Biographical Information

A

Akhmatova, Anna (1889–1966).

Born Anna Gorenko. Russian poet. In the poem cycle Requiem (1935–1940), she condemned Stalin’s purges. Short-listed for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965 and 1966. Most of her work was suppressed in her lifetime. Her first husband, poet Nikolay Gumilyov, was shot in 1921 by the Cheka (Soviet secret police); her son Lev Gumilyov and common-law husband Nikolay Punin spent many years in the Gulag from 1938 to 1953.

Alliluyeva, Svetlana (1926–2011).

Born Svetlana Stalina. Also known as Lana Peters. Daughter of Joseph Stalin. Left the USSR in 1966, became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1978, returned to the USSR briefly (1984–1986) and reclaimed Soviet citizenship, and finally settled in the United Kingdom, becoming a British citizen in 1992. Published several books of memoirs.

Amalrik, Andrei (1938–1980).

Russian historian. One of the first human rights activists in the post-Stalin USSR. Expelled from Moscow University in 1963, imprisoned and persecuted as a political dissident, left the USSR in 1976. Killed in a car accident in Spain on the way to the Madrid gathering of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe.

Amin, Hafizullah (1929–1979, assassinated).

Afghan communist politician. Leader in the Saur Revolution in Afghanistan (1978), in which President Mohammed Daoud Khan was murdered, leading to the seizure of power by communist President Nur Muhammed Taraki. Amin overthrew Taraki (1979) and ordered his death. Amin himself was assassinated by Soviets three months into his own rule in response to Taraki’s death.

Andropov, Yuri (1914–1984).

Soviet politician. Head of state of USSR (1982–1984), head of KGB (1967–1982), Soviet ambassador to Hungary (1954–1957). Key figure in the suppression of the Hungarian Uprising (1956) and crushing of the Prague Spring (1968). A strong proponent of the suppression of dissidents, he proposed and implemented the abuse of psychiatry to confine and discredit them.

Arafat, Yasser (1929–2004).

Palestinian political leader. Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1969–2004). President of the Palestinian National Authority (1994–2004). Founding member of the Fatah political party, which he led from 1959 to 2004. Born in Egypt, he became an Arab nationalist during his university years in Cairo. Fought with the Muslim Brotherhood in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Was ejected from Egypt, along with other guerrilla forces, after the 1956 Suez Crisis. Arafat founded the Palestinian group Fatah while in Kuwait, which was dedicated to founding a Palestinian nation through armed struggle by Palestinians, as opposed to other anti-Israel groups that took pan-Arabic approaches. Came to prominence after the Six Day War in 1967, as pan-Arab forces were defeated by Israel, and the 1968 Battle of Karameh, in which Palestinians first used suicide bombers. Involved in various campaigns to defeat Israel and/or found a Palestinian state, many sponsored by the KGB. Received a Nobel Peace Prize with Israel Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Israel President Shimon Peres in 1994 for the 1993 Oslo Accords, which called for the establishment of Palestinian self-rule in areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

Arbatov, Georgy (1923–2010).

Soviet political scientist. Adviser to Central Committee of the CPSU (1964–1967), adviser to five General Secretaries of the Communist Party. Following the dissolution of the USSR, he was an adviser to the Russian legislature and a member of the foreign policy council of the RF foreign Ministry (1991–1996).

Aron, Raymond (1905–1983).

French philosopher and writer. Prodigious writer on political science and philosophy, taking a strong anti-totalitarian position. His best-known book was The Opium of the Intellectuals (1955), which looked at the behavior of the French intellectual elite in its defense of Marxist oppression and atrocities and its attack on democracy and capitalism. Aron’s 1973 book, The Imperial Republic: The United States and the World, 1945–1973, influenced many notable American political players, such as Henry Kissinger and Zbigniew Brzezinski.

B

Babayan, Eduard (1920–2009).

Russian medical doctor. One of the senior heads of the Serbsky State Scientific Center for Social and Forensic Psychiatry, and defender of the political use of psychiatry in the USSR.

Bahr, Egon (1922–2015).

West German SPD member. MP in the Bundestag of West Germany (1972–1990). Minister in the West German government (1972–1976) under Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt. Creator of Ostpolitik. Key figure in negotiations between East and West Germany, as well as those between Germany and the USSR.

Bakatin, Vadim (1937–).

Soviet politician. Last director of the KGB (1991). Oversaw dismantling of the KGB into separate organizations during the dissolution of the USSR, though the same people staffed the successor organizations FSB and SVR.

Beria, Lavrentiy (1899–1953, executed).

Soviet politician. Chief of the Soviet security and secret police (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin. Oversaw vast expansion of Gulag labor camps, and the Soviet atomic bomb program. Supervised the execution of Polish prisoners of war on Stalin’s orders—the Katyn Massacre (1940). Widely known for both effectiveness and gleeful cruelty, he both served and challenged Stalin, conducting purges but intervening in the persecution of Jews. In the struggle for power following Stalin’s death, he became First Deputy Premier and Minister of Internal Affairs with plans for liberalizing some of Stalin’s policies. Three months later, ousted by Khrushchev’s coup, Beria was tried for treason and terrorism—including actions ordered by Stalin. Found guilty, he was personally executed by military hero Pavel Batitsky.

Bogoraz-Brukhman, Larisa (1926–2004).

Russian linguist, writer, and human rights activist. Married to fellow dissident Yuli Daniel, and later married to Anatoly Marchenko. Organized the Red Square protest in 1968 against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and was exiled to Siberia as a result. Co-wrote Memory, a book on Stalin’s terrors. An active writer in the Soviet dissident movement, she continued her human rights activism post-Soviet Union.

Borovik, Genrikh (1929–).

Russian writer. According to a senior archivist of the USSR’s foreign intelligence service, Borovik was a KGB agent in the United States, one of whose successful projects was the propagation of false theories regarding John F. Kennedy’s assassination. Wrote a book on Soviet spy Kim Philby.

Brandt, Willy (1913–1992).

Born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm. West German politician. Leader of the SPD (1964–1987), West German Chancellor (1969–1974). Proponent of Ostpolitik, received Nobel Peace Prize in 1971 as result of this policy. Resigned as Chancellor when a close aide was exposed as an agent of the Stasi.

Brezhnev, Leonid (1906–1982).

Soviet politician. Leader of the USSR (1964–1982). Reversed Khrushchev’s liberalization of Soviet cultural policy. His reversion to prior Soviet policies led to economic stagnation. Major proponent of the foreign policy of détente, however he oversaw aggressive actions such as invasions of Czechoslovakia (1968) and Afghanistan (1979).

Brodsky, Joseph (1940–1996).

Russian and American poet and writer. Beginning in 1955, he wrote and published poetry in samizdat literature. His work was denounced as anti-Soviet in 1962, and he was subsequently sentenced to five years’ hard labor for “social parasitism”. His sentence was cut short due to international protests by prominent figures including Jean-Paul Sartre. Expelled from the USSR in 1972 and emigrated to the US, where he taught at prominent universities. Won the 1987 Nobel Prize in Literature.

Brzezinski, Zbigniew (1928–2017).

Polish-American diplomat and political scientist. Counselor to President Lyndon Johnson (1966–​1968), National Security Adviser to President Jimmy Carter (1977–​1981). Critical of policy emphasis on détente in the Nixon and Ford administrations, and part of formally ending that policy early in Carter’s presidency. Involved in the US’s encouraging of human rights activists to reduce Soviet influence, he ordered a boosting of the broadcast power of Radio Free Europe.

Bukharin, Nikolai (1888–1938, executed).

Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet politician. Exiled in 1911 for his political activity with the Bolsheviks, met with Lenin in 1912. Met with and worked with Trotsky and Stalin during his own exile. Returned to Moscow in May 1917 and was a prominent leader in Moscow during the October Revolution. In the power struggle following Lenin’s death in 1924, Bukharin allied himself with Stalin, but later opposed Stalin’s policies in 1928 when Stalin reversed the New Economic Policy. Was expelled from the Politburo in 1929 and lost his position in the Comintern and editorship of Pravda. Was rehabilitated in 1934, becoming editor of Izvestia. During Stalin’s Great Purge, Bukharin and other Old Bolsheviks were arrested in 1937 and subjected to show trials. The crimes to which Bukharin confessed were so obviously untrue or absurd that many prominent communists broke with communism due to his trial. Bukharin was sentenced to death and shot.

Bulgakov, Mikhail (1891–1940).

Russian writer and medical doctor. Best known for his novel The Master and Margarita, a satire against the atheistic USSR, published in the late 1960s and considered a masterpiece. The book was written over a period from 1928–1940, with Bulgakov needing to rewrite the novel from memory due to his burning of the manuscript during political repression in 1930.

C

Carter, James Earl (Jimmy) (1924–).

American politician. Thirty-ninth president of the US (1977–1981). In foreign affairs, his administration ended the policy of détente toward the USSR and pursued the second round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II). Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2002 for co-founding the Carter Center, a nonprofit organization supporting human rights and public health.

Chamberlain, Neville (1869–1940).

British politician. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1937–1940). From Birmingham, had been a businessman who became prominent in local politics, as both his father and uncle had been mayors of Birmingham. Entered Parliament in 1918 as a member of the Unionist Party, which later merged with the Conservative Party. Served in various positions in the Conservative Party and became the Chancellor of the Exchecquer in 1931 under Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald and the next Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin. When Baldwin resigned in 1937, Chamberlain became PM as next in line. Known for the policy of “appeasement,” in which escalating demands from Hitler were acceded to in the interest of preventing another Great War. His best-known quote referred to the ultimately futile Munich Agreement as “peace for our time.” Resigned as PM in May 1940 after members of the Labour Party refused to join in a coalition government under him. Served as Lord President of the Council under succeeding PM Winston Churchill until his death from cancer in November 1940.

Chebrikov, Viktor (1923–1999).

Soviet politician. Head of the KGB (1982–1988). Joined the Communist Party in 1950 and rose through multiple party offices in Ukraine. Brought to Moscow in 1967, was deputy chairman of the KGB under Yuri Andropov (1968–​1982). Was appointed head of internal security under Gorbachev. During his stint as KGB head, he was able to dismantle CIA operations using information from double agent Aldrich Ames.

Chekhov, Anton (1860–1904).

Russian writer and medical doctor. Known for his plays and short stories, considered one of the greatest for short fiction. Considered one of the key playwrights in the development of early modernistic theater. One of his major plays, The Cherry Orchard, highlights class and economic changes at the turn of the twentieth century in Russia, and the results of the abolition of serfdom and modernization of Russia.

Chernenko, Konstantin (1911–1985).

Soviet politician. Had risen in Politburo under Brezhnev. Soviet head of state (1984–1985). Represented a return to the policies of the late Brezhnev era after Andropov’s death. Oversaw an increase in hostility to the US, and led the boycott against the 1984 Summer Olympics held in the US.

Chichikov, Pavel (fictional).

Main character in Gogol’s novel Dead Souls. The character travels rural Russia to buy the names of dead serfs as part of a financial fraud. References to Chichikov in contemporary Russian culture allude to people who are outwardly pleasant and respectable in manners, but inwardly untrustworthy and exploitative in their ultimate behavior.

Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918–1989, shot by firing squad).

Romanian politician. Communist head of state of Romania (1967–1989). Condemned 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, but soon after, he oversaw what was considered the most brutal and oppressive of the Eastern European governments. His policies led to a deteriorating state and civil unrest, culminating in the Romanian Revolution of 1989. After trying to flee the revolution, he was caught, summarily tried, and executed by the Romanian armed forces.

Corvalan, Luis (1916–2010).

Chilean politician. Head of Chilean Community Party (1958–1990). Arrested after military coup led by Augusto Pinochet in 1973, awarded the Lenin Peace Prize(1973–​1974). Exchanged for Vladimir Bukovsky in 1976, and received asylum in the USSR. Returned to Chile in 1988.

D

Daniel, Yuli (1925–1988).

Russian writer, poet, and translator. Wrote under the name Nikolay Arzhak. Was married to fellow dissident Larisa Bogoraz-Brukhman. Wrote topical stories critical of Soviet leadership which were smuggled out of the country for publication. In 1965, Daniel was arrested and tried in the infamous Sinyavsky-Daniel trial. He was sentenced to 5 years hard labor for “anti-Soviet activity.” After imprisonment, he refused to emigrate and settled in Kaluga.

D’Estaing, Valery Giscard (1926–).

French politician. President of France (1974–1981). Member of the French Resistance during World War II who participated in the Liberation of Paris. Entered French government service in 1951, in the area of finance. Entered elective office in 1956 as a member of Parliament, served as Secretary of State for Finance (1959–1962) and Minister of Finance (1962–1966; 1969–1974). After the death of French President Georges Pompidou in 1974, he ran against Socialist candidate Francois Mitterand and won in the closest Presidential election in French History. Lost 1981 election against Mitterand. Retired from politics in 2004.

Dzerzhinsky, Felix (1877–1926).

Soviet leader. Led the first two Soviet state security organizations, the Cheka (1917–1922) and the OGPU (1922–1926). During his leadership, the Cheka was known for mass summary executions, targeting counter-revolutionaries and other political opponents. In the post-revolutionary USSR, he ran the secret police OGPU after the Cheka was dissolved.

E

Eaton, Cyrus Stephen (1883–1979).

Canadian-American businessman. Provided financing for the original Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs (1957–), a conference for scientists with an aim of eliminating all weapons of mass destruction. Outspoken critic of US Cold War policy, leading to the awarding of a 1960 Lenin Peace Prize to him.

Esenin-Volpin, Alexander (1924–2016).

Russian-American poet and mathematician. First imprisoned in 1949 for “anti-Soviet poetry”, shuttled around prisons, psychiatric prison hospitals, and exile. Was released in 1953, in the general amnesty following Stalin’s death, but was imprisoned two more times in 1959 and 1968. One of the first dissidents to adopt a “legalist” strategy, by demanding strict adherence to the letter of the law. Emigrated to the US in 1972 and continued his mathematical career at Boston University.

F

Fainberg, Viktor (1931–).

Prominent dissident and philologist. One of the seven people who participated in the 1968 Red Square demonstration against the invasion of Czechoslovakia. In the aftermath, he did not receive a trial, but was instead examined by a Serbsky State Scientific Center for Social and Forensic Psychiatry commission, and committed to a psychiatric hospital, where he was confined from 1969 to 1973. Emigrated in 1973 to the UK, later received French citizenship. After emigrating, he initiated CAPA (Campaign Against Psychiatric Abuses) to fight the political abusive use of psychiatry in the USSR.

Falin, Valentin (1926–2018).

Soviet politician and diplomat. Held a variety of positions related to the Soviet government from 1951 to 1991. Soviet Ambassador to West Germany (1971–1978). Political observer, editor, and then chief editor of Izvestia (1982–1986). Left government service after a failed 1991 coup against Mikhail Gorbachev.

Fermi, Enrico (1901–1954).

Italian and naturalized American physicist. Creator of the first nuclear reactor, as part of the Manhattan Project. Received his doctoral degree at the young age of 20, based on his thesis on X-ray diffraction images. Developed Fermi-Dirac statistics in 1926, a method used in statistical mechanics. Became a professor of theoretical physics at the Sapienza University of Rome in 1926 and further developed particle physics, before switching to experimental physics in the 1930s. Received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938. Left Italy for the U.S. with his wife after the Nobel ceremony, as anti-Jewish laws in Italy affected her. Created the first nuclear chain reaction with the Chicago Pile-1 in 1942, a key event in the U.S. development of nuclear bombs. After World War II, was on the Atomic Energy Commission General Advisory Committee, where he advocated against the development of the hydrogen bomb, though he also did research that led to its development.

Frenkel, Naftaly (1883–1960).

Member of the Cheka. Arrested in 1923 for “illegally crossing borders,” he was sentenced to 10 years’ hard labor in the Solovki prison camp, which came to be known as the first Gulag. Rapidly rose from prisoner to camp commander, in an unclear way. Requested early release from his sentence in November 1924, with request granted in 1927. Some have claimed his rise was due to his proposal to camp administration to tie the amount of food given to prisoners based on their productivity, and other ideas to make the prisons maximally productive. Frenkel’s methods of boosting prison labor spread to other labor camps throughout the Soviet Union.

G

Gabay, Ilya (1935–1973, suicide).

Russian teacher and writer. Assisted in editing the Chronicle of Current Events, in particular issue 3 on the 1968 Red Square demonstration against the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Involved in the struggle of Crimean Tatars for autonomy and in samizdat publication. In 1970, he was tried and sentenced for producing and circulating samizdat. After his release in 1972, was harassed by the KGB and barred from employment. Died by suicide in 1973.

Galanskov, Yuri (1939–1972, died in camps).

Russian poet and historian. Founding editor of samizdat Phoenix (1961–1966), an almanac of criticism of the Soviet government, including works by Boris Pasternak and Natalya Gorbanevskaya. Subjected to psychiatric punishment and later sentenced to seven years in a labor camp in Mordovia. Wrote about conditions in the camp, and died of an ulcer after being denied medical care.

Galich, Alexander (1918–1977).

Soviet poet, writer, and dissident. Created the genre of “bard song” in the Soviet Union, writing songs about WWII and concentration camp prisoners. As time went on, his writings became more anti-Soviet. Expelled from the Union of Writers of the USSR in 1971; Galich had been a member since 1955. Expelled from the USSR in 1974, and lived in various European countries afterwards. His 1977 death by supposedly accidental electrocution was considered suspicious.

Gamsakhurdia, Zviad (1939–1993).

Georgian politician, writer, and dissident. Was active in samizdat, contributed to the Chronicle of Current Events, and was active in the Helsinki Groups during the 1970s. Arrested in 1977, tried in 1978 for “anti-Soviet activities”, sentenced to labor camps for three years and exile for three additional years; his sentence was commuted to two years exile in Dagestan. First democratically elected president of Georgia in 1990. In December 1991, a coup d’état targeted his administration, and replaced him in March 1992 with Eduard Shevardnadze. Died in 1993 under unclear circumstances.

Ginzburg, Alexander (1936–2002).

Russian poet, writer, and dissident. Co-founder of samizdat almanac Sintaksis (1959–1960), produced first issue of samizdat magazine Phoenix (1959). During the 1960s, was arrested and sentenced three times to Soviet labor camps. A founding member of the Moscow Helsinki Group in 1976. Expelled from the USSR in 1979 along with others as part of a prisoner exchange.

Glazunov, Ilya (1930–2017).

Russian artist. Was known for Russian patriotism, and anti-democratic/pro-monarchical views. His paintings were known for religious or historic themes; also painted portraits of many prominent people, including actors and politicians. One of the co-founders of the All-Russian Society for the Protection of Historical and Cultural Monuments in 1965. Founder of the Russian Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in 1987.

Goebbels, Joseph (1897–1945, suicide).

German Nazi politician. Minister of Propaganda of Nazi Germany (1933–1945). Joined the Nazi party in the 1920s, known for publications and speeches denouncing Marxism and promoting Nazism in that decade, and provoked violent attacks against the Communist Party of Germany. Greatly involved in Nazi propaganda production starting in 1926, and key figure in Hitler’s inner circle. Once Hitler became chancellor of Germany in 1933, became head of the newly created Propaganda Ministry. Was named successor to chancellorship in Hitler’s will; one day after Hitler’s suicide, committed suicide himself with his wife after they had poisoned their 6 children.

Gogol, Nikolay (1809–1852).

Born Nikolay Yanovski. Russian writer of Ukrainian descent. Wrote plays, essays, short stories, and the novel Dead Souls. Large influence on later writers, and explicitly mentioned in works by Dostoevsky and Chekhov; his works have been adapted in film and opera. Considered by his contemporaries as a preeminent figure in the Russian literary realism school, though later critics noted his use of the grotesque and surrealism. Some later works satirized Russian political corruption.

Gorbachev, Mikhail (1931–).

Soviet and Russian politician. Last head of state of the USSR (1985–1991). Best known for his programs of perestroika and glasnost, in addition to being in power during the fall of the Berlin Wall, the Eastern Bloc, and the Soviet Union. Received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990 for abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine, which led to the Eastern Bloc countries democratizing in 1989–1990.

Gorbanevskaya, Natalya (1936–2013).

Russian poet, translator, and civil-rights activist. Co-founder and first editor of the Chronicle of Current Events. Took part in the 1968 Red Square demonstration against the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Sentenced to psychiatric prison in 1970 for “sluggish schizophrenia” (a common diagnosis imposed on dissidents). Released from prison in 1972, emigrated to France in 1975 and found to be mentally normal by French psychiatrists. Was stateless from 1975 until 2005, when Poland granted her citizenship.

Grigorenko, Pyotr (Petro) (1907–1987).

Soviet Army commander of Ukrainian descent, later a dissident and writer. Commanded Soviet troops in WWII, continued his military career after the war by teaching at a military academy, and reached the rank of Major-General. In 1961, started criticizing the Soviet government on the grounds that Lenin wasn’t being followed, and formed The Group for the Struggle to Revive Leninism. Was sent to psychiatric prisons for a total of six years (1964–1965, 1969–1974), and stripped of military rank. Helped found two Helsinki groups in the USSR in the 1970s. While in the US in 1977 for medical treatment, was stripped of Soviet citizenship, and never returned to the USSR.

Gromyko, Andrei (1909–1989).

Soviet politician. Minister of Foreign Affairs (1957–1985). Played a direct role in Cuban Missile Crisis, negotiator on multiple arms limitation treaties with the US and other parties. As Brezhnev’s health failed in 1975, formed a troika with Yuri Andropov and Dmitry Ustinov, driving Soviet policymaking. Was replaced when Mikhail Gorbachev became head of state, being sent to a largely honorary role of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.

H

Hall, Gus (1910–2000).

American politician. General Secretary of the Communist Party USA (1959–2000). Grew up in a Communist household in Minnesota, where his parents were early members of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA). Joined the CPUSA as a teenager and became an organizer for the Young Communist League in the upper Midwest. Studied for two years at the International Lenin School in Moscow (1931–1933). Was a leader in a strike against steel companies in 1937 which failed, after which Hall focused on political activities. Became leader of CPUSA in Youngstown, Ohio (1937), and rose to further prominent CPUSA positions. Was convicted under the Smith Act in 1948 for “Conspiring and Teaching Overthrow of the U.S. Government by Force or Violence” and imprisoned for five and a half years. Was elected CPUSA General Secretary in 1959 and spent decades attempting to rebuild the party. Hall made frequent appearances on Soviet television programs in the 60s and 70s. Ran for U.S. President four times from 1972 to 1984.

Hammer, Armand (1898–1990).

American businessman who ran Occidental Petroleum from 1957 until his death. Also known for his art collection, his philanthropy, and his close ties to the Soviet Union. In 1921 he traveled to Soviet Russia to give aid to the country’s famine victims. Was persuaded by Lenin to turn his business talents to account there instead. In 1925 obtained a concession from the Bolsheviks to manufacture pencils for the Soviet Union. His business ventures were bought out by the Soviets in the late 1920s. Returned to the United States in 1930, bringing with him innumerable paintings, jewelry pieces, and other art objects formerly owned by the Romanov imperial family and sold to him by the Soviets.

Handal, Schafik Jorge (1930–2006).

Salvadoran politician. Leader of the Communist Party of El Salvador (1973–1994). Guerrilla leader in the late 1970s and early 1980s, part of the groups that formed the guerrilla group Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMNL). When FMNL became a political party after the peace accords in 1992, Handal was its general coordinator. Deputy in the Legislative Assembly of El Salvador (1997–2006).

Havel, Vaclav (1936–2011).

Czech politician, playwright, and former dissident. President of Czechoslovakia (1989–1992). President of the Czech Republic (1993–2003). Was a prominent participant in the liberal reforms of 1968 (the Prague Spring). After the Soviet clampdown on Czechoslovakia, he was repeatedly arrested and served four years in prison (1979–83) for his activities on behalf of human rights in Czechoslovakia. During antigovernment demonstrations in Prague in November 1989, Havel became the leading figure in the Civic Forum, a new coalition of noncommunist opposition groups pressing for democratic reforms. After the Czech communist party capitulated in December 1989, he was elected to the post of interim president of Czechoslovakia. Known for his plays The Garden Party, Leaving, and The Memorandum.

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1770–1831).

German philosopher widely viewed as a leading influence on Western philosophy. Developed a view that emphasized the progress of history as a necessary and inevitable development of human society, a central component of communist philosophy as espoused by Marx.

Honecker, Erich (1912–1994).

German politician. East German head of state (1971–1989). Joined the Communist Party of Germany in 1930, was detained and imprisoned by the Nazis (1935–​1945) for communist party activities. Was the chief organizer of the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and supported the “order to fire” along the West-East German border. Pushed back against Gorbachev’s glasnost and perestroika policies. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, was forced to resign, was detained more than once, and fled to the Soviet Union. Sought asylum at the Chilean embassy in Moscow, was expelled in 1992, and was sent back to Germany and detained. Put on trial with other ex-East German officials for the death of people killed in attempting to escape East Germany. Was released due to ill health, flew to Chile to reunite with his family, and died of liver cancer.

I

Ilyin, Viktor (1947–).

Soviet soldier. Attempted to assassinate Brezhnev in 1969, in response to the invasion of Czechoslovakia and inspired by the assassination of John F. Kennedy. After investigation, he was considered insane and placed in solitary confinement in Kazan Psychiatric Hospital until released in 1990.

J

Jaruzelski, Wojciech (1923–2014).

Polish military officer and politician. Last head of the communist government of Poland (1981–1989). Imposed martial law in Poland in 1981 to try to crush pro-democracy movements like Lech Walesa’s Solidarity under the pretext that the Soviet Union would invade Poland. In the following years, the Polish government censored, persecuted, and jailed thousands of political activists and journalists without charge. Jaruzelski resigned after the Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989, which led to democratic elections in the country.

K

Kafka, Franz (1883–1924).

German-speaking Czech writer. Lifelong resident of Prague, born to middle-class Ashkenazi Jews in that city. Influential writer of novels and short stories. Some of his best-known works are the novella The Metamorphosis (in which a man wakes up to find himself turned into a giant insect), the novel The Trial (in which a man is put on trial, but neither he nor the reader ever determine the nature of the supposed crimes), and the short story “A Hunger Artist” (about a man who fasted as a public performance).

Kahane, Meir (1932–1990, murdered).

Born Martin David Kahane. American-born Israeli political activist and rabbi. In the mid-1960s wrote books and a weekly column for the Jewish Press and rallied support for U.S. involvement in Vietnam. In 1968 formed the militant Jewish Defense League (JDL) which sent armed patrols of young Jews into black neighborhoods in the U.S. After being imprisoned for conspiring to make bombs, he moved to Israel in 1971. There he formed the Kach Party and stirred nationalist fervor against Arabs, whom he campaigned to remove from Israel. Won a seat in the Israeli Knesset in 1984, but his term ended when Israel banned the Kach Party. Shot dead in New York by a naturalized American of Egyptian descent in 1990.

Kalinin, Mikhail (1875–1946).

Bolshevik revolutionary and Soviet politician. In official Community Party posts from 1919 until his death in 1946, but held little real power, especially starting in the 1930s. Factional ally of Stalin in the struggle for power after Lenin’s death in 1924. One of the few of Stalin’s inner circle from a peasant background, this fact was often touted in the Soviet press when covering him. Kept a low profile during Stalin’s purges and repressions in the 1930s, even as his own wife was arrested, tortured, and imprisoned for criticizing Stalin.

Kalugin, Oleg (1934–).

KGB operative (1952–1990). Often posted to the U.S. to pose as a journalist or press officer of the Soviet Union, but in reality working for the KGB. Ultimately promoted to KGB general in 1974, and was head of the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D.C. In the 1980s, was suspected of being an American spy as part of an intrigue involving internal Soviet politics. Was a supporter of Boris Yeltsin in the post-Soviet era, and was fired from his position in 1991. Accepted a teaching position at the Catholic University of America in 1995, and remained a U.S. resident thereafter; became a U.S. citizen in 2003. Identified George Trofimoff as a Soviet spy in the U.S. military in a 2001 espionage trial.

Kapitonov, Ivan (1915–2002).

Soviet politician. Secretary of the CPSU (1965–1986), having held multiple posts in the Soviet Union since 1941.

Karmal, Babrak (1929–1996).

Afghan politician. Leader of Afghanistan (1979–1986), installed by the USSR when they invaded. Leading figure in Afghan Marxist party People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) since its founding in 1965. Was ousted from this position by the Soviet Union following a series of policy failures, after which he was exiled to Moscow (1986–1996) with a brief return to Afghanistan in 1991–1992.

Kerensky, Alexander (1881–1970).

Russian lawyer and politician. Head of the Russian Provisional Government (July 1917–November 1917), leader of the moderate-socialist faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. His government was overthrown by Lenin’s Bolsheviks. Escaped to France, where he lived until the German invasion in 1940, and then emigrated to the U.S. Taught at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, and contributed to its Russian history archive.

Khrushchev, Nikita (1894–1971).

Soviet politician. Leader of Soviet Union (1953–1964) following Stalin’s death in 1953. Pronounced a policy of de-Stalinization of the USSR, though changed persecution of dissidents from sending to prison camps to threat of job loss or forced institutionalization for being “socially dangerous” people. Held summits with U.S. Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy. Key figure in the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), crushed revolt in Hungary (1956), and approved the building of the Berlin Wall (1961). Ousted by Brezhnev in 1964 after losing the confidence of party members over the missile crisis, bitter relations with Chairman Mao in China, and outright failure of his plans to bolster the Soviet economy as proof of communism’s superiority to capitalism.

Kiesinger, Kurt (1904–1988).

German politician. West German head of state (1966–1969). Joined the Nazi Party in 1933, worked as a lawyer in Berlin (1935–1940), worked in the German Foreign Office (1940–1945). Post-war, he joined the Christian Democratic Union, was elected member of the Bundestag (1949–1958, 1969–​1980), and became Chancellor after forming a coalition with Willy Brandt’s Social Democratic Party. Willy Brandt succeeded him in the chancellorship.

Kissinger, Henry (1923–).

Born Heinz Alfred Kissinger. German-born American political scientist. Served as National Security Adviser for Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford (1969–1975) as well as Secretary of State (1973–1977). Pioneered foreign policy of détente in the U.S. with respect to the Soviet Union, supported improvement of China-U.S. relations, and won the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for cease-fire talks to end the war in Vietnam (though those talks ultimately failed.) A controversial figure for his practice of Realpolitik, supporting some authoritarian governments if they were considered anti-communist, or at least pro-U.S.

Lord Killanin (1914–1999).

Born Michael Morris. Irish journalist, writer, and sports official. Succeeded to his title in 1927, upon the death of his uncle, the second Baron Killanin. President of the International Olympic Committee (1972–1980). The 1976 Games saw the entry of the People’s Republic of China. After boycotts of the Games in Moscow were planned in 1980 by 62 of 142 member countries, he resigned his presidency of the IOC. Soon after he was elected Honorary Life President of the IOC (1980–1999).

Korobochka, Nastasya (fictional).

Character in Nikolai Gogol’s novel Dead Souls. The first of the landowners who sells a list of names of dead serfs from her estate to the con artist Pavel Chichikov. Initially hesitant, and trying to sell other items to him, she eventually relents, and then spreads gossip in town about what Chichikov did, playing up her widowhood and inexperience.

Kosygin, Alexei (1904–1980).

Soviet politician. Held multiple positions in the Politburo, Chairman of the Council of Ministers under Brezhnev (1964–1980). Initiated the 1965 failed economic reform, also known as the Kosygin reform. Was the chief negotiator with the West in the 1960s and signed the 1970 Moscow Treaty with West Germany which officially recognized the border between East and West Germany. Retired due to ill health and died soon after.

Kravchuk, Leonid (1934–).

Ukrainian politician. First president of Ukraine (1991–1994) in the post-Soviet era. Joined the Communist Party of Ukraine in 1958 and rose through the ranks. Became nominal head of state of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991) and resigned after the August 1991 Soviet coup attempt. People’s Deputy of Ukraine (1994–2006).

Kreisky, Bruno (1911–1990).

Austrian politician. Austrian Foreign Minister (1959–1966). Austrian Chancellor (1970–1983). Joined the Socialist Party of Austria in 1925, fled to Sweden (1938–1945) to escape Nazi persecution of Jews after the annexation of Austria. In post-war socialist Austria, rose to central leadership of the Socialist Party. Promoted the policy of détente alongside Willy Brandt and Olof Palme. In 1983, sent a letter to Soviet premier Yuri Andropov to support the release of dissident Yuri Orlov; the letter was ignored.

Krenz, Egon (1937–).

East German politician. Succeeded Erich Honecker as head of East Germany in 1989 but was ousted less than three months later amidst the collapse of the communist regime. After the reunification of Germany in 1990, he was sentenced to six and a half years in prison for manslaughter for his role in crimes of the East German regime. Released from prison in December 2003. As of 2019, he resides in Germany and is viewed as one of the last surviving leaders of an Eastern Bloc nation, alongside the Soviet Union’s Mikhail Gorbachev and Poland’s Wojciech Jaruzelski.

Kryuchkov, Vladimir (1924–2007).

Soviet lawyer, diplomat, and the last head of the KGB before the collapse of the Soviet Union. Head of the Soviet Foreign Intelligence Branch of the KGB (1978–​1988). Head of the KGB (1988–1991). Leader of the abortive August coup in August 1991 that attempted to arrest the President of the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev. Arrested and imprisoned for his participation in the coup (1991–1994). Freed by the State Duma in an amnesty in 1994. Published books of memoirs during his retirement years: Personal File: Three Days and a Lifetime and On the Edge of the Abyss.

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Landau, Lev (1908–1968).

Soviet physicist. Nobel Laureate (1962) for his development of a theory of superfluidity and noted for other key developments in physics. Arrested in 1938 for comparing Stalin’s regime to Hitler’s. Released from prison in 1939 due to personal appeal by prominent Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitsa, who threatened to resign if Stalin would not release him. Was investigated by the KGB in the 1950s due to his views on the Hungarian Uprising. Also co-wrote a letter to the New York Times in 1965, opposing U.S. intervention represented by the Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry.

Ligachev, Yegor (1920–).

Soviet politician. First Secretary of the Party in Tomsk, Siberia (1965–1983), during which he led a cover-up of Stalin-era mass graves in Tomsk. Was viewed as one of Mikhail Gorbachev’s closest allies when he became General Secretary in 1985, was member of the Secretariat (1983–1990). Notable for criticism of Gorbachev’s actions in 1990 at the Twenty-Eighth Congress of the CPSU.

Litvinov, Pavel (1940–).

Russian physicist, writer, and human rights activist. Editor of the Chronicle of Current Events samizdat publication. Participated in 1968 Red Square demonstration against the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Sentenced to five years of exile in Siberia. Emigrated to the U.S. after his return from exile (1974). In the U.S., taught physics and math at a New York prep school (1976–2006) until his retirement.

Lyubimov, Yuri (1917–2014).

Russian stage actor and director. Founded the Taganka Theatre in Moscow (1964). Produced an adaptation of Mikhail Bulgakov’s novel The Master and the Margarita in 1977. All of Lyubimov’s productions were banned in 1980 by Soviet authorities. Was stripped of Soviet citizenship in 1984 and worked in the West until 1989. Returned to the Taganka Theatre in 1989, when his citizenship was restored.

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Mandela, Nelson (1918–2013).

South African anti-apartheid revolutionary leader, political leader, and philanthropist. President of South Africa (1994–1999). Was the country’s first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalized racism and fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991–1997. In 1961 he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government of South Africa. Arrested and imprisoned in 1962. As a result of the Rivona Trial, he was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state. Released in 1990 amid growing domestic and international pressure.

Mandelstam, Osip (1891–1938, died in camps).

Born Joseph Mandelstam. Russian poet and writer. Arrested and exiled for writing an anti-Stalin poem in 1934. After a suicide attempt while in exile, he was allowed to serve his exile in the nicer locale of Voronezh. In 1937, there was a concerted media campaign against him due to his supposed anti-Soviet views. In 1938, he was lured to Moscow and arrested for “counter-revolutionary activities”. Sentenced to five years in a labor camp and died due to cold and hunger in a transit camp in Vladivostok.

Marchenko, Anatoly (1938–1986, died on hunger strike).

Soviet dissident, author, and human rights activist. One of the first two recipients of the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought (1988) alongside Nelson Mandela. Started his professional career as an oil driller and was arbitrarily sent to labor camps after a disruption alongside others (1958); escaped from the camp in 1960, and was tried and sentenced for treason in 1961 when recaptured. Author of My Testimony (1967), which recounted his experience in the labor camps. Continued to write about the labor camps through 16 years of imprisonment after multiple convictions by Soviet authorities. One of the effects of his death by hunger strike was Gorbachev authorizing a broad amnesty for political prisoners in 1987.

Maximov, Vladimir (1930–1995).

Born Lev Samsonov. Russian writer, publicist, and dissident. Adopted his ultimate pen name of Maximov in young adulthood, while traveling around as a construction worker and being in and out of jails and labor camps following a similarly itinerant childhood. Published written works via samizdat with pieces advocating Christian ideals. Expelled from the Union of Writers of the USSR in 1973 and spent several months in a psychiatric ward. Left the Soviet Union in 1974, was stripped of Soviet citizenship in 1975, and settled in Paris. Launched the literary magazine Kontinent in 1975, in the tradition of supporting Russian literature in exile. Head of the executive committee of the anti-communist organization Resistance International.

Maxwell, Robert (1923–1991).

Born Jan Ludvik Hyman Binyamin Hoch. British media proprietor and Member of Parliament. Originally from Czechoslovakia, he rose from poverty to build an extensive publishing empire. After six years as an MP during the 1960s, he turned to business by buying the British Printing Corporation, Mirror Group Newspapers and Macmillan Publishers, among other publishing companies. Lived in Oxford and was conspicuous for his flamboyant lifestyle. He was notably litigious and often embroiled in controversy, including about his support for Israel at the time of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.

Mayakovsky, Vladimir (1893–1930).

The leading poet of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the early Soviet period. At age 15 joined the Russian Social-Democratic Workers’ Party and was repeatedly jailed for his activity. He began to write poetry during solitary confinement in 1909. After his release, attended the Moscow Art School and joined the Russian Futurist group, where he became its leading spokesman. From 1919 to 1921 worked in the Russian Telegraph Agency as a painter of posters and cartoons. In 1924 composed a 3,000-line eulogy on the death of Lenin. After 1925 traveled to the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, recording his impressions in poems. He began to have misunderstandings with the dogmatic Russian Association of Proletarian Writers, and with Soviet authorities. Facing increasing disappointments in his personal life, alienation from Soviet reality, and denied a visa to travel abroad, he committed suicide in April 1930. Mayakovsky is considered the most dynamic figure of the Soviet literary scene. His notable works include “The Bedbug,” “Mystery Bouffe,” “Cloud in Trousers,” and “The Backbone Flute.”

Meany, George (1894–1980).

U.S. labor leader. President of the American Federation of Labor Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) (1955–1979). After joining the United Association of Plumbers and Steam Fitters of the United States and Canada in 1915, was elected a business agent of a Plumbers and Steam Fitters local in 1922. In 1932 was elected a vice president of the New York State Federation of Labor and served as its president from 1934 to 1939. In 1939 was elected a secretary-treasurer of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and later in 1952, became the AFL’s president. His greatest accomplishment was the merger of two competitive and dissimilar labor organizations: AFL, which was organized by craft, and the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which was organized by industry. In 1963 Meany was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1977 helped to lead the United States out of the International Labour Organization when it refused to criticize repressive communist policies.

Medvedev, Roy (1925–).

Twin brother of Zhores Medvedev. Russian political writer. Criticized Stalinism from a Marxist perspective in his book Let History Judge (1969) and subsequently expelled from the Communist Party. Engaged in samizdat publications, sought a reformist version of socialism. Co-authored A Question of Madness with his twin brother Zhores, in which they described Zhores’ punitive commitment to a psychiatric hospital. Re-joined the CPSU in 1989, and has been a supporter of Putin as of 2018.

Medvedev, Zhores (1925–2018).

Twin brother of Roy Medvedev. Russian biologist and dissident. Received his doctorate for research into the sexual processes of plants. Wrote a history of Soviet genetics, later published in the U.S. as The Rise and Fall of T.D. Lysenko (1969). Had several prominent positions in Soviet research labs and fell into disrepute in the USSR in 1969. Due to his subsequent dissident publications, was forcibly detained in a psychiatric hospital in 1970. Many prominent international scientists protested his imprisonment, leading to his relatively quick release. He co-wrote A Question of Madness with his twin brother Roy, published in 1971. Returned to prominent scientific positions in the USSR, leading to a position in London where he remained until his retirement in 1991.

Mikoyan, Anastas (1895–1978).

Armenian Soviet revolutionary and politician. Able to remain at the highest levels within the CPSU, even as the leadership shifted; maintained his relatively high political positions through the leaderships of Lenin, Stalin, Khrushchev, and Brezhnev. Key figure in Nikita Khrushchev’s de-Stalinization project, delivering the first anti-Stalinist speech at the Twentieth Party Congress (1956) following Stalin’s death. Often deployed by Khrushchev for foreign diplomatic missions in the 1950s. There has been some suspicion that Mikoyan was involved in ousting Khrushchev in 1964. Retired in December 1965.

Molotov, Vyacheslav (1890–1986).

Born Vyacheslav Skryabin. Soviet politician. As a protégé of Stalin, Molotov came to prominence in the Soviet government in the 1920s, holding multiple successive important positions, such as Minister of Foreign Affairs during WWII and the post-War period (1939–1949). Ultimately dismissed from power by Khrushchev in 1957, and officially retired in 1961. Best known as signatory of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression treaty (1939). Throughout his life, defended Stalinism, and harshly criticized Stalin’s successors. Finnish soldiers during the Winter War of 1939 coined the sarcastic term “Molotov cocktail” for a homemade firebomb after Molotov claimed on Soviet state radio that bombing missions over Finland were actually airborne food deliveries to starving Finns.

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Nakasone, Yasuhiro (1918–).

Japanese politician. Prime Minister of Japan (1982–1987). Leader of the Liberal Democratic Party (1982–1989). After graduating from Tokyo Imperial University in 1941, served as a lieutenant in the Imperial Navy during World War II. In 1947, was elected to the lower house of the Diet (Japan’s parliament), becoming one of the youngest to hold a seat in that body. Held several successive cabinet posts, including that of transport (1967–68), defense (1970–71), and international trade and industry (1972–74). Elected prime minister in 1982. As prime minster, Nakasone sought to strengthen Japan’s ties with the United States by increasing Japan’s contribution to its own defense and by lowering Japanese trade barriers to American goods. The Japanese economy continued its sustained growth under his administration, and by the end of his second term Japan had become the world’s largest creditor nation and had begun to rival the power of the United States in the world economy.

Natta, Alessandro (1918–2001).

Italian politician. Secretary of the Italian Communist Party (1948–1988). Took part in the opposition to Benito Mussolini’s Fascist regime. During World War II was sent to Greece, where he was captured by German troops. In 1945 Natta returned to Italy and joined the Italian Communist Party, dedicating himself to the party full-time. A strong supporter of the “Italian road to Socialism,” he gained a position in the party Secretariat. Elected party secretary in 1984. Natta tried to improve the party’s tense relations with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. His organized trip to the Soviet Union generated controversy within the party. Nevertheless, he was later confirmed as party leader during the Florence Congress in 1986, but in 1988 was forced to resign following a heart attack.

Navalny, Alexei (1976–).

Russian lawyer and self-described nationalist democrat, Russian Opposition Coordination Council member and leader of the Progress Party. Came to prominence through his blog hosted by LiveJournal, which he used to publish documents about corruption by Russian state officials, organize political demonstrations, and promote his campaigns for office. Arrested multiple times. The Memorial Human Rights Center considered him a political prisoner. In March 2017, Navalny and his Anti-Corruption Foundation created a documentary accusing Dmitry Medvedev, former president of Russia, of corruption. In 2016 began a campaign to run for President of Russia, but was barred by Russia’s Central Electoral Commission in December 2017. In May 2018, was sentenced to 30 days in prison after being arrested for attending an unsanctioned protest against Putin in Moscow.

Neizvestny, Ernst (1925–2016).

Russian-American artist and philosopher. Much of his artwork was destroyed in the USSR before he was forced to emigrate to the U.S. in 1976. Known for his expressionistic monumental sculptures, such as The Mask of Sorrow (1996), which commemorates the prisoners who suffered and died in the prison camps of the Kolyma region (1930s–1950s).

Nemtsov, Boris (1959–2015, murdered).

Russian physicist and liberal politician. One of the most important figures in the introduction of capitalism into the Russian post-Soviet economy. Had a successful political career in the 1990s under Yeltsin. His conflict with Putin’s government centered on widespread embezzlement and profiteering ahead of the Sochi Olympics, as well as Russian political interference and military involvement in Ukraine. Published in-depth reports detailing corruption under Putin, which he connected directly with the President. Nemtsov was also an active organizer of and participant in numerous marches, civil actions and rallies directed against abuses by Russia’s ruling elite. Prior to his assassination, he was in Moscow helping to organize a rally against military intervention in Ukraine and the Russian financial crisis. Was also working on a report demonstrating that Russian troops were fighting alongside pro-Russian rebels in eastern Ukraine. On 27 February 2015, he was shot several times from behind while crossing the Moskvoretsky Bridge in Moscow. His last report on the war waged by Russia against Ukraine, Putin.War, was published posthumously in 2015.

Nixon, Richard Milhous (1913–1994).

American politician. Thirty-seventh president of the United States (1969–1974). Vice President to Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961). Very involved in foreign policy during Eisenhower’s administration; met with Khrushchev during his tour of the U.S. in 1959, leading to the famous “Kitchen Debate” over the merits of capitalism vs. communism. During his Presidency, visited communist China (1972), leading to better relations between the countries. Nixon oversaw détente policy with the Soviet Union, including the 1972 summit in Moscow with Brezhnev, and the agreement for two arms control treaties: SALT I and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. Resigned presidency due to Watergate scandal (1974).

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Oppenheimer, J. Robert (1904–1967).

American physicist and science administrator. Director of the Los Alamos Laboratory (1943–​1945) during the development of the atomic bomb. Director of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton (1947–66). In the early stages of World War II, Oppenheimer began to seek a process for the separation of uranium-235 from natural uranium and to determine the critical mass of uranium required to make an atomic bomb. He was instructed to establish and administer a laboratory that would search for a way to harness nuclear energy for military purposes, an effort that became known as the Manhattan Project. Served as chairman of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, which in 1949 opposed development of the hydrogen bomb. In 1953 was notified of a military security report unfavorable to him and was accused of having associated with Communists in the past. In 1954, accusations of disloyalty led to a government hearing that resulted in the loss of his security clearance and of his position as advisor to the highest echelons of the U.S. government. In 1963 U.S. President Johnson presented him with the Enrico Fermi Award of the Atomic Energy Commission.

Orlov, Yuri (1924–).

Russian-American physicist, Soviet dissident, and human rights activist. Expelled from the CPSU due to a pro-democracy, anti-Stalin speech (1956), and fired from his job. Received his doctorate (1963), becoming an expert in particle physics. Supported Sakharov in 1973, and wrote articles published in samizdat. Organized the Moscow Helsinki Group (1976) and became its chairman. Arrested in 1977 after ignoring KGB demands to disband the Helsinki Group. Sentenced to 7 years in a labor camp, and five years of internal exile (1978). Stripped of Soviet citizenship and expelled from the Soviet Union (1986). Became a U.S. citizen (1993). Professor of Physics and Government, Cornell University, has worked at Cornell since 1987.

Orwell, George (1903–1950).

English novelist, essayist, and critic famous for his novels Animal Farm (1945) and 1984 (1949). Born Eric Arthur Blair, he changed his name to Orwell, which is derived from the river Orwell in East Anglia. In the 1930s he traveled to Spain to report on the Civil War there, and eventually joined the Republican militia. In May 1937, after fighting in Barcelona against communists trying to suppress their political opponents, Orwell fled Spain in fear for his life. The experience left him with a lifelong dread of communism, first expressed in his vivid account of his Spanish experiences in Homage to Catalonia (1938). During World War II Orwell headed the Indian service of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Left the BBC in 1943 to become the literary editor of the Tribune, a left-wing socialist paper. In 1944 he published Animal Farm, a political fable based on the story of the Russian Revolution and its betrayal by Stalin. In 1949 he wrote his last book, 1984, a warning on the twin menaces of Nazism and Stalinism.

Owen, David (1938–).

British politician and physician. British Foreign Secretary (1977–1979) under Labour Prime Minister James Callaghan. Split from the Labour Party in 1981, forming the Social Democratic Party with three other politicians, and led the SDP from 1983–1987. Wrote the book Human Rights (1978) on issues in Africa and the Soviet Union. Was chairman of Yukos International UK BV (2002–2005), a division of the former Russian oil company Yukos. Was consultant to Epion Holdings, owned by Russian oligarch Alisher Usmanov until 2015.

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Palme, Olof Sven Joachim (1927–1986, assassinated).

Swedish politician. Led the Swedish Social Democratic Party (1969–1986). Prime Minister of Sweden (1969–1976, 1982–1986). Special mediator of the United Nations in the Iran-Iraq War. Supported third world liberation movements after decolonization, first Western head of state to visit Cuba after its revolution. Murdered on a Stockholm street in February 1986; his assassination is still unsolved.

Pasternak, Boris (1890–1960).

Soviet poet and author. One of the most influential Russian poets of the twentieth century. His best-known work is the novel Doctor Zhivago (1957), its action spanning the failed Russian Revolution of 1905 to WWII. The novel was banned in the Soviet Union and was smuggled to Italy for publication. Awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958 but was forced by the CPSU to decline the award.

Pavlinchuk, Valery (1937–1968).

Soviet physicist and writer. Expelled from the CPSU in 1968 for circulating and reproducing the samizdat periodical Chronicle of Current Events.

Pelse, Arvids (1899–1983).

Latvian Soviet politician and historian. Active in the October Revolution of 1917. Joined the Cheka in 1918. First Secretary of the Latvian Socialist Republic (1959–1966). Chairman of the Party Control Committee of the CC CPSU (1966–​1983), a body which oversaw the discipline of party members.

Petain, Philippe (1856–1951).

French military leader and politician. Considered a national hero after WWI and given the nickname The Lion of Verdun. Chief of state of the Vichy government of France (1940–1944) after the Nazis invaded and occupied the country. After WWII, was tried and convicted of treason. Original sentence was death, but due to national appreciation of his WWI service, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Died in prison.

Pinochet, Augusto (1915–2006).

Chilean politician. President of Chile (1974–1990). Commander-In-Chief of Chile (1973–1998). Was a leader of the military junta that overthrew the socialist government of President Salvador Allende in 1973. During his dictatorial reign, tens of thousands of opponents of his regime were tortured as he tried to exterminate leftism in Chile and reassert free-market policies in the country’s economy. The reversal of the Allende government’s socialist policies resulted in a lower rate of inflation and an economic boom between 1976 and 1979. In 1976, Pinochet approved the release of prisoner Luis Corvalan (1916–2010), the leader of the Chilean Communist Party, in exchange for the release of Vladimir Bukovsky by the USSR. During the 1980s, his free-market policies were credited with maintaining a low inflation rate and an acceptable rate of economic growth. Pinochet remained in office until free elections chose a new president in March 1990. In 2000, he was ordered to stand trial on charges of human rights abuses, which were dropped in 2002. In 2005 the Chilean Supreme Court voted to order Pinochet to stand trial on charges of illegal financial dealings, as well as a case involving the disappearance and execution of at least 119 political dissidents. He died prior to trial the following year.

Platonov, Andrei (1899–1951).

Born Andrei Klimentov. Soviet Russian poet and writer. His works were banned during his lifetime, due to his experimental style (a forerunner to existentialism) and his implicit criticism of Stalin and collectivization. His teenage son was sent to a labor camp during the Great Purge, contracted tuberculosis in the camp, and then was released back home as his disease was terminal. Platonov contracted the disease himself while nursing his son.

Plissonnier, Gaston (1913–1995).

French politician. Joined the French Communist Party in 1935 and rose through the ranks. Assisted illegal communist parties in Europe at the behest of the Soviet Union. Credited with limiting the French Communist Party’s disavowal of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Plyushch, Leonid (1928–2015).

Soviet and Ukrainian mathematician, writer, dissident, and human rights activist. In 1968, protested against the misconduct of the Galanskov-Ginzburg trial; protested the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Joined the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR, which requested the UN Human Rights Commission to investigate human rights violations in the Soviet Union. Arrested in 1972 for anti-Soviet activity, jailed for a year before the trial began, was declared insane, and sent to a psychiatric prison hospital. Wrote letters from the hospital, compiled and published into a book The Case of Leonid Plyushch (1974), published in Russian and then English. His imprisonment was protested internationally, by mathematicians and many others. Released and left the Soviet Union in 1976 and settled in France. Retained his communist beliefs but supported anti-totalitarian publications in communist countries.

Podgorny, Nikolai (1903–1983).

Ukrainian Soviet politician. First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Ukraine (1957–1963). Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1965–1977). As a protégé of Nikita Khrushchev, became a member of the Politburo and traveled with Khrushchev to the UN headquarters in 1960. Acted as Soviet ambassador to several nations. Was opposed by Brezhnev, who saw Podgorny as a threat to his power. Brezhnev was finally successful in removing him from the Politburo in 1977. He kept a low profile after his ousting.

Ponomarev, Boris (1905–1995).

Soviet politician and historian. Chief of the International Department of the CC CPSU (1955–1986), controlling the policy of the World Communist Movement. A key participant in the development of Soviet foreign policy.

Pozner, Vladimir (1934–).

French-born Russian-American journalist. Known for defending Soviet policies on television and radio during the Cold War, speaking fluent English, Russian, and French. Worked on various Soviet publications and programs: the English-language magazine Soviet Life (1961–1967), multilanguage Soviet magazine Sputnik Monthly Digest (1967–1970), program Voice of Moscow, Chief commentator on the North American service of Radio Moscow. From the 1970s to 1990s, often appeared on American radio and TV talk shows. Co-hosted the Donahue/Pozner weekly show with television journalist Phil Donahue on CNBC (1991–1994). Returned to Russia in 1996. Since 2010, hosts an interview show on Russia’s Channel One.

Primakov, Evgeny (1929–2015).

Russian politician. Prime Minister of Russia (1998–1999). Also served as Foreign Minister, Speaker of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union, and chief of the intelligence service. He became involved in politics in 1989, as Chairman of the Council of the Soviet Union. From 1990 to 1991 was a member of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev’s Presidential Council. After the failed August 1991 coup, was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the KGB. After the formation of the Russian Federation, he shepherded the transition of the KGB First Chief Directorate to the control of the Russian Federation government, under the new name Foreign Intelligence Service. Served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1996 to 1998. In 1999 was fired by Yeltsin over the ostensibly sluggish pace of the Russian economy.

Putin, Vladimir (1952–).

Russian politician and intelligence officer. President of Russia (1999–2008, 2012–current). Prime Minister of Russia (1999–2000, 2008–2012).Was a KGB intelligence officer for 16 years, rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel before resigning in 1991 to enter politics in Saint Petersburg. Moved to Moscow in 1996 and joined Boris Yeltsin’s administration, rising quickly through the ranks to become Acting President on 31 December 1999. His first presidency was marked by economic growth and an increase in GDP. Won a third term in the 2012 presidential election with 64% of the vote, and gained 76% in the March 2018 election. Despite high approval for Putin, confidence in the Russian economy is low, dropping to levels in 2016 that rivaled the recent lows in 2009. In July 2018, his approval rating fell to 63% and only 49% said they would vote for Putin if presidential elections were held again. Russia under his leadership has scored poorly in Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index. Human rights organizations and activists have accused him of persecuting political critics and activists, including ordering them tortured and assassinated.

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Reagan, Ronald (1911–2004).

American actor and politician. 40th president of the United States (1981–1989). Governor of California (1967–1975). During his presidency, escalated the Cold War. Well-known for calling the USSR the “evil empire” and also for the line “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!” (Brandenburg Gate speech, 1987). Reagan’s policies were to build up the U.S. military in terms of both manpower and missiles. The arms and military race led to an economic undermining of the Soviet system. Reagan’s policies have been credited with spurring the largely nonviolent dismantling of communist states years later.

Rockefeller, David (1915–2017).

American banker and philanthropist, the youngest of the five sons of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Graduated from Harvard University, London School of Economics and the University of Chicago. After service in the U.S. Army during World War II, joined the staff of the Chase National Bank of New York in 1946. Rose steadily to become senior vice president in 1952 and was instrumental in the 1955 merger of Chase National and the Bank of the Manhattan Company to create Chase Manhattan Bank. His specialty became international banking, and he was a familiar figure to ministers and heads of states of various countries around the world. In 1973 founded the Trilateral Commission, a private international organization (North America, Europe and Japan) designed to confront the challenges posed by globalization and encourage greater cooperation between the United States and its principal allies. Attended and contributed financially to the Bilderberg Conference, an annual three-day meeting attended by approximately 100 of Europe’s and North America’s most influential bankers, economists, politicians, and government officials.

Rostropovich, Mstislav (1927–2007).

Soviet and Russian musician. Considered one of the greatest cellists of the 20^th century, known for commissioning new pieces for cello and premiering over 100 pieces to expand the cello repertoire. Had close working relationships with Soviet composers, including Prokofiev. In the early 1970s, supported Alexander Solzhenitsyn; as a result, he was banned from touring abroad. Left the Soviet Union in 1974 and settled in the U.S. Awarded the 1974 Award of the International League of Human Rights. Musical director and conductor of the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C. (1977–1994). Supported Boris Yeltsin and was on friendly terms with Vladimir Putin. Celebrated his 80th birthday in the Kremlin, where he was praised in a speech by Putin and awarded the Order for Services to the Fatherland.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778).

Swiss-born philosopher, writer, and political theorist. His writings inspired the leaders of the French Revolution and the Romantic generation. His books “Discourse on Inequality” and “The Social Contract” are considered cornerstones of modern political thought, espousing the theories that private property is the source of social inequality, and that a government’s authority comes from the consent of the people rather than a divine right or the use of force. Believed that morality came not from societal norms but was innate, based on the natural human aversion to witnessing the suffering of others. The concept of the “noble savage,” widely attributed to Rousseau, does not appear in his writings. Rather, he advocated that civil society creates new negative impulses in its members. Nonetheless he is widely cited as the inspiration for “back to nature” trends in society and child-centered approaches to parenting and education.

Rudenko, Roman (1907–1981).

Ukrainian Soviet lawyer. Procurator General of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1953). Procurator General of the USSR (1953–1981). Chief prosecutor for the USSR during the Nuremberg Trials (1946), chief prosecutor for the trial of Polish Underground leaders (1945). One of the chief commandants of an NKVD prison camp (an ex-Nazi concentration camp) that closed in 1950; about 12,000 prisoners had died at the camp of malnutrition and disease during its operation. Served as judge at the closed trial of Lavrentiy Beria following Stalin’s death (1953). Elected to the CC CPSU in 1961. Devised multiple measures to suppress the Soviet dissident movement without stirring international reaction, such as declaring dissidents mentally ill and confining them in psychiatric hospitals.

Rutskoy, Alexander (1947–).

Russian politician and former Soviet military officer. Commander of a Soviet air assault regiment in Afghanistan, shot down twice, and once captured and held as a prisoner of war in Pakistan. Awarded title Hero of the Soviet Union (1988). Vice President of Russia (1991–1993). During Russian constitutional crisis of 1993, was proclaimed acting President in place of Boris Yeltsin, though not recognized as such outside Russia. When two-week standoff ended, was arrested, dismissed as Vice President, fired from the military forces, and imprisoned until 1994. Governor of Kursk Oblast (1996–2000), elected as joint candidate for communist and “patriotic forces”. Was still active in Russian politics after his governorship.

Ryzhkov, Nikolai (1929–).

Soviet and Russian politician. Head of the Economic Department of the Central Committee (1982–1985). Last Chairman of the Council of Ministers before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Responsible for the cultural and economic administration of the Soviet Union during the late Gorbachev era, until he lost the position in 1991. The same year, he also lost his seat on the Presidential Council and went on to become Boris Yeltsin’s leading opponent in the 1991 Russian Presidential election. In 1996, was one of the founders of the CPRF-led alliance of leftists and nationalists known as the People’s Patriotic Union of Russia. Currently serves as Chairman of the Federation Council Commission on Natural Monopolies, as a member of the Committee on Local Self-Governance.

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Sakharov, Andrei (1921–1989).

Russian physicist, dissident, and human rights activist. Designer of the Soviet Union’s first two-stage hydrogen bomb (tested 1955). After 1965, turned to particle physics research. Became active in anti-nuclear proliferation activism in the 1960s, playing a role in the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty. Wrote essay “Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom” (1968), which was spread via samizdat and published in the West; as a result, Sakharov was banned from military-related research. One of the three founding members of the Committee on Human Rights in the USSR (1970). Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1975); Sakharov was barred from leaving the USSR to receive it. Protested the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan (1979), was arrested, and sent to internal exile in Gorky (1980), a city off-limits to foreigners. Went on hunger strike twice to protest the Soviet treatment of his wife Yelena Bonner (1984, 1985). Allowed to return to Moscow in 1988, when Gorbachev was promoting the ideas of glasnost and perestroika.

Sartre, Jean-Paul (1905–1980).

French novelist and playwright. Exponent of Existentialism—a philosophy acclaiming the freedom of the individual human being. Was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1964, but declined it on grounds he wished to remain independent from institutional associations. After World War II took an active interest in French political movements, gradually moving further left. Became an outspoken admirer of the Soviet Union, which he visited in 1954. However, after the Budapest uprising in 1956, he condemned both the Soviet intervention and the submission of the French Communist Party to the dictates of Moscow.

Schmidt, Helmut (1918–2015).

German politician. Chancellor of West Germany (1974–1982). Co-publisher of the influential weekly Die Zeit (1983–1989), acting director of Die Zeit (1985–1989). Served in Wehrmacht (German Army) during World War II and was awarded an Iron Cross. After the war. joined the Social Democratic Party and was elected to the Bundestag (1953–1961), returned to service in Hamburg (1961–65), and was reelected to the Bundestag in 1965. Became vice-chairman of the Social Democratic Party in 1968 and served as minister of defense (1969–72) and minister of finance (1972–74) in the government of Chancellor Willy Brandt. Was elected to the chancellorship of West Germany in 1974, after his predecessor Willy Brandt’s chief of staff was exposed as an East German spy. He served there from 1974 to 1982. Resigned in 1982 upon a vote of no confidence in the Bundestag. Was the author of numerous books on German political affairs and European international relations.

Semichastny, Vladimir (1924–2001).

Soviet politician. Chairman of the KGB (1961–1967). Emphasized developing security and intelligence services in Eastern bloc states and recruiting top college graduates to the KGB. Supported communist “liberation” movements worldwide. Suppressed dissidents and nationalist movements within the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc. Participated in the successful coup against Khrushchev (1964). Replaced by Yuri Andropov (1967).

Sharansky, Natan (1948–).

One of the most famous former Soviet refuseniks. Israeli politician, author and human rights activist. Born Anatoly Sharansky in Donetsk, Ukraine, he became involved with the refusenik movement and one of the foremost dissidents and spokesmen for the Soviet Jews. In 1978 was convicted of treason and spying on behalf of the United States and sentenced to thirteen years’ imprisonment in a Siberian forced labor camp. He was released by Gorbachev in 1986 as part of an East-West prisoner exchange. Emigrated to Israel in 1986. In 1988 elected President of the newly created Zionist Forum, an umbrella organization of former Soviet activists. Served as Minister of Industry and Trade from 1996–1999, and Minister of Housing and Construction and Deputy Prime Minister from 2001–2003. Resigned from government in 2005. In 1988 published the memoir Fear No Evil in the United States.

Shevardnadze, Eduard (1928–2014).

Soviet and Georgian politician. Leader of Soviet Georgia (1972–1985). Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs (1985–1990, 1991). As Minister of Foreign Affairs was a key player in foreign policy, involved in ending the war in Afghanistan, negotiating arms treaties with the U.S., approving the reunification of Germany, and withdrawing the Soviet army from Eastern Europe and the USSR’s border with China. Resigned his position in 1990, in protest against communist hardliners coming to the fore in government, and briefly re-held the position in the last month of the USSR’s existence. Leader of post-Soviet Georgia (1992–1995). President of Georgia (1995–2003).

Sholokhov, Mikhail (1905–1984).

Soviet writer. Primarily known for his 4-volume epic novel And Quiet Flows the Don (1940), depicting the struggles of Cossacks during WWI, the Russian Revolution, and the Russian Civil War. Won the Stalin Prize (1941) and Nobel Prize in Literature (1965) for this novel. On relatively good terms with Stalin, and wrote letters to Stalin about the poor conditions at the collective farms along the Don River in the 1930s. Joined the CPSU (1932), elected to the Supreme Soviet (1937), joined the CC CPSU (1961), and held membership in many other Soviet organizations.

Sinyavsky, Andrei (1925–1997).

Russian writer and dissident. Published his works in the West under the pseudonym Abram Tertz. Depicted realities of Soviet life in short fiction. Was arrested and tried with fellow writer Yuli Daniel (1965) in the infamous Sinyavsky-Daniel trial. Sentenced to 7 years hard labor due to “anti-Soviet activity”. Released from prison (1971) and emigrated to France (1973). Co-founded the Russian language almanac Sintaksis (1978).

Snezhnevsky, Andrey (1904–1987).

Soviet psychologist. Fabricated the concept of “sluggish schizophrenia”, which spread through the USSR and Eastern Bloc in the 1960s as a means to suppress dissidents; this concept was not accepted in international professional psychiatry organizations outside communist groups. Diagnosed multiple dissidents with this condition, some even in absentia. In 1980, as a Corresponding Fellow of the Royal College of Psychiatry, was asked to respond to charges by the Special Committee on the Political Abuse of Psychiatry that he engaged in such abuse. He refused to answer these charges and resigned his fellowship. Director of the Institