn: a primitive hymn, unintelligible by this period, performed by the Salii, an ancient priestly group. Augustus’ name had been inserted into it during his lifetime, perhaps as early as 29 BC (Dio 51.20.1); whether other emperors were routinely added is uncertain, although we do know that Verus, son of Marcus Aurelius, was included (Historia Augusta: Marcus Aurelius. 21.5).
curule chairs: the curule chairs were crowned and placed in the theatre at feasts. A place would be set aside for Germanicus among the priests of Augustus since he had been a member of the college.
statue: an ivory figure of Julius Caesar was paraded during his lifetime (RG 10.1; Suetonius, Jul. 76; Dio 43.45.2) and the same honour was decreed for several members of the imperial family.
flamen: Germanicus was succeeded as Flamen Augustalis by Drusus.
Epidaphna: a strange error. The famous grove of Apollo some miles from Antioch led that city to be identified (in Greek) as Antiochia epi Daphnes.
leading orators: in the portico of the Palatine library (see note to p. 68). The Tabula Hebana records that the images of Germanicus and Drusus would be placed among those of famous men in the Palatine portico. These images would have been painted on shields.
block: cuneus (literally ‘ wedge’) seems to refer to the section of the theatre occupied in fourteen rows by the knights, as established by the Lex Roscia of 67 BC, arranged in a junior and a senior section (see 6.3). The honour would be appropriate to Germanicus since he had been a princeps iuventutis (‘ leader of the youth’ (Ovid, Ex P. 2.5.41) ).
squadrons: this would be the parade of equestrians held on 15 July, as revived by Augustus.
twins of the male sex: one of them, Germanicus, died in infancy (4.15); the other, Tiberius Gemellus, would be put to death under Caligula. Tacitus’ date for the birth (AD 19) is disputed, since Gemellus is said not to have reached puberty in 37, when he would have been 17 by this reckoning. Tacitus may have put the births here for dramatic effect. It is possible, however, that Gemellus was not very advanced for his age and that his puberty was late.
aediles : as magistrates responsible for the administration of the city, they had charge of establishments like brothels or taverns. The passage seems to suggest that they kept a register of prostitutes. By proclaiming herself a prostitute, a woman might seek to escape the charges associated with adultery.
law: under the Lex Julia a husband was obliged to divorce an adulterous wife within sixty days or be assumed to have condoned her action. Such condoning was generally tolerated; this case must have been felt to be a particularly outrageous one.
Egyptian and Jewish rites: this topic is of relatively minor interest to Tacitus and he thus deals with it rather cursorily. By contrast, Josephus (AJ 18.3.4.5) gives a detailed account of the two scandals that precipitated the action, the rape of a Roman lady in the Temple of Isis (subsequently demolished by Tiberius) and the embezzlement of funds sent by a Roman noblewoman to Jerusalem. Philo (Leg. 23, 24) speaks of a Jewish persecution, which he ascribes to Sejanus. Fears of proselytism probably underlay both incidents.
fifty-seven years: Vestals were chosen between 6 and 10 years old and were legally enjoined for thirty years, after which they could leave and marry, but usually continued in the office.
grain: the payment of compensation to merchants to keep the price of grain low was a device employed by other emperors (RG 5.2; Suetonius, Aug. 41.2; Claud. 18.2–19).
earlier: see 1.72.
‘ the lord’: Dio (57.8) records that Tiberius said he was ‘lord’ only to his slaves.
generals of old: Livy (Per. 13) attributes the prohibition on poison to Gaius Fabricius, consul 282 and 278 BC.
his power twelve: his power would date from the defeat of Varus, and so his death must have occurred in AD 21, but is included here since this is the last reference to him in the Annals.
With no interruption: uniquely for the Tiberian books, Book 3 opens without the usual mention of the consuls to designate the year (AD 20). The preliminary events of this book may in fact belong to AD 19. Tacitus’ intention clearly is to focus attention on Agrippina‘s dramatic arrival and to place the emphasis securely on the aftermath of the death of Germanicus.
the winter sea: the seas were technically closed to shipping until 10 March (the prohibition was at times ignored) and were considered dangerous until 27 May.
two children: Caligula accompanied his parents on the eastern missions and Agrippina had given birth to Livilla on the island of Lesbos.
Germanicus’ ashes: Tacitus describes the carrying of the ashes from Brundisium to Rome as if it were part of a formal funeral procession. The event would have evoked memory of the funeral procession of his father Drusus, who had similarly died far from Rome (in Germany) and was brought back to the city in a similar pageant. Tacitus is no doubt stressing the continuity between Germanicus and Drusus, both of whom were charismatic individuals with supposedly republican leanings.
trabea: a short garment, mainly purple, worn as a formal garment by the equestrians.
consuls: mentioned parenthetically here instead of in their usual position at the beginning of the book.
concealing it: Tiberius’ dissembling nature is a common motif of the Tacitean account, and a useful weapon of denigration since even generous acts can be criticized as being insincere.
Antonia: Tacitus’ hostility to Tiberius and his mother borders on the irrational in this passage. He claims that out of spite they did not appear in public, although he does not specify the event from which they were conspicuously absent. He notes that there is no record of Antonia having appeared in public either, but dismisses the plausible explanation that she was ill and assumes that she was restrained in the palace by Tiberius to create a kind of parity of behaviour. In fact the Tabula Siarensis, a document that records the posthumous honours voted for Germanicus, shows that Tiberius played an active role in selecting the tributes from the list proposed by the Senate, and records also that he consulted Livia and Antonia, among others, in the process. Clearly all three were involved in the conferring of the honours (see Introduction, p. xxiii).
Drusus, and Claudius: curiously enough Claudius is not mentioned in the Tabula Siarensis although, as Tacitus says, Tiberius’ son Drusus is recorded as being involved.
the tomb of Augustus: Augustus’ mausoleum, the ruins of which are still visible, was the resting place for a number of members of the Julio-Claudian family, including Germanicus’ father Drusus.
Campus Martius: bodies could not be buried within the city of Rome. Burials could take place on the Campus Martius since it lay outside the pomerium or city boundary.
lone survivor of Augustus’ bloodline :in fact Julia, the other granddaughter of Augustus, was still alive, but in disgrace. Agrippina herself never missed an opportunity to boast of her Augustan descent.
state funeral: the funeral of Germanicus had already been held in the previous year, and the supposed complaint seems to be that Tiberius did not allow a second national funeral, which would have conflicted with Roman practice.
Ticinum: Pavia. It is striking that Tacitus omits entirely Tiberius’ own journey across the Alps to visit his brother‘s sickbed, and his return all the way to Rome in the company of the corpse. He transfers the harshness of the journey to the far more modest expedition of Augustus to Ticinum to meet the cortège.
brother: Germanicus’ natural brother Claudius is ignored. The reference here is to Tiberius’ son, Germanicus’ brother by adoption.
uncle: Tacitus‘ reference here to Tiberius‘ natural, rather than legal, relationship to Germanicus (father) is deliberate.
effigy: it was the custom to set a wax image of the deceased above the bier. This is recorded for the funerals of both Caesar and Augustus.
only daughter: Caesar‘s daughter Julia was married to Pompey, and died in childbirth in 54 BC.
grandchildren: Gaius and Lucius Caesar.
Megalesian Games: the celebration of the Megalesian Games, in honour of the eastern goddess Cybele, began on 4 April and ended on 10 April. There seems to have been an informal period of mourning that began with the first news of Germanicus’ death the previous year. Tacitus‘ reference must surely be to this. A suspension of public business (iustitium) was instituted on 10 December (see note to p. 91) but it is unlikely to have remained in place until now.
Illyricum: Drusus had been given a command in Illyricum in AD 17. His sojourn on this occasion was brief. He departed from Rome after the Megalesian Games in early April and was in the city by 28 May to celebrate his ovation, or minor triumph.
Africa: the Ninth Legion was temporarily moved from Pannonia to Africa to deal with the resumption of hostilities by Tacfarinas.
criminal proceedings: the case against Piso could have been handled before a jury presided over by a praetor, or by the Senate, presided over by the consuls, or by the emperor, meeting in camera. The last course was chosen, supposedly to the satisfaction of Piso, reasoning that Tiberius had been privy to the murder. Tiberius typically transferred the task to the Senate.
the previous summer: AD 19; the decree for the ovation of Drusus is mentioned at 2.64, and the implication seems to be that Drusus‘ exploits belong to 18, in which case Tacitus’ reference here to the previous summer must be in error. Much ingenuity has been exercised over this problem, which remains unresolved.
advocates: Piso clearly had powerful friends, if not permanent ones. Of the eight names mentioned, Lucius Arruntius, Asinius Gallus (see note to p. 8), and Marcus Lepidus (see note to p. 12) had all been cited by Augustus as potential successors; three others had held the consulship: Lucius Calpurnius Piso, brother of the defendant (1 BC), Publius Vinicius (ad 2), and Sextus Pompeius (ad 14). Marcus Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus was praetor in AD 19.
help: Tiberius refers to Piso being appointed as helper (adiutor) to Germanicus. The imprecise nature of his role and the dividing lines between their two sets of responsibilities may have been the root cause of many of the problems between the two men.
to recover the province: the appointment of Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus as legate of Syria following Piso’s initial departure would have made Piso’s attempt to recover the province an act of treason.
Curia: confusingly, the official Senate building, the Curia, was in fact located in the Forum. Here Tacitus is using Curia symbolically. The meeting probably took place in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine, a customary location at the time.
Spain: Piso was legate of Hispania Tarraconensis in AD 9/10. The two charges laid against him for his conduct during that period, avarice and political ambitions, were stock complaints against governors.
Vitellius: we know from Pliny (NH 11.187) that one of the arguments used by Vitellius was that Piso must have poisoned Germanicus because his heart would not burn, a detail not recorded by Tacitus, and easily countered by Piso with the assertion that hearts similarly did not burn easily following natural death (see note to p. 88).
above him: the main guest would be seated immediately to the left of the host.
Gemonian Steps: the bodies of executed criminals were dragged down the Gemonian stairs (the ‘Steps of Groaning’) before being thrown into the Tiber. Notoriously, Sejanus suffered this fate.
Augusta: the Pisonian Decree vindicates Tacitus here, since the Senate recorded that their actions towards Plancina were in response to a request from Livia.
I remember: it is generally assumed that Tacitus was born just after the mid-fifties AD (see Introduction). In that case his recollection cannot be dated to earlier than about 70, by which time the trial would have been over for five decades. It is worth noting also that Tacitus does not cite elderly men who had actually seen the document, but rather individuals who reported hearsay to the effect that it had been seen.
Gnaeus Piso: he not only escaped his father’s fate, but went on to enjoy a successful political career, including a consulship in AD 27. Marcus was similarly spared, but in his case his association with Piso’s behaviour perhaps cost him a career, since he did not apparently hold later office.
joint consulship: Piso held the consulship as colleague of Tiberius in 7 BC.
the consul Aurelius Cotta: Tacitus is a little obscure here. Normally the presiding consul would put the question and the consul-designate would have the right to first response. The implication is that on this occasion Tiberius was presiding and that the regular consul therefore had the right of speaking first.
half his property: the Piso decree indicates that in fact the whole estate was confiscated, and that half was then returned to the younger Gnaeus.
praenomen: he took the name of Lucius (see 4.62).
rank: Marcus had not yet held the consulship, but as the son of a consul he would have been entitled to wear the laticlavus, the broad-striped toga.
Iullus Antonius: the son of Marcus Antonius had committed adultery with Julia (see note to p. 10).
Valerius Messalinus: this may be the consul of this year, or, as many scholars believe, his father.
Caecina Severus: the commander in Germany, who will propose that wives not accompany the governors of provinces during their term (see below, chapter 33).
Claudius: the Piso Decree reveals that Claudius is mentioned last in the list of members of the family who are to be praised.
Lucius Asprenas: see note to p. 33.
priesthoods: this passage shows that the emperor exercised the right of commendation in nominations for priesthoods.
Drusus: he celebrated his ovation on 28 May, as is recorded in the Fasti. Tacitus’ narrative places the ovation after the trial. This presents us with a problem, since the Piso Decree is equally securely dated to 10 December, and seems to suggest that the trial began in late November. Some have argued that the Piso Decree records a meeting of the Senate held much later than the trial itself.
Vipsania: see note to p. 4.
killed: the reference is to Agrippa‘s children with Julia—Gaius and Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, Julia the Younger and Agrippina the Elder, all of whom had, according to rumour, died through political murder.
previous summer: Tacitus seems to be in error here, as the campaign of Camillus belongs one year earlier, in AD 17. See 2.52.
Lucius Apronius: see note to p. 34.
ten men: the practice of decimation was said to have been introduced by Appius Claudius in the wars against the Volsci (see Livy 2.59).
the civic crown: the civic crown of oak-leaves was granted to a soldier who had saved the life of a comrade in battle under very specific conditions. Since Africa was a senatorial province, its governor was not a legate of Tiberius and was therefore entitled to bestow the honour in his own name. The award was made only rarely, and Helvius afterwards adopted the cognomen Civica.
Lepida: Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, a man of consular rank (see note to p. 64) had been divorced from Aemilia Lepida some time before this case. He had been considerably older than his wife, perhaps forty years, and had died in his seventies in the following year. The case described here is confusing. It is not clear whether the child in question was Lepida‘s, how old it was, or what she might have been hoping to achieve if there had indeed been deception. There may have been an issue of inheritance. For Manius Lepidus, mentioned below, see note to p. 12.
astrologers . . . household: this was a capital offence (see also 2.27).
opinion first: as consul-designate, Drusus would have the task of giving his opinion first. Cynics at the time claimed that, in recusing himself from giving an opinion first in any given case, Drusus was indirectly sending a signal that he was doing so because he would have voted to condemn.
games: these are probably the Ludi Romani, which ran 4–19 September.
theatre: the theatre of Pompey, originally built by her great-grandfather Pompey.
Rubellius Blandus: consul in AD 18, he went on to marry Julia, daughter of Tiberius’ son Drusus, in 33 (see 3.51, 6.27).
Scaurus: Mamercus Aemilius Scaurus must have married Lepida after her divorce from Quirinius.
daughter and granddaughter: Julia the Elder had died in AD 6. Julia the Younger, banished in AD 8, lived until 28 (see note to p. 176). Numerous lovers are recorded for the elder Julia. Only Decimus Silanus is recorded for the younger.
own legislation: the Lex Iulia (see 2.50).
Marcus Silanus: consul AD 15, Marcus Junius Silanus was later father-in-law of Caligula through his daughter Junia Claudilla.
Lex Papia Poppaea: this law, passed in AD 9, modified a previous Lex de Maritandis Ordinibus and was part of Augustus‘ social legislation, intended to discourage childlessness (although it was in fact proposed by two childless consuls). Various privileges were granted to married people and parents of children, and economic and social penalties were applied to those who remained unmarried or childless. The later law excluded the unmarried from succession under a will. Its provisions were unduly stringent. Augustus’ measures were no doubt intended to increase the stock of Roman citizens. Tacitus sees them as a cynical ploy to increase the revenue of the treasury.
laws: Tacitus adopts the traditional position that law is a function of modern society, which begins with a primitive period before morality declined.
Minos . . . Solon: Minos and Lycurgus are both examples of men who enacted laws; how their roles fit into the scheme described by Tacitus is far from clear. Solon was archon of Athens 594/3 BC; his state does seem to fit the category of those people who wearied of kings and chose laws.
Romulus: traditional founder of Rome, associated in legend with his twin brother Remus. After his death he was deified as the god Quirinus.
Numa: the second king of Rome is probably a historical figure but it is likely that many of the reforms that are ascribed specifically to him, in fact, reflect a long period of evolution.
Tullus: Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Rome. The legal reforms ascribed to him may be pure invention.
Ancus: traditionally the fourth king of Rome, possibly legendary, and perhaps confused with Numa. His legal contributions seem to have been minimal, beyond the building of the first permanent prison in Rome.
Servius Tulius: strictly, Servius, the sixth king of Rome, could be said to have been seen by tradition as someone who established a constitution rather than individual laws, although in his case also the tradition may not be reliable.
Tarquin‘s: Tarquinius Superbus, according to tradition expelled in 510 BC.
Decemvirs: see note to p. 3.
Gracchi . . . Drusus: the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius (tribune of the plebs in 133) and Gaius (tribune in 123), have earned an important place in history as advocates of much needed land reform in late-second-century BC Rome. Tacitus characterizes them as demagogues, along with Lucius Apuleius Saturninus, an aggressive reformer a generation later, tribune of the plebs in 103 and 100 BC. Marcus Livius Drusus, tribune in 91, was a famous reformer (Tacitus may have added elements that more strictly belong to his father), most notably in his championing of the rights of the Italians. The failure of his measures paved the way for the Social War.
Lucius Sulla: the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla initiated considerable legislation, much of it with a brief life, such as his attempt to limit the veto of the tribunes and their right to initiate legislation.
Lepidus: consul in 78 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus attempted to restore the tribunician powers that Sulla had repealed.
Pompey: he was elected sole consul in 52 in absentia, a unique procedure. He initiated legislation to end corruption at elections but the extension of his own imperium for five years and dispensation from the rule that candidates for office canvass in person created an impression of hypocrisy.
twenty years: from the battle of Pharsalus (48 BC) to the sixth consulship of Augustus (28 BC), who terminated the acts of the triumvirs in a single stroke. The period of Julius Caesar, who was an energetic legislator, is consigned to the general period of anarchy.
Nero: the eldest son of Germanicus was born in AD 6 and was thus 14 years old in AD 20, at which age the toga of manhood could normally be assumed.
vigintivirate: a collective term for a number of minor official functionaries, twenty under Augustus (twenty-six previously). Usually the tenure of one of these minor posts was a necessary preliminary to the quaestorship.
five years: the minimum age for offices was laid out in the Lex Villia Annalis of 180 BC. This was modified under Augustus, and the minimum age for the quaestorship was established at 25.
priesthood: Tacitus has confused Nero with his brother Drusus, since inscriptions show that it was the latter who was granted a priesthood.
Forum: the introduction into the Forum followed the assumption of the toga of manhood. The event is marked as occurring on 7 June in inscriptions, which also record the congiarium, the distribution of money to the populace.
Claudius‘ son: Drusus, the son of Claudius by his first wife Plautia Urgulanilla, is said by Suetonius (Claud. 27.1) to have died within a few days of his betrothal by choking on a pear. A daughter of Sejanus is mentioned at 5.9 (ad 31), where she is a young girl. The name Iunilla is provided in an inscription. Sejanus may have had more than one daughter. If not, the reference in this section must be to his intention rather than to an actual betrothal.
Lucius Volusius: consul in 12 BC and governor of Africa and of Syria afterwards. He was appointed by Augustus almost certainly as a member of a board of three to draw up the list of knights competent to serve as jurors. He was a cousin of Tiberius by marriage.
decuriae: the term decuria, literally a group of ten individuals, was usually applied to the jury panels, but here seems to refer to the general equestrian units.
consulship: Dio (57.20.1) states that people in AD 21 observed that Tiberius’ previous consular colleagues, Germanicus, Quinctilius Varus, and Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, had all died violent deaths, and that the pattern would be maintained by Drusus and Sejanus.
Campania: on this occasion Tiberius went to Campania for a brief stay, returning in the spring of the following year, when Livia fell ill. Four years later he would retire permanently from Rome.
Domitius Corbulo: the father of the famous general of Nero‘s reign.
Lucius Sulla: possibly Lucius Sulla Felix, consul in AD 33 (6.15).
had not ceded his seat . . . show: the location of seats at games and at theatrical performances was very important for the Romans in designating social rank.
roads: Dio (59.14) reports that a Corbulo complained about the roads under Caligula in AD 39 and was made consul in that year. Dio’s Corbulo is taken by some to be the famous general, but the coincidence that both father and son complained about the roads seems too great.
magistrates: the maintenance of the roads in Italy was under the jurisdiction of the road commissioners, curatores viarum, a body that had been reorganized by Augustus.
Sextus Pompeius: consul in AD 14 (see 1.7).
Manius Lepidus: see note to p. 12.
Asia: the Senate controlled the governorships of the two important provinces of Africa and Asia, which normally went to the senior ex-consuls, the actual assignment being determined by lot. Since Africa had been removed from the lot process, it seems that Asia went by default to Lepidus as the senior available consul.
proposal: senators had the right to introduce a motion that was off the question under debate, provided it was in the public interest.
allotted: it is not clear here whether Caecina meant his restriction to apply only to senatorial provinces, with specific reference to Africa, or if he meant it to be inspired by the debate on Africa but to apply generally to all provinces, both senatorial and imperial, which is suggested by the appeal to his own career (although he did serve in Africa, he had considerable service in imperial provinces).
forty: Tacitus mentions forty campaigns at 1.64, which were followed by at least one more. Forty was no doubt intended as a round figure.
legionary manoeuvres: Caecina is alluding of course to the behaviour of Plancina (2.55), but he may also have been making an indirect allusion to Agrippina, perhaps embarrassed by the knowledge that her conduct at the Rhine bridge saved troops under his own command.
Oppian: the Lex Oppia, passed in 215 BC as an economy drive during the war with Hannibal, was intended mainly to curb lavish expenditure on dress (Livy 34.1–8). It was repealed twenty years later.
censor: a contrast is understood here between Caecina and Cato the censor, who had led the debate against the repeal of the Lex Oppia in 195 (see previous note).
Drusus: he was probably still consul (his father stepped down from office after three months, and Drusus may have done the same), and thus presided over the debate in the Senate.
the east and the west: although such journeys by Livia in the company of Augustus are generally supposed, there is no evidence for them, apart from a highly dubious allusion to a sojourn in Gaul.
outmanoeuvred: it is likely that Caecina’s motion was never presented for a vote.
daughter: she may well be the Lepida who was betrothed to the future emperor Galba.
an image of the emperor: the general reverence accorded to the image of the emperor seems to have extended to the use of his image to claim sanctuary. Agrippina, for instance, in her clash with her son Nero, will be advised (4.67) to grasp the effigy of Augustus in the crowded Forum, and there are later stories that it was an offence to beat a slave who held a coin of Tiberius.
Gaius Cestius: consul in AD 35.
Considius Aequus and Caelius Cursor: otherwise unknown.
buildings: it must be supposed here that Drusus, unlike his father, had a passion for building, a trait unattested elsewhere.
one of Macedonia‘s leading men: Antistius may have been a Macedonian who had received the citizenship and thus had the right to be heard before the praetor.
Thrace: for the earlier events leading up to this section, see 2.67.
closest army: the reference must be to Moesia, where two legions were based. The commander there, Publius Vellaeus, must have succeeded Pomponius Flaccus.
Gallic communities: of the four Gallic provinces, two were unaffected by the rebellion, the senatorial province Narbonese Gaul and the imperial Aquitania. The two affected ones were Belgica and Lugdunensis.
the heavy burden of their debts: there would be no exaggeration here. Indebtedness among the provinces was a constant difficulty. Extortion and mismanagement would have been aggravated by the exactions of Germanicus (see 2.5).
Treveri: since Agrippina was going to be sent there (see 1.41) they must at that time have been particularly loyal.
Julius Florus: a man of this name accompanied Tiberius to the East. He may have belonged to a family of Gallic origin that established itself at Rome. The name suggests that they were enfranchised by Caesar or Augustus, as does that of Julius Sacrovir.
rarity: Augustus reversed Caesar‘s practice of making lavish bestowals of citizenship, and Tiberius probably followed Augustus‘ example.
Acilius Aviola: he is perhaps Gaius Calpurnius Aviola, consul of AD 24 and later governor of Asia, who may have changed his name through adoption.
Visellius Varro: consul in 12 and father of the consul of 24 (see 4.17).
target: that is, of the Gauls fighting for the Romans.
opposite directions: this is confusing. The armies would have come from Upper and Lower Germany by different routes but would not have come from opposite directions.
Gaius Silius: see note to p. 21; he was still legate of Upper Germany.
liberal studies: schools were an important element in the spread of Romanization. The school at Autun is known to have been still in existence at the end of the third century.
Varro: three years after these events Visellius Varro’s son would settle the score by charging that Silius concealed the rebellion of Sacrovir through complicity and extortion.
by letter: Tiberius was, of course, in Campania at the time.
begun and terminated: Velleius confirms that no official report of the war was given until it was over.
Cornelius Dolabella: consul in AD 10, Publius Cornelius Dolabella was later governor of Africa (see 4.23–6).
triumphs: see note to p. 23.
Sulpicius Quirinius: he was the fourth individual for whom Tiberius requested a public funeral (a funeral at public expense). He had held his consulate in 12 BC.
triumphal insignia: Quirinius possibly fought the successful campaign when governor of Galatia.
Marcus Lollius: see note to p. 10. The ill-feeling between him and Tiberius was noted by Suetonius (Tib. 12). He committed suicide after Gaius Caesar renounced his friendship because of his disloyalty and corruption.
Publius Petronius: consul in 19 and governor of Asia later; his daughter was married to the future emperor Vitellius.
Haterius Agrippa: as consul-designate, Agrippa would be the first to give his opinion in a trial held in the Senate.
speech: Lepidus’ argument seems to be that the case against Priscus was not within the definition of maiestas, but that he proposed a punishment as if it were, namely the penalty laid down under Caesar, exile and loss of property.
Gaius Sulpicius: elder brother of the future emperor Servius Sulpicius Galba; he committed suicide in 36.
aediles: it was their duty to regulate the market.
sumptuary law: Gellius (1.54.2) alludes to a Lex Iulia, probably of 22 BC, that set a limit to what might be spent on dinner.
Country houses: laments about the size of private villas are a common theme of Roman literature.
those items, exclusively used by women: perhaps the most notorious example is that of Lepida, who later married Caligula. Pliny (NH 9.117) records that she wore forty million sesterces’ worth of jewels, and carried the bills of sale to convince sceptics. The manuscript reads lapidum causa at this point, which Woodman persuasively argues is a gloss on ’those items . . . which‘. The items themselves are the gems, so common a feature of ‘female extravagance’ in moralizing literature that such a reference would be easily understood by a contemporary reader (but then glossed in the margin by a later scribe).
the aediles were relieved of responsibility: nothing was done. The laws were unchanged and the aediles were excused from enforcing them rigidly. Suetonius (Tib. 34) says that Tiberius placed the markets under senatorial control and instructed the aediles to exercise strict control of the taverns. This measure presumably predated AD 22.
a hundred years . . . gained power: the battle of Actium occurred in 31 BC. Galba took power in AD 68.
butchery: the later years of Tiberius and of Caligula, Claudius, and Nero are presumably meant.
municipal towns and colonies: specifically, the towns of Italy.
Vespasian: emperor 69–79. His parsimony was legendary.
accusers: the implication is that, if the legislation on extravagance had been carried, there would have been a widening of the scope for informers.
term: the tribunician authority is a privilege rather than a title, but its frequent occurrence after the emperor‘s name in coins and inscriptions, in the form usually of trib. pot. (tribunicia potestas), plus the year of the award, creates the impression of a title. Augustus received it in June 23 BC and in 18 and 13 conferred it on Agrippa, who held it until his death in 12 BC. Tiberius in fact did not receive the authority until 6 BC. It was only after the death of Gaius Caesar and Tiberius’ adoption in AD 4 that the term was renewed.
‘dictator’: in the Res Gestae, Augustus states that he declined the dictatorship and permanent consulships.
at the age: Drusus was born on 7 October in either 14 or 13 BC.
mutinies: in Pannonia in AD 14.
wars: in Illyricum and Germany, AD 17–19.
triumph: celebrated on 28 May AD 20.
consul: in AD 15 and 21.
proposing: Silanus’ motion was clearly unsuccessful, since the years continued to be marked by the consuls, although in their communications with provinces the emperors used the tribunician year.
Quintus Haterius’: see note to p. 12; he was by this time about 85 years old.
Servius Maluginensis, the flamen of Jupiter: consul in AD 10 (see 4.16); there were fifteen flamens in Rome, devoted to specific cults. The most important was the Flamen Dialis, responsible for the worship of Jupiter. He was subjected to a wide range of taboos.
allotted: since Africa was reserved for Blaesus, there would not have been an actual lot.
plebiscites: these would have the status of laws. Presumably the flamen had in the past been detained in Rome by his duties, and legislation had not been deemed necessary.
Cornelius Merula’s suicide: he committed suicide in 87 BC on the return of Marius and Cinna to the city, and seventy-five years had elapsed before Augustus appointed a flamen to replace him.
supreme pontiffs: from 12 BC until the fourth century the office of Pontifex Maximus was held by the emperor. Tiberius assumed the office on 10 March AD 15.
provinces: the measures applied only to the senatorial provinces. The deputations mentioned in chapter 61 and in 4.14 are from Asia, Cyprus, and Crete.
Temples . . . capital crimes: it has been observed that the issue of asylum offered by certain temples and sacred precincts in the Greek world was as much a matter of politics as of religion. The rights of asylum implied a degree of autonomy, which became a major issue as Roman power began to spread throughout the East and the pressure for recognition of ancient rights became intense.
Amazons: according to Pausanias (7.2.7), Pindar ascribed to them the founding of the temple of Diana at Ephesus.
Macedonians: in 334 BC Alexander the Great gained control of Ephesus and extended the boundary of the asylum. His example was followed by a number of others, including Antonius. Because of the abuses, Augustus curtailed it.
Lucius Scipio: Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagenes defeated Antiochus the Great in 190/89 BC.
Lucius Sulla: Lucius Cornelius Sulla defeated Mithridates in 87/6 BC.
Parthian assault: the reference is to the joint invasion of Quintus Labienus and Pacorus, son of the Persian king Orodes, in 40 BC.
Perpenna‘s: he defeated and captured Aristonicus of Pergamum in 130 BC.
Isauricus: consul with Caesar in 48 BC and governor of Asia 46–44 BC.
Aesculapius: the cult of this healing god (Greek Asclepios) was brought to the important city of Pergamum from Epidaurus.
critical illness: by careful diet and daily consumption of wine Livia had enjoyed a robust health. This is her first recorded illness; she was now in her eighties.
statue: the inscription recording the dedication of the effigy in the theatre of Marcellus has survived. It is dated to 23 April AD 22. It confirms that Livia’s name stood ahead of Tiberius’ and, more remarkably, that the dedication was made to the deified Augustus: patri (father). Livia had been adopted by Augustus in his will.
septemvirs: a board of seven officials responsible primarily for arranging banquets during games.
Augustal fraternity: the body established in AD 14 on the death of Augustus and charged with the worship of two deified men, Julius Caesar and Augustus.
Fetials: this body of twenty priests had become largely obsolete and had a totally formal role in declaring war and concluding treaties.
lower-ranking senators: Tacitus uses a term, pedarii, that was obscure and archaic in his own age. It may refer to those senators who had not yet obtained curule office (Tacitus was perhaps overlooking the small number who had not progressed beyond the curule aedileship).
Gaius Silanus: consul in AD 10, Gaius Junius Silanus had apparently succeeded Marcus Lepidus as proconsul of Asia. Already accused of extortion in his province, he was additionally charged with maiestas.
Mamercus Scaurus: see note to p. 12. The grandfather represented as so worthy an ancestor by Tacitus was described by Sallust (Jugurtha 15.3) as duplicitous, excessively ambitious, and corrupt.
Junius Otho: Tacitus seems to downplay his talents, since Seneca the Elder (Contr. 2.1.33–9) speaks of him as an accomplished speaker and the author of a number of rhetorical works.
Bruttedius Niger: an orator and historical writer, author of an account of Cicero‘s death (Seneca, Contr. 6.20–1). He is thought to have perished in the aftermath of the fall of Sejanus.
Lucius Cotta‘s: consul in 144, Lucius Aurelius Cotta was accused of extortion in 138 by Scipio Africanus the Younger, he was reputedly acquitted by a jury that wanted to demonstrate that it was not overawed by a great speaker.
Servius Galba’s: Servius Sulpicius Galbas was indicted in 149 by the elder Cato for his conduct in Spain; his behaviour there had been savage, but the exact form of the indictment is not known. His acquittal was ascribed to his eloquence, family support, and bribery.
Publius Rutilius’: he was a candidate for the consulship in 116 against Marcus Scaurus. After the election, each accused the other of improper electioneering practices (ambitus).
Marcus Paconius: another individual put to death by Tiberius, possibly in the aftermath of Sejanus‘ fall. According to Suetonius (Tib. 61.6), Tiberius imprisoned Paconius and on being reminded later of him by one of his dwarfs ordered his execution.
torture: see note to p. 64.
Volesus Messala: proconsul of Asia in AD 11 or 12, Marcus Valerius Messala Volesus was associated by Seneca (De Ira 5) with Phalaris and Hannibal as an archetype of cruelty.
Lucius Piso: his identity is uncertain, possibly the consul of 15 BC (see 6.10) or of 1 BC (see 2.34).
devoid of human habitation: Pliny (NH 8.43) reports a claim in antiquity that Gyarus was deserted because of a plague of mice, but also observes that it was destitute of water.
Torquata: she is recorded in an inscription (CIL 6.2127) as having served as a Vestal for sixty-four years.
Equestrian Fortune: a great temple to Fortune had been vowed in 180 BC and was still visible in the Augustan period, since the architect Vitruvius speaks of seeing it. It must have been demolished by this point in the Annals. Antium would be a very suitable location for the dedication, since it housed one of the great imperial villas, and had been a favourite summer residence of Augustus.
Aulus Postumius: his detention occurred in 242 BC, but was not a good precedent, since Postumius had been the flamen of Mars, not of Jupiter.
Lepidus: he appears to have been the grandson of Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul in 50 BC, who restored the old Basilica Aemilia and founded a splendid new Basilica Pauli, completed and dedicated by his son and restored again by Augustus and others after a fire in 14 BC.
Augustus . . . Balbus: Augustus is recorded as encouraging individuals in such acts of generosity. Suetonius mentions the same three individuals listed here. In 30 BC Titus Statilius Taurus dedicated in the Campus Martius the first amphitheatre built of stone; Lucius Marcius Philippus, consul in 38 BC, dedicated the Temple of Hercules and the Muses; Lucius Cornelius Balbus dedicated in 13 BC a theatre on the Campus Martius near the river.
Pompey’s theatre: see 6.45; it seems that only the scaena was damaged. The refurbishment was finally dedicated by Caligula.
Spartacus: he organized a breakout of gladiators from the school at Capua and initiated the famous slave war of 73–71 BC. He defeated the armies of both consuls of 72.
Sertorius: he organized a rebellion in Spain from 80 to 73 BC.
Mithridates: the reference is to the wars of 83–81 and 74–63 BC.
Augustus: he did not in fact allow such acclamations after 27 BC.
Asinius Saloninus: one of the sons of Asinius Gallus (see note to p. 8) and of Vipsania, the former wife of Tiberius. He bore the name Saloninus to commemorate the capture of Salonae in Dalmatia by his grandfather Pollio in 39 BC; it was intended that he would marry a daughter of Germanicus.
Ateius Capito . . . Antistius Labeo: they were famous in the history of Roman jurisprudence as the founders of two opposing schools, the Sabiniani (Capito) and Proculiani (Labeo).
outspokenness: Labeo chose to support the ex-triumvir Lepidus, who was exiled, and defended his choice with vigour (Suetonius, Aug. 54; Dio 54.15.7).
servility: it is said that he noted that, if a word used by Tiberius did not exist in Latin, it soon would.
Junia: the widow of Gaius Cassius, one of the assassins of Caesar. Instead of naming her ancestors, Tacitus lists the family connections that would evoke her connections with the old republic. She was over 90 at the time of her death. She was the daughter of Servilia and Decimus Junius Silanus. Servilia had previously been married to Marcus Junius Brutus. Hence Marcus Brutus, the other leading assassin of Caesar, born from the first marriage, was her half-brother.
battle of Philippi: 42 BC.
ancestral busts: imagines, funeral masks of famous ancestors, were kept in the home and paraded at funerals. It is known that effigies of Brutus and Cassius were preserved in households and even in Pliny‘s time were accorded a special reverence. At this period it was clearly thought to be imprudent to show them in public.
Manlii: the son of Titus Manlius Torquatus, consul 165, was adopted by Decimus Junius Silanus. The relationship with the Quinctii is unknown.
praetorian cohorts: when Tiberius first became emperor, Sejanus shared the command of the guard with his father. On the appointment of the father as prefect of Egypt in AD 15, Sejanus assumed sole command.
Apicius: a famous wealthy gourmet. Seneca (Ad Helviam 10) states that he committed suicide when he discovered that he was down to his last million sesterces.
concentrating . . . the city: Suetonius (Aug. 49.1) states that Augustus never allowed more than three cohorts of the praetorians inside the city, and even then they did not have a permanent base. The new base was built adjacent to the walls of Rome between the Colline and Viminal gates.
theatres: Tacitus has already recorded that a statue of Sejanus was decreed for the theatre of Pompey (see 3.72).
legionary headquarters: the principia of the legionary base was considered a sacred place, where the legionary standards were housed. Suetonius (Tib. 48.2) notes that only the legions in Syria refused to allow images of Sejanus to be carried among their standards.
grandchildren: Germanicus’ oldest son, Nero, was born in AD 6, Drusus was born a year later, and Gaius Caligula in 12. Drusus, son of Tiberius, had twin sons, of whom Tiberius Gemellus survived into the next reign.
struck :the aggressive and impetuous side of Drusus’ nature is often commented on by the literary sources.
Livilla: she had first been married to Gaius Caesar. Her supposed role in the death of her second husband Drusus would be revealed after Sejanus’ fall by his estranged wife, Apicata, and Livilla was put to death, either by Tiberius or by her own mother.
small-town: the taunt is meant to draw attention to Sejanus’ humble social origins and lack of senatorial ancestors.
children: the eldest, Aelius Gallus, died with his father; the other two died subsequently (see 5.9).
sympathetic: the sources speak of the relationship between Drusus and Germanicus as harmonious.
troop-levies: such conscriptions were largely limited to the provinces, and to those provinces that were Romanized. Voluntary enlistment was difficult when times were bad, as after the defeat of Varus in AD 9, when freedmen had been allowed to volunteer and slaves had been freed to make up the numbers.
armed forces: Tacitus is comparing the situation under Tiberius with that under Trajan, when areas like Britain, Mauretania, Dacia, and Mesopotamia had been brought under Roman dominion.
Two fleets: they were commanded by prefects, normally equestrian but sometimes freedmen.
Juba: he was married to Selene, daughter of Antonius and Cleopatra. He had recently been succeeded by his son Ptolemy, who in AD 40 would be put to death by Caligula.
protected . . . our great power: presumably Tacitus wrote this after 116 and Trajan’s conquest of Parthia.
Rhoemetalces: the son of Rhescuporis, murderer of the elder Cotys. He shared Thrace nominally with Cotys’ sons (see 3.38).
old Latium: this refers to those towns already with Latin rights before they received full citizenship in 90 BC as a result of the Social War.
in the Senate: in other words the emperor would not try such cases incamera.
companies: of publicani.
His own affairs: the procurators who administered the emperor’s private fiscus were originally private agents, just as in the estates of private citizens; by Claudius’ time at least they had evolved into officers of the state.
provincials: Tiberius had a generally excellent record in continuing Augustus’ policy of correcting abuses in the provinces. He extended the term of governors of proven ability and was firm in dealing with bad officials.
share grandsons: this would come about through the planned marriage of Sejanus’ daughter to a son of Claudius.
ordinary seats: the consuls normally sat on their curule chairs, which were raised up on a platform; they might, however, on some occasions sit with the rest of the senators. As a sign of mourning, they would sit with the lower magistracies (see Dio 56.31.3).
Augusta’s extreme old age . . . declining years: Livia was 80 or 81 at the time (her birth occurred in 59 or 58 BC). Tiberius was 65.
Aeneas: the role of the Trojan hero Aeneas as the founder of the Julian line was emphasized in Virgil’s Aeneid. He was so depicted also on the Ara Pacis.
really progressed: Tacitus’ faith in his sources does not carry conviction, as Apicata can hardly be seen as a disinterested witness.
Agrippina’s failure to conceal her ambition: her obstinacy and temper did nothing to allay Tiberius’ suspicions about her ambitions for her sons.
accelerated the family’s destruction: a surprising claim, since Agrippina and her second son Drusus did not die until AD 33.
virtue: Agrippina did not remarry, but she did request Tiberius’ permission to do so (see 4.53).
Augusta’s . . . hatred: this is a frequently repeated claim by Tacitus, although it is not clear what Livia’s motives could have been. Agrippina’s children were, after all, her grandchildren.
Postumus: unknown, although there was a person of that name who was prefect of Egypt in AD 47.
Mutilia Prisca: she may well have been the wife of the consul of AD 29, Fufius Geminus (see 5.1).
Vibius Serenus: he was one of the accusers of Libo Drusus in AD 16 (see 2.30).
public violence: this offence, which consisted in the beating of a Roman citizen who appealed to the emperor, was, under a law of 8 BC, punishable by exile, usually to a place of the accuser’s choice. The specification of the place of exile (Amorgos) was considered an added element of severity.
Carsidius Sacerdos: praetor in 27, he would be exiled in 37 as an associate to Albucilla, then convicted of treason.
Gaius Gracchus: perhaps the accuser at 6.38. His father Sempronius had been exiled as one of Julia’s lovers. After fourteen years of exile Sempronius was put to death by soldiers.
Aelius Lamia: consul in AD 3, governor of Africa in 15/16 or 16/17.
his ill-starred family: he was the descendant of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, the celebrated tribunes.
on King Mithridates’ orders . . . of Asia: Appian (Mithridates 23) records that Mithridates’ troops did violate many of the sanctuaries. He targeted equestrians, as belonging to the class who had brought such suffering on local communities. The massacres occurred in 88 BC.
actors: problems with the licentious conduct of actors were one of the recurring themes of Roman history, especially after Augustus had accorded them a number of privileges.
Oscan show: Atellan farces, named after the Oscan town of Atella, were bawdy performances that blended obscenity and political satire
Lucilius Longus: consul in AD 7, but otherwise of no apparent consequence and barely meriting a state funeral.
state funeral: a funeral at public expense, called a ‘censorian funeral’ by Tacitus, possibly because at one time such occasions had been contracted by the censors.
Forum of Augustus: the imperial forum opened by Augustus in 2 BC contained the statues of famous Romans.
Lucilius Capito: this is an interesting case in that Capito was a procurator of Tiberius, in charge of the imperial possessions in the senatorial province of Asia, and technically his private agent. By allowing the case to be tried by the Senate, Tiberius contributed to the procuratorship becoming a public office.
Nero: the son of Germanicus. The situation is ironic in that he will die a victim of Tiberius.
confarreatio: this was the main form of old-fashioned marriage in manum (lit., into the hand), where the wife passed into the jurisdiction of the husband, a procedure that was largely in abeyance by Tiberius’ day. The name comes from the cake consumed at the ceremony in the presence of the supreme pontiff (Pontifex Maximus), the Flamen Dialis, and at least ten witnesses. It was necessary for the wife to satisfy the requirements, since she had official duties.
parental: it must be assumed that the parents objected to the loss of this authority.
law: technically a resolution of the Senate had the force of law only once it had been passed by the popular assembly, although this was something of a formality by this time.
take her seat among the Vestals: women normally occupied upper seats in the theatre; Vestals alone had the privilege of watching performances from the more desirable lower seats. Livia’s privilege set a precedent for other imperial women, including Antonia and Messalina.
prayers: prayers for the safety of the state were offered on 1 January. A different set of prayers for the emperor’s safety was offered on 3 January.
Agrippina’s party: whether there was an actual ‘Agrippina party’ is much disputed, but there may at least have been some tensions between the Julian and Claudian sides of the family.
loyal: the mutinies had been fomented among the troops of Lower Germany.
wife: it will be remembered that the issue of wives’ conduct in the provinces had been raised by Caecina Severus (3.334).
father’s quarrels: the command against the rebellion of Sacrovir had been awarded to Silius in preference to the father of the consul Visellius Varro (3.43).
harm: Tiberius uses the formula of the old ultimate decree of the Senate (senatus consultum ultimum), used first against Gaius Gracchus, whereby the consuls received near dictatorial powers during a crisis. It had last been employed in 40 BC.
estate: generally, suicide before conviction saved an estate, although there were many exceptions.
children: their son Gaius Silius would become infamous as the lover of Messalina.
Messalinus Cotta: consul in 20. Tacitus elsewhere (5.3, 6.5) sees him as a flunkey supporting Tiberius, in contrast to the more independently minded senators.
decree: the decree remained in force until the third century (Ulpian 1.16.4.2).
Calpurnius Piso: he had defended his brother during the trial that followed Germanicus’ death (3.11). Tiberius was very dismayed by his decision to leave Rome (2.34).
sword: citizens were prohibited by law from carrying arms in Rome. Even the praetorians were not fully armed.
Plautius Silvanus: son of the consul of 2 BC who had received the triumphal insignia for his campaigns in Illyricum. Aulus Plautius, consul in AD 29 and conqueror of Britain, was almost certainly his brother.
earlier commanders: Furius Camillus (ad 17–18), Lucius Apronius (ad 18–21), and Quintus Junius Blaesus (ad 21–2).
Ninth Legion: since the legion was still in Africa in Tacitus’ survey of the empire, it was probably moved back to Pannonia in AD 23.
Publius Dolabella: see note to p. 119. He was admired by Velleius, and his effectiveness in his command seems to bear out Velleius’ judgement. He was not, however, highly regarded by Tacitus, who seems to have viewed him as excessively servile.
Musulamians: they are described as rebelling, and so must be one of those groups who accepted terms at the end of Junius Blaesus’ term.
Blaesus: he lost his life in the aftermath of the fall of Sejanus, which would seem to confirm Tacitus’ suggestion of closeness between the men (see 5.7).
toga: the triumphal toga displayed gold stars on a purple background. Scipio Africanus reportedly gave the same gifts and a curule chair to Masinissa (Livy 30.15.11).
agricultural slaves: the reference is to the bands of armed herdsmen maintained by the large estates of southern Italy.
supervisor of the pasture-lands: little is known about the quaestorian provinces of Italy. According to Dio (55.4.4), they were instituted by Augustus, but might be much older. The most familiar was the provincia Ostiensis, with responsibility for the corn-supply.
Vibius Serenus: the father had been an accuser of Libo Drusus (2.30), and was himself banished to Amorgos in AD 23 (see 4.13). This is the first mention of the son, who will later prosecute Fonteius Capito (4.36).
sent to Gaul: from Baetica, which had been Serenus’ province, during the rebellion of Sacrovir.
Gnaeus Lentulus and Seius Tubero: Lentulus is probably the consul for 14 BC (see note to p. 18). Seius Tubero had served with Germanicus in Germany (see note to p. 59).
embarrassment: Dio (57.24.8) reported that Lentulus laughed when he heard the charges and Tiberius declared that his own life was unbearable if Lentulus hated him also.
his slaves: normally slaves could not testify against their masters, with the exception, in the republic, of cases involving incest or conspiracy. Maiestas had clearly been added to the list. In the case of Libo Drusus (2.30), his slaves were first sold to obviate the problem.
rock: the Tarpeian rock (see note to p. 65).
parricides: the punishment involved being beaten, sewn into a bag with various animals, then hurled into the Tiber.
unrewarded: the other accusers of Libo had been awarded extraordinary praetorships. Serenus must have already been praetor or was praetor-designate, since he was proconsul in Baetica about 22. His complaint seems to be that he did not receive comparable recognition.
traditional punishment: the punishment was to be pinned by the neck and then scourged to death.
Publius Suillius: the prosecution may have been part of Sejanus’ campaign against Agrippina and her sons (see also 11.1–6, 13.42–3).
Catus Firmius: his conduct as an informer had already been apparent during the trial of Libo Drusus, and he was particularly despised by Tacitus (see 2.27). As a result of his reward in the Libo trial, he attained praetorian rank and hence became a member of the Senate.
Carthaginian: clearly a reference to Livy. That said, Tacitus himself notes in the next chapter that Livy’s patron Augustus thought that Livy was biased towards Pompey in his account of the struggles between the latter and Caesar.
Cremutius Cordus: he wrote a history of the civil wars which formed the basis of the charges described here. He was no friend of Tiberius’ regime, and on hearing of the erection of statues to Sejanus in the theatre of Pompey, he commented that it was the kiss of death for the theatre (Seneca, In Marciam 22.4). Dio (57.22.2) adds that he was charged also with attacking the Senate and the people and for not showing Augustus exceptional respect.
treason law: Augustus changed the law to include those who wrote defamatory texts.
Brutus and Cassius: during this period Brutus and Cassius were clearly becoming heroes for the Stoics, as men who stood up against tyranny.
Titus Livius: although he drew on the patronage of Augustus and Maecenas, Livy spoke his mind, and the elder Seneca calls him totally outspoken (Suasoriae 6.22).
Scipio: father-in-law of Pompey; he committed suicide after the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC.
Afranius: loyal supporter of Pompey, his legate in Spain. He died at the battle of Thapsus.
Asinius Pollio: consul of 40 BC, father of Tiberius’ bête noire Asinius Gallus. His history ran from the ‘first triumvirate’ of 60 BC.
Messalla Corvinus: see note to p. 7. He was second in command to Brutus and Cassius at Philippi and switched his loyalty to Augustus afterwards. More famous as an orator than as a writer, he composed a history that began with the death of Caesar.
Marcus Cicero: in 46 BC Marcus Tullius Cicero composed a book on Cato Uticensis, in which he expressed his disenchantment with Caesar.
Bibaculus: Furius Bibaculus was ranked with Catullus and Horace by Quintilian (Institutio Oratoria 10.1.196).
Catullus: perhaps more famous for his love poetry, Gaius Valerius Catullus also wrote scurrilous poems about Julius Caesar’s sex-life.
seventy years ago: round figures for the more precise 66; the battle was in 42 BC.
statues: Augustus did in fact preserve one in Milan (Mediolanum) (Plutarchs, Comparison of Dion with Brutus 5). It is known that the statues were preserved in private homes.
survived: Seneca (In Marciam 1.3) reports that his daughter Marcia was responsible for preserving his works. They were published, along with other banned works, under Caligula.
Drusus: the son of Germanicus.
Sextus Marius: he was executed in AD 33 for incest, although Tacitus says that the real reason was Tiberius’ jealousy of his wealth (see 6.19).
Cyzicus: Dio (57.24.6) records that among the reasons that Cyzicus lost its freedom was the failure to complete a temple to Augustus.
Fonteius Capito: consul in AD 12. His governorship of Asia cannot be dated securely, but he may have taken office in 22, when Maluginensis was disqualified.
Pergamum: the city was given permission to build a temple in 29 BC.
knights: Suetonius (Aug. 63.2) confirms that after Agrippa’s death Augustus considered many possible candidates for marriage to Julia, and even contemplated candidates from the equestrian order.
father’s friends: Tiberius is thinking of such equestrians as Maecenas, Sallustius Crispus, and Proculeius, men of considerable influence, but not to be compared with the prefect of the guard.
Gaius Proculeius: a close friend of Augustus, he was sent as his emissary to Antonius and Cleopatra after the battle of Actium.
Marcus Agrippa: see note to p. 4; he was of humble origins, coming from a non-senatorial family. Some members of the nobility refused to attend his funeral because of his modest status.
the moment is granted me: Dio (58.7.5) mentions a betrothal between Sejanus and an unnamed member of the imperial family. Tiberius may have in mind political rather than personal promotion, perhaps the consulship and tribunicia potestas, to which Sejanus still aspired in AD 31.
soldiers’ hands: letters were carried to Rome by speculatores, mounted special units of the praetorian guard, and thus under the command of Sejanus.
Votienus Montanus: a well-known orator, from Narbonese Gaul. He reputedly had a habit of repeating himself.
Aemiliu s: presumably a praetorian, set up for the purpose by Sejanus (possibly the Aemilius mentioned at 2.11).
Varius Ligus: otherwise unknown.
Lentulus Gaetulicus: brother of the consul of the current year, Cornelius Cossus, he was later legate of Upper Germany, 29–39 (see 6.30).
Julian law: the penalty under the law of 18 BC was relegation of both parties to separate islands and the partial loss of property. Exile would involve loss of citizenship and total loss of property. Augustus had similarly imposed an excessive penalty on his daughter Julia.
Apidius Merula: otherwise unknown.
Augustus: the oath to the acta (‘measures’) of Augustus was introduced in 29 BC; it was taken by Tiberius on his accession and observed afterwards on 1 January of each year. Tiberius refused to allow a similar oath to be sworn to his own acta during his lifetime (see note to p. 45).
Philip of Macedon: Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great. He invaded Sparta after the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC.
King Antigonus: Antigonus III occupied Sparta in 222 BC.
Mummius: most famous for his destruction of Corinth in 146 BC.
arbiters: an inscription at Olympia shows that the arbitration was carried out in 135 BC with a clear decision in favour of the Messenians (584 votes to 16).
Atidius Geminus: unknown, probably an early Augustan governor.
The people of Segesta . . . family member: the city of Erycus (Eryx) was destroyed during the First Punic War and its territory seems to have passed to Segesta, along with its shrine of Venus. Both claimed a Trojan origin and Virgil (Aeneid 5.759) linked them to Aeneas, and hence to the Julii, who were relatives of Tiberius since his adoption by Augustus. Tiberius also had his own close ties with Sicily where he had spent part of his childhood during his father’s exile.
Publius Rutilius: condemned for extortion 93/2 BC, reputedly through the jealousy of equestrians who made up the jury panel. In exile he received the citizenship of the city of Smyrna.
Vulcacius Moschus: an orator of Pergamum. A familiar figure in the works of Seneca the Elder, exiled to Marseilles (Massilia) after a conviction for poisoning.
Lucius Domitius: consul in 16 BC, grandfather of the future emperor Nero (see note to p. 39).
great fortune: Suetonius (Tib. 49) claims that Tiberius drove Lentulus to suicide for his money.
his father: Lucius’ father Gnaeus, consul in 32 BC, was originally caught up in the conspiracy against Caesar. He commanded a republican fleet for a time before surrendering to Antonius. He switched loyalty to Octavian in 32 BC. Shakespeare’s Enobarbus in Antony and Cleopatra is based on Gnaeus.
His grandfather: Lucius’ grandfather, also Lucius, a republican, consul in 54 BC, was killed after Pharsalus (48 BC).
younger Antonia: Tacitus is in error here. The younger Antonia married Drusus; the elder married Domitius.
Elbe: Domitius crossed the Elbe when legate in Illyricum. Dio records that he erected a statue of Augustus on the east bank.
Lucius Antonius: the grandson of Marcus Antonius.
Massilia: Marseilles was one of the main centres of Greek culture in the West. Agricola testified to the scholarly atmosphere of the place (Tacitus, Agr. 4.3).
Octavii: Iullus Antonius was the son of Marcus Antonius and Fulvia, but had been brought up in Rome by Augustus’ sister Octavia. Moreover, Lucius’ mother, the elder Marcella, was the daughter of Octavia. Hence it would be appropriate for Lucius to be placed in the family tomb of the Octavii.
Lucius Piso: the identification of this Lucius Piso is far from certain. He was possibly the son of the Piso mentioned at 4.21. Tiberius is said to have appointed Lucius Arruntius as legate of Nearer Spain but detained him in Rome (6.27). Lucius may have been standing in for him with praetorian rank.
conscription: it appears from this passage that Rome had abandoned the tradition that client kingdoms would provide occasional military support to a more systematic form of recruitment.
Pomponius Labeo: he is described by Dio (58.24.3) as serving for eight years as governor of Moesia. Technically, Sabinus was legate and Labeo’s position may have been as his lieutenant, analogous perhaps to Lucius Piso in Spain (see 4.45). He committed suicide in 34 (see 6.29).
wall-javelins: pila muralia were pointed stakes inserted as a defensive line along the perimeter of a marching camp.
Claudia Pulchra: daughter of Marcella, the daughter of Augustus’ sister Octavia, and Marcus Valerius Messala Barbatus Appianus, consul in 12 BC; she was thus second cousin to Agrippina. She had been married to the ill-fated Quinctilius Varus.
Domitius Afer: consul in 29, by reputation the greatest orator of his day. He earned the hatred of Caligula and saved his own skin by yielding to the emperor in the area of oratorical skill. He died in 59 (see 14.19).
sacrificing to his father: this would have been appropriate for Tiberius as a priest of the deified Augustus.
Greek verse: it is a striking indication of the acquaintance with Hellenism in the imperial house that Tiberius was able to quote a line of Greek, and that Agrippina was presumably able to recognize it.
young enough: she would have been about 40 at the time.
marriage: Agrippina does not state her intended choice of husband but it may have been Asinius Gallus, later denounced by Tiberius as her lover.
journals: Tacitus rarely identifies his sources. He presumably does so here because his source is one that has been ignored by other historians. In fact, only one other citation is known to have come from the younger Agrippina’s memoirs, the information in Pliny the Elder (NH 7.46) that her son Nero was born by a breach birth.
father-in-law: Tiberius, by virtue of his adoption of Germanicus.
Perses . . . monarchs : in the war against Perses (171–168 BC), the cities were ruled by Eumenes II of Pergamum (197–160 BC), a supporter of Rome. Eumenes was succeeded by his brother Attalus II (220–138 BC), who was succeeded in turn by Attalus III (170–133 BC). This last ruler bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Aristonicus, natural son of Eumenes II, opposed the bequest and fought to oppose it in 131–129 BC (see 12.62). Chief among the ‘other monarchs’ would have been Pharnaces, Mithridates, and the Parthians.
Sardis: this city had suffered heavily in the earthquake of AD 17 (see 2.47), but must have recovered by now.
wars abroad: Smyrna had contributed ships in the war against Antiochus (191–188 BC).
Italy: the reference is to the Social War of 91–88 BC.
Marcus Porcius: i.e. Cato the Elder, consul in 195 BC.
Lucius Sulla: Smyrna helped Sulla during the First Mithridatic War, in 85 BC.
Vibius Marsus: see 2.74; consul in AD 17, a friend of Germanicus, he was accused of maiestas in 37 (see 6.47).
a supernumerary legate: Dio (53.14.17) says that a proconsul of consular rank had three such legates. A similar appointment was made in AD 17 to assist the proconsul of Asia after the earthquake.
Nola: Augustus died in his father’s house at Nola, and Dio (56.46.3) reports that the house was then turned into a shrine.
historians: among modern scholars, as apparently among ancient historians, there is much debate about Tiberius’ motives for leaving Rome permanently. The decision is likely to have been prompted by an accumulation of many factors, including the obsequiousness of the Senate, the irritation with his mother, and his distaste for the insincerities of Rome.
sharing his rule: the will of Augustus, by which Livia became a Julian and received the title of Augusta, created an ambiguous role for her, although there can not have been any question of a formal sharing of power.
entourage: despite claims recorded by Tacitus and others that Tiberius went to Capri to indulge his lusts, his retinue was made up of sober and scholarly companions. Cocceius Nerva, consul in AD 21 or 22 and grandfather of the later emperor, was the leading jurist of his day. He was the only consular to accompany Tiberius when he finally left Rome. Curtius Atticus was spoken of by Ovid (Ex P. 2.11) as a man of literary tastes. He fell victim to Sejanus (see 6.10).
Greeks: Suetonius (Tib. 56, 70) speaks of Tiberius finding pleasure in the company of Greek scholars, with whom he would discuss literary questions.
return to the city: he came to the mainland on a number of occasions and even reached the outskirts of Rome, but could not bring himself to enter.
his wife: Nero was married to Julia, daughter of Drusus, son of Tiberius, and Livilla.
Drusus: Nero’s brother Drusus seems to have been quite different from him, and Sejanus was able to exploit the antipathy that he apparently felt towards an older brother who would have taken precedence over him. Dio (58.3.8) adds that Sejanus seduced Drusus’ wife Aemilia Lepida and through her built up evidence against him.
Asinius Agrippa: consul in this year (see 4.34), he was the son of Asinius Gallus and Tiberius’ former wife Vipsania. His grandfathers were Marcus Agrippa and the distinguished man of letters, Asinius Pollio.
Quintus Haterius: see note to p. 12. Tiberius seems to have held him in some contempt.
Fifty thousand people: Suetonius (Tib. 40) says that 20,000 actually died. Given the capacity of an amphitheatre, these figures should be treated with the utmost caution.
fire: the danger of fires in Rome was notorious, and led to the formation of a fire service, the vigiles, in AD 6.
Augustan Hill: the scheme seems to have fallen through since the renaming did not take place, and it was hardly likely that Tiberius would have accepted it.
Julia: Claudia Quinta: Suetonius (Tib. 2.3) reports, among the great exploits of Tiberius’ ancestors, Claudia’s refloating in 204 BC of the ship that bore Cybele, the Magna Mater (‘Great Mother’, the ‘Mother of the Gods’) to Italy. In recognition of this service the Senate ordered that a statue of Claudia be placed in the portico of the temple of the Magna Mater when it was dedicated in 191 BC (Livy 29.14.2). The statue was spared in two fires, in 111 BC and AD 3 (Val. Max. 1.11).
Querquetulanus: a form of this name, which refers to oak trees, is found in both Varro and Pliny, but Tacitus is the only source to assign it to the hill.
Tarquinius Priscus: the first Etruscan king; his traditional dates are 616–579.
disagreement on his identity: the legends are highly confused. Claudius refers to the story in the original speech on the introduction of the Gauls to the Senate, as preserved in the inscription in Lyons (but omitted in Tacitus’ account, 11.24). Claudius’ version has Caeles an ally of another Etruscan, Mastarna, or of Servius Tullius, making that king an Etruscan also.
Quinctilius Varus: son of the Varus who had suffered the disaster in AD 9. The younger Varus was at one point engaged to one of Germanicus’ daughters. He was related to the imperial house through his mother, Claudia Pulchra.
Publius Dolabella: see notes to pp. 119 and 149; he came from a powerful republican patrician family, and in the eyes of Tacitus this made his sycophantic conduct all the more reprehensible.
related: Dolabella’s mother Quinctilia was the sister of Varus’ father.
to await the emperor: the absence of the emperor created legal and constitutional problems. The system envisaged his presence in the Senate, presiding and influencing the debate.
Mt Vesuvius’ eruptions: the great eruption took place in AD 79.
twelve villas: it has been argued that they were named after the twelve gods, the Villa Iovis (Villa of Jupiter) being the best known. It is unlikely that Tiberius was responsible for the construction of all twelve, or of any one of them, given his distaste for expensive buildings.
advising them: Suetonius (Tib. 53.2) states that these two schemes, of going to the army in Germany and of seeking sanctuary at the statue of Augustus, were specifically charged in the trial of Agrippina and Nero.
Titius Sabinus: the attack on him had begun eight years earlier (see 4.18) and presumably the evidence had been accumulated in the meantime. He is otherwise unknown.
tension and panic: it is difficult to understand why there should have been such a state of alarm, given that the actions supposedly all took place in secret.
no delay: it seems that the case ignored the rule of a delay of nine full days between sentence and execution that was put in place after the death of Clutorius Priscus in AD 21 (see 3.51).
to whose children Agrippina was aunt: Asinius Gallus was married to Agrippina’s half-sister, Vipsania; Tacitus uses family links deliberately. Here they show the delicate relationship between Asinius and Tiberius.
Julia: see 3.24. She was the daughter of Julia the Elder, hence granddaughter of Augustus. She married Lucius Aemilius Paullus, consul AD 1, who was executed for conspiracy. Suetonius (Aug. 64–5) makes her offence immorality, and records that her lover Decimus Junius Silanus was allowed to return to Rome in AD 20, although not permitted to pursue a career. The whole episode is murkier even than the scandal that brought down her mother. Julia’s son Marcus Lepidus married Caligula’s sister Drusilla (he would be executed for conspiracy in AD 39).
Augusta: the role of Livia here is surprising and may be a better indication of her attitude to the Julian family than the highly charged narrative of Tacitus seems to imply. It should be noted also that Agrippina and her family were considered ‘protected’ while Livia was alive (5.3).
altar: such monuments imply honour and commemoration rather than worship.
Agrippina: the oldest of Germanicus’ daughters. Born in what would become Cologne, she would prove to be a woman of considerable spirit and ambition, and plays a major role in the later books of the Annals. She was the mother of the future emperor Nero.
Gnaeus Domitius: consul in 32, and son of the consul of 16 BC (see note to p. 39); he came from a distinguished and ancient family but was described by Suetonius (Nero 5) as detestable in every aspect of his life. His mother commented on his laziness and lack of ambition.
Julia Augusta: Dio (58.2.1) states that Livia had lived for eighty-six years at the time of her death in 29. Pliny’s claim (NH 14.60) that she was only 82 cannot be correct, since it would make her 11 or 12 when Tiberius was born, in 42 BC.
the Claudian family : her father was born a Claudian but became a Livian through adoption, probably by Livius Drusus, celebrated plebeian tribune of 91 BC.
Tiberius Nero: Livia’s first husband was, like her, a Claudian and hence a kinsman (the exact relationship is unknown). He had a promising lineage and was for a time considered a possible husband for Cicero’s daughter, Tullia. But he was lacking in judgement or drive. He supported Brutus and Cassius after the murder of Caesar, and on their deaths he gave his allegiance to Antonius. In 40 he fled Italy with his family and sought the protection of Sextus Pompeius in Sicily. He was eventually allowed to return to Rome after the general amnesty in 39, and lived in obscurity thereafter.
Perusine War: Perugia was occupied by Lucius Antonius, the brother of Marcus Antonius, in 41 BC, and surrendered to Octavian in 40. Peace was achieved by the Treaty of Misenum in 39 BC.
pregnant: Livia was pregnant with her second son, Drusus, at the time of the marriage. See note to p. 10.
will: the execution of Livia’s will had to await the accession of her greatgrandson Caligula (Suetonius, Cal. 16.3).
divine honours: Livia would eventually be so honoured by Claudius.
Fufius: he and his wife would be compelled to commit suicide (Dio 58.4.5–6).
senatorial proceedings: the only other mention of senatorial acta in Tacitus is at 15.74.
the people: this is one of the rare recorded examples of a popular demonstration actually influencing policy in imperial Rome.
in his hands: Tiberius had previously been punctilious about leaving major decisions to the Senate. His insistence on dealing with this issue personally is a measure of how affected by it he was.
forty-four speeches: it is generally assumed that these speeches followed the conviction of Livilla for her part in the poisoning of Drusus son of Tiberius; it may well be, however, that they represent the speeches that followed the downfall of Sejanus.
I thought: although there is no gap in the manuscript this section clearly belongs to a later part of the book than the preceding one. We have no idea who the speaker might be. Clearly it is someone who refuses to renounce his previous close ties to Sejanus.
son-in-law: in AD 25 Sejanus wrote to Tiberius requesting permission to marry Drusus’ widow Livilla. The request was refused, but Tiberius did promise that Sejanus would have a link with the imperial family at a later date. This promise was renewed in 31. We are not sure whether the bride was to be Livilla or her daughter Julia, nor can we be sure that the marriage took place, despite the reference to ‘son-in-law’, which may simply be used presumptively.
Blaesus: see note to p. 13; he had clearly been caught in the downfall of his nephew Sejanus.
Publius Vitellius: see note to p. 43; his links with Sejanus secured his fate, as happened to Blaesus.
Pomponius Secundus: see 11.13, 12.27–8; a multifaceted man, Publius Pomponius Secundus was consul in 44 and a skilled commander in Germany in 50, for which he received the triumphal insignia. But it was as a writer that he was most celebrated, both as a poet and composer of tragedies. He was a friend of Pliny the Elder.
treasury: here the reference is to the military treasury, founded by Augustus in AD 6 and administered by three ex-praetors.
Aelius Gallus: he is otherwise unknown, but his nomen Aelius indicates that he had a family link to Sejanus (Lucius Aelius Sejanus).
sharpener: this was presumably intended to sharpen a reed pen, but a knife could also be used to scrape away text.
remaining children: the phrase suggests that one or even more of Sejanus’ children has previously been executed. The account of the horrific deaths of the children is famous and familiar. The events in question are recorded in the Fasti of Ostia, which give us a chronological sequence: 18 October, Sejanus was strangled, 26 October, Apicata, his wife, committed suicide, December, Capito Aelianus and Junilla, the children of Sejanus, were recorded as lying dead on the Gemonian Steps.
a rumour … mainland: we discover at 6.23 that Drusus was imprisoned and under close guard on the Palatine. Interesting parallels to this incident are provided by the emergence of a false Agrippa Postumus and a false Nero after their deaths.
Poppaeus Sabinus: see note to p. 49; the detailed account here, especially the particulars of his journey, of an errand that proved in the end fruitless, is surprising. It could well be that his family connection to Poppaea Sabina (granddaughter), the future wife of Nero, might have provoked Tacitus’ interest.
the other sea: the Adriatic.
. . .ended: Tacitus’ account is very different from that of Dio (58.25.1), who claims that the false Drusus was arrested and taken to Tiberius. Tacitus rarely explains his historical methodology, and here he insists, unusually, that he carried out his researches as thoroughly as possible.
Regulus: Publius Memmius Regulus became suffect consul on 1 October 31 and was involved in the downfall of Sejanus, in that he presided over the Senate when the emperor’s famous long letter was read out on 18 October. We must assume that Tacitus gave a detailed account of his actions in the previous missing section. It seems clear that the Senate was anxious that the issue should not be stirred up now that passions had subsided.
Tiberius . . . coast: Suetonius (Tib. 65.2) claims that Tiberius did not in fact leave his villa on Capri for nine months after the fall of Sejanus, while Tacitus here has him on the Campanian coast early in AD 32.
his ancestors’ portraits: Tacitus suggests that Tiberius was sexually excited by the fact that some of the young men came from noble families.
sexual activities: compared with the lurid account of Tiberius’ sexual excesses in Suetonius (Tib. 43–4), Tacitus’ description of his indulgences is relatively restrained. Sellarii are men who haunt latrines (see Suetonius, Tib. 43.1);spintriae are young male prostitutes.
difference: because many of the imperial expenditures came directly from the emperor’s private fiscus, and the income of that fiscus was derived in large part from public sources, the distinction between the state treasury and the emperor’s fiscus was one that was increasingly difficult to maintain.
Junius Gallio: one of the most distinguished orators of the period, although Tacitus (Dialogus de Oratoribus 26.1) criticizes his clattering style (tinnitus). He was on close terms with Ovid and a friend of the elder Seneca, whose son he adopted.
service: the praetorians served for sixteen years, four fewer than legionary soldiers.
fourteen rows: see note to p. 92.
the destruction of Gaius Caesar: details of such a plot were presumably given in the missing part of Book 5.
noted above: at 4.68 and 71 it was revealed that Latiaris was one of the expraetors who prosecuted Titius Sabinus, a close friend of Germanicus, and, after his death, of Agrippina.
emperor: it is not clear whether Regulus anticipated this happening in Rome or in Capri (Capreae). In any case his true motive was presumably to delay things.
Sanquinius Maximus: this consulship is undated. He later held a second consulship in 39 and in the same year was city prefect (praefectus urbi). He was also governor of Lower Germany under Claudius.
salvation for Regulus . . . destruction for Trio: Regulus lived until 61; Trio committed suicide in 35.
the destruction of illustrious men: in AD 21, as consul-designate, Haterius had proposed the execution of Clutorius Priscus, a knight.
‘a funeral dinner’: Livia’s birthday was 30 January (as adjusted to the Julian calendar). The funeral dinner (literally, ‘nine-day’ dinner) was socalled because the ninth day after death saw the end of various funerary rituals and might be marked by a modest feast. The point that Messalinus is presumably trying to make is that a funeral feast was as much as could be hoped for in the case of Livia, because her son had refused deification or any other special honours after her death.
Marcus Lepidus and . . . Lucius Arruntius: consuls in AD 6. According to Tacitus (1.13), they were among those Augustus considered willing and able to succeed him.
these words: this is the longest verbatim quotation in Tacitus. It is also quoted by Suetonius (Tib. 67.1) in virtually identical form. The contexts are quite different. Suetonius gives the quotation as evidence of Tiberius’ general concern about his own unpopularity. Tacitus gives it a specific context, the case of Cotta Messalinus.
what the leading man of philosophy used to claim: the reference is to Plato, Gorgias 524 E, where the speaker is Socrates. It is unclear whether Socrates or Plato is intended.
authority: Tiberius’ order that the charges against Cotta be dropped might have been accompanied by an instruction to the Senate to undertake proceedings against those who had unjustly brought the proceedings against him. This would account for the use of the term ‘authority’.
Quintus Servaeus and Minucius Thermus: on Servaeus, see 2.56, 3.13, 19. Minucius is otherwise unknown.
Gaius Cestius: he became consul in 35 (see 6.31).
Marcus Terentius: the speech of Terentius, a knight who is otherwise unknown, is the longest reported in Book 6. It may be that Tacitus was impressed by his courage and loyalty. Extensive verbatim speeches are usually reserved for senators.
suppliant rags: shabby clothing was often worn by the accused in courts or by suppliants in general as a way of evoking sympathy.
sixteen years: this figure must presumably refer to the period AD 15–30, with 14 excluded because Tiberius did not succeed until late 14. But Sejanus was still active in 31, and the number is curious.
Satrius and Pomponius: at 4.34 Satrius Secundus is described as a client of Sejanus when he (Satrius) prosecuted Cremutius Cordus. At 6.47 he has become an informer of the plot of Sejanus. It may be this latter action that saved his life. Pomponius is otherwise unknown.
Sextus Vistilius: brother of Vistilia (see 2.85). Tiberius’ actions against him are difficult to understand. He apparently offended the emperor because of remarks made against Caligula. But this offence seems identical to one of the charges made against Cotta that Tiberius had quashed. Also, Vistilius must by now have been over 60, given that he had served with Drusus, who died in 9 BC.
an entire group: the implication is that a large number of people met a fate similar to that of Vistilius. Five names are given, but in fact the prosecutions of all were dropped, three through Tiberius’ intervention: (1) (Gaius) Annius Pollio: consul in AD 21 or 22. (2) (Lucius Annius) Vinicianus: consul in the latter part of Tiberius’ reign and destined to have a prominent role in the final plot against Caligula. He was the son of the Annius Pollio above, and father of the Annius Pollio who conspired against Nero (15.56). (3) Mamercus (Aemilius) Scaurus: consul in AD 21; see 1.13. (4) (Gaius)Appius (Junius)Silanus: consul AD 28 (see 4.68), recalled from Spain early under Claudius and shortly afterwards put to death. (5) (Gaius) Calvisius Sabinus: consul AD 26 (see 4.46), appointed governor of Pannonia after his acquittal. He was recalled by Caligula and committed suicide.
women: although he mentions ‘women’ in the plural, Tacitus cites only one case specifically by name, that of Vitia, the mother of Fufius Geminus. It is impossible to tell if he might have been extrapolating from this one example.
Vitia: Dio (58.4.5–6) adds that Fufius’ wife also committed suicide by stabbing herself in the Senate House. The account of Fufius’ own trial and death would presumably have been in the lost section of Book 5.
Vescularius Flaccus and Julius Marinus: Flaccus had been involved in the prosecution of Libo Drusus in AD 16 (see 2.28). Nothing further is known about Julius Marinus.
the pontiff Lucius Piso: Lucius Calpurnius Piso was consul in 15 BC; it is noteworthy that although he was charged with the security of the city in the absence of the emperor, he was absent from the actions to bring down Sejanus. The section on his father’s term as censor is in a part of the Annals now lost.
Denter Romulius … Tarquinius Superbus: Denter Romulius is otherwise not attested. Livy (1.20.5) claims that Numa Marcius was created pontiff by King Numa (see note to p. 108); there was another tradition (Plutarch, Numa 21) that he was the husband of Numa’s daughter Pompilia and their son was Ancus Marcius. Spurius Lucretius was a venerable figure of the early republic, father of the Lucretia who was famously defiled by Tarquinius Superbus.
Cilnius Maecenas: twice in the period just before the first settlement in 27 BC Maecenas was left in charge of Rome and Italy by an absent Octavian. Maecenas was an equestrian, and although he fulfilled the duties of city prefect, he could not actually hold the office.
Messala Corvinus: see 3.34; consul in 31 BC along with Octavian, he achieved distinction as a general (triumph in 27 BC) and also as an orator and literary patron. He was city prefect briefly in 26 BC, but resigned on the grounds that the office was not appropriate for a civilian.
Taurus Statilius: see note to p. 132. He held office in 16 BC.
a book of the Sibyl: by tradition, the Sibylline Books were brought to Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus. The texts, in Greek verse, were under the stewardship of a board of fifteen, who also were charged with their interpretation. As noted below, the original collection was destroyed by fire in 83 BC and a new official collection was made under Augustus and deposited in the Palatine library.
Quintilianus: consul in AD 38.
Caninius Gallus: consul in 2 BC.
Tiberius sent a letter: a decree of the Senate did not come into force until it was lodged in the state treasury. There was a delay of nine full days between the passing of the decree and its deposition, which would have allowed Tiberius to make his intervention.
the burning . . . Social War: the Capitol was burned in 83 BC during the civil wars that followed the Social War of 91–88. Tacitus’ reference here to the ‘Social War’ is imprecise.
grain: the availability of grain at a reasonable price for the urban masses was one of the chief preoccupations of Roman authorities. In 23, 22, and 6 BC Augustus had been obliged to make large subsidies. Before the end of his reign, a permanent prefect of the grain-supply (praefectus annonae) had been appointed. Similar disturbances had occurred under Tiberius, who in AD 19 was obliged to make a financial intervention.
Geminius, Celsus, and Pompeius: these three are otherwise unknown.
Rubrius Fabatus: nothing is known of him but he was presumably a senator, since only senators were prohibited from leaving Italy.
the choice of husbands . . . Marcus Vinicius: the third sister, Agrippina, mother of the future emperor Nero, had been married in AD 28 to Domitius Ahenobarbus. Drusilla was probably 16 at the time of her marriage, Julia Livilla 15. Both the grooms, Lucius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Vinicius, had originally been supporters of Sejanus, but had later denounced him.
Macro: this is the first mention in the extant Annals of Macro, who succeeded Sejanus as prefect of the praetorian guard, after playing a leading role (as prefect of the vigiles) in his downfall, an event that would have been covered in the missing section of Book 5. He would be instrumental in securing the succession of Caligula.
Twelve Tables: Tacitus is the only source to claim that this enactment was found in the early body of laws known as the Twelve Tables, but all the same there was a strong tradition that the legal jurisdiction over debt goes back to the fifth century BC (Livy 2.23.1).
one-twelfth: we are not sure if the period covered is one year, or one month (the usual way of computing debt among the Romans). If one year, the interest would be 100 per cent, if one month 81/3 per cent. The former seems excessively high, the latter too low.
interest was prohibited altogether : it is hard to believe that no-interest loans could have been made available; nevertheless, a bill prescribing them seems to have been put forward in 342 BC by the tribune Lucius Genucius (Livy 7.42.1).
The senators were alarmed: the majority of usurers would have come from the equestrian class. Clearly senators were also involved to some degree in the practice.
a shortage of ready money: the financial crisis recorded by Tacitus is covered also by Suetonius (Tib. 48.1) and Dio (58.21.4–5).
Tiberius brought aid . . . banks: it seems unlikely that Tiberius would have handed over such large sums to private individuals. Dio (58.21.5) suggests that Tiberius gave 100,000 HS to the public treasury, and that the money was to be lent out by senators.
Considius Proculus: he may be identical to the Considius mentioned at 5.8; the summary justice meted out to him is surprising, given his senatorial rank.
Quintus Pomponius: suffect consul in AD 41; see note to p. 293.
Gnaeus Magnus: i.e. Gnaeus Pompeius, the famous Pompey.
Theophanes of Mytilene: the historian was a friend of Pompey, who granted him Roman citizenship. After his death he received divine honours at Mytilene. He had obtained the status of free city for Mytilene from Pompey, despite its dubious record during the Mithridatic wars.
enormous: Suetonius (Tib. 61.4) refers to the same event, claiming that in one day twenty people, including women and children, were dragged down the Gemonian steps and hurled into the Tiber.
Claudia: Caligula married Junia Claudilla, daughter of Marcus Junius Silanus, consul of AD 15 and close friend of Tiberius (see note to p. 107). Silanus would be forced to commit suicide by his son-in-law in the first year of the reign.
his mother’s condemnation or his brothers’ ruin: Agrippina was exiled in 29 (14.63), the event presumably covered in the lost portion of Book 5. His brother Nero was put to death in 31; Drusus was starved to death before Caligula’s accession.
Passienus: consul in AD 27, a noted wit, and a close associate of Caligula. He was the second husband of Agrippina.
Chaldeans: see note to p. 63.
Thrasyllus: the most celebrated astrologer of the day. The story of Tiberius putting his powers to the test is told also by Suetonius (Tib. 14.4) and Dio (55.11.1–3). He returned with Tiberius to Rome from Rhodes and was granted Roman citizenship.
schools: Tacitus seems to present the position of two schools, that of the Epicureans, who believed in the existence of the gods but denied that they intervened in human affairs, and an idiosyncratic and selective view of the Stoics.
the prediction of Nero’s reign: the reference is presumably to 14.9, where Agrippina is told by the astrologer that Nero will one day rule and kill his mother. ‘Let him kill me, as long as he comes to power’ (occidat, dum imperet), was her supposed reply.
son: almost certainly Nero’s astrologer Tiberius Claudius Balbillus, who may also be the individual of that name who pursued a highly successful political career, leading to the governorship of Egypt.
Asinius Gallus: the details of his arrest in AD 30 are provided in detail by Dio (58.3.1–5) and would doubtless have been covered in the missing section of Book 5.
Drusus’ death: his arrest would have been covered among the events of AD 30. The horrific account of his death by starvation appears also in Suetonius (Tib. 54.2).
Agrippina: she died on the anniversary of Sejanus’ death, hence 18 October (as recorded in the Fasti of Ostia)
moral turpitude: at 5.3 Tacitus makes the point that Tiberius was unable even to concoct charges of immorality against Agrippina. The accusation is now even less persuasive, given that both she and Asinius Gallus have been under arrest for a number of years.
Plancina: she had enjoyed the protection of Livia, and was presumably protected after Livia’s death by her hostility to Agrippina. The implication is that after the latter’s death Plancina had no further claim on Tiberius’ goodwill.
crimes that were well known: it is not clear whether these are in part or in whole the charges that were laid during the trial of Piso, although Tacitus’ characterization of them as ‘late in coming’ implies that they were the same.
Julia: the marriage of Julia, daughter of Tiberius’ son Drusus, to the socially inferior Rubellius Blandus seems anticlimactic, but the importance attached by the Romans to family status should not be underestimated.
Aelius Lamia: see note to p. 143. He had a successful career as governor of Africa and was technically legate of Syria for ten years, but for some reason Tiberius did not allow him to leave Rome during his term of office (see also Arruntius, below). Perhaps the four legions of Syria were seen by Tiberius as a potential threat.
Flaccus Pomponius: see note to p. 65. Like Lamia, he was a ‘new man’, but, unlike him, allowed to take up his position in Syria when the latter gave up the legateship to become city prefect. Flaccus seems to have enjoyed Tiberius’ confidence; Suetonius (Tib. 41.1) describes him as the emperor’s drinking buddy.
Arruntius was being held back: Tacitus (Hist. 2.65.2) explains that Arruntius was kept in Rome by Tiberius because of fear. How well grounded the suspicions might have been is difficult to ascertain. His influence was mentioned at 6.5.
Marcus Lepidus: see note to p. 12. Tacitus presumably felt that it would be unnecessary to add details of his accomplishments, to which he has made frequent reference already.
Lucius Vitellius: this is the first mention in the Annals of this man, who will play a significant role from this point on. He enjoyed a remarkably successful career and held three consulships (subsequent ones are in 43 and 47), and a distinguished term as legate of Syria. He was the father of the later short-lived emperor of the same name.
phoenix: the myth of the phoenix fascinated Greek and Roman writers from the earliest period to the advent of Christianity, when it became the symbol of the Resurrection.
Sesosis: a mythical monarch. Amasis ruled about 570–526, and Ptolemy III, 246–221 BC.
I mentioned above: see 4.47.
verses: Dio (58.24.3–5) provides more details, claiming that he wrote an Atreus, in which he represented Tiberius as the titular subject because of his bloodlust. Tiberius commented that he would make Scaurus an Ajax, and forced him to emulate the Greek hero by committing suicide.
Livilla: the wife of Drusus had by now been dead for two years, so the charges related to long-past events.
Lentulus Gaetulicus: see 4.42. He was consul in AD 26 and was appointed legate of Upper Germany in 29. He was not an efficient disciplinarian. We do not know which of Sejanus’ two sons was intended to become his son-in-law. Also, we do not know to what extent the patronage secured his appointment to Germany; his father-in-law, Lucius Apronius (see next note), legate of Upper Germany, might have played a role. Gaetulicus would be executed by Caligula in 39 for plotting against the emperor.
Lucius Apronius: see note to p. 34. He had served under Germanicus in AD 15, when he won triumphal honours, and was similarly honoured for his services against Tacfarinas in Africa. The date of his appointment to Lower Germany is unknown, but certainly before 28, when he dealt with the revolt of the Frisians.
In the consulship . . . King Artabanus’ knowledge: in the next six chapters, Tacitus, for the first time in the Annals, abandons his usual annalistic structure, bringing together the events of two years into a single section, not explaining his reason until the beginning of chapter 38. He does so to deal with the complex events in Parthia. Germanicus had established the pro-Roman Zeno/Artaxias on the throne of Armenia. On the latter’s death, Artabanus II, king of Parthia, installed his son Arsaces there, ushering in a new period of difficulties between Rome and Parthia. As these chapters reveal, Artabanus was in fact driven out of Parthia, but the Roman nominee Tiridates failed to exploit the opportunity and Artabanus was able to recover his throne.
aged Tiberius: Suetonius (Tib. 66) has Artabanus write a scarcely credible letter to Tiberius, advising him to please his subjects by committing suicide.
thus maintaining his policy . . . intrigue: Tiberius’ strategy was to foment the latent hostilities between Artabanus and the Parthian nobles, to reconcile the Iberian Mithridates to his brother Pharasmenes, to put forward his own champion for the throne of Armenia, and to appoint a vigorous and able governor of Syria.
crime: i.e. the murder of Arsaces.
Orodes: possibly the son of Artabanus, briefly king of Armenia between 15/16 and 18.
Phrixus: in the myth, he went to Colchis on the back of a golden ram, whose fleece became the object of the quest of Jason.
suovetaurilia: a sacred rite involving the sacrifice to Mars of a pig, a ram, and a bull.
Dalmatian war: Tiberius set out to deal with the rebellion of Pannonia and Dalmatia in AD 6. By 9 the rebellion had been suppressed and Tiberius was awarded a triumph.
Fulcinius Trio: consul in 31. Ironically, when first introduced by Tacitus at 2.28 (see note to p. 63), he is a notorious informer, but here his downfall is classed among the disasters of the period and a stain on Tiberius’ record.
near the city: Tiberius’ presence in the vicinity of Rome is unexplained. Dio (58.25.2) places him in Antium (Anzio) for the wedding of Caligula in this year (ad 35).
Lucius Aruseius: possibly the Aruseius of 6.7. Presumably more would have been said about him in the missing section of Book 5, and the break in the text here creates added difficulties.
Tigranes: confusingly, Tigranes is a common name for the rulers of Armenia. This individual is particularly obscure.
Gaius Galba: see 3.52. Gaius Sulpicius Galba was consul in AD 22.
the two Blaesi: consuls of 26 and 28, sons of Sejanus’ uncle, Quintus Junius Blaesus.
Aemilia Lepida: daughter of the much-admired Marcus Lepidus, whose death is recorded at 6.27. Dio (57.3.8) claims that she was seduced by Sejanus and provided information that he was able to use against her husband Drusus, the son of Germanicus.
Cietae . . . Cappadocia: confusingly, the Cietae did not live in Cappadocia but in Cilicia to the south. Moreover, Archelaus of Cappadocia had been summoned to Rome in AD 17 and had died there. It is possible that a son of the same name had acquired a kingdom in Cilicia and was still reigning there in AD 36.
Tiridates: Tacitus picks up the narrative from 6.37 where Vitellius had advanced with Tiridates as far as the Euphrates.
provinces: the reference is to the eighteen ‘provinces’ of Parthia, corresponding roughly to the satrapies of the Persian empire.
the Surena: the commander-in-chief of the Parthian army, second in importance only to the king. The position seems to have been hereditary.
the Elymaeans: their exact location is uncertain. Elymais is used of the south-western part of Iran around Susa, but it is hard to see how such a region could support Tiridates from the rear.
Arabs: Tacitus can hardly be alluding to the Arabs of Arabia proper. His reference must be to the Arab kingdom of Osroene (Edesa) in northwestern Mesopotamia, ruled by Acbarus (see note to p. 241).
Tiridates: with his retreat to Syria, Tiridates leaves the historical scene. The situation was essentially that of the status quo ante. Artabanus was restored to his throne and a Roman nominee ruled Armenia. It remained to confirm the arrangement, which happened when Vitellius and Artabanus met on the banks of the Euphrates. Tacitus, who does not mention the ceremony here, seems to agree with Suetonius (Cal. 14.3,Vit. 2.4) and Dio (59.27.3) that the pact belongs to the reign of Caligula. But Josephus (AJ 18.96) claims that Tiberius oversaw its terms. Perhaps the agreement was reached before the death of Tiberius and its formal confirmation took place in the reign of his successor.
A hundred million sesterces: this is the same sum that Tiberius advanced as a loan during the financial crisis of 33. But on this occasion the grant is an outright gift.
buildings of his own: Suetonius (Tib. 47) concurs that Tiberius left no great buildings and that the only two he undertook, the temple of Augustus (see 1.10) and the theatre of Pompey (see note to p. 132), were unfinished at the time of his death.
Publius Petronius: see note to p. 120. He had returned from a six-year governorship of Asia and would be legate of Syria from 37 to possibly 42.
mentioned: see 6.20.
Ennia: Dio (58.28.4) agrees with Tacitus in making Macro a pander while Philo (Leg. 6.39–40) places the initiative entirely with his wife Ennia; Suetonius (Cal. 12.2) blames Caligula.
Drusus’ son: Tiberius Gemellus, born in AD 19. His twin brother had died in 23. He had entered puberty in the technical sense but had not yet received the toga virilis (toga of manhood), which happened after the accession of Caligula (Suetonius, Cal. 15.2).
he was leaving a setting sun to look at one that was rising: this was something of a cliché, supposedly said by Pompey to Sulla, when the latter refused him a triumph (Plutarch, Pompey 14.4).
‘You will kill him, and another will kill you’: Tiberius’ prophecy would be fulfilled. Caligula had Gemellus executed during the first year of his reign and was in turn assassinated in 41.
Albucilla: wife of Satrius Secundus, an ally of Sejanus (see 4.34, 6.8), she seems to be introduced mainly as a link to her three supposed lovers, all of whom were men of considerable distinction: Gnaeus Domitius, father of Nero (see note to p. 178), Vibius Marsus (see note to p. 88), and Lucius Arruntius (see note to p. 8).
records: these are the records of the judicial proceedings held under Macro. It is interesting that the charges were laid before the Senate but the proceedings were conducted by Macro, presumably while on Capri with Tiberius.
Carsidius Sacerdos: he had been accused in AD 23 of supplying grain to Tacfarinas but was acquitted (see 4.13), and became a praetor in 27. Nothing is then known of his activities up to this point.
Sextus Papinius: because he is described as being from a consular family it is quite possible that he is the son of the consul of 36 (see 6.40).
changes of residence: Suetonius (Tib. 72–3) states that Tiberius went from near Rome to Astura, Circeii, and Misenum, with the intention of returning to Capri from the last, but was detained, by bad weather and his worsening health, at the villa once owned by the notoriously wealthy Lucullus. The villa was a fine one with many historical associations, having once been the home of Marius. It was later owned by the emperor Romulus Augustulus, and supposedly housed the bones of St Severinus.
bedclothes on him: there were variants to this account. Dio (58.28.3) is fairly close to Tacitus, but gives the main role to Caligula, aided by Macro. Suetonius (Tib. 73.2,Cal. 12.2) reports several theories, that Caligula poisoned Tiberius, or starved him to death, or smothered or strangled him. Seneca (cited by Suetonius) and Philo (Leg. 25), on the other hand, suggest that the death was perfectly natural.
seventy-eighth: Tiberius was born on 16 November 42 BC.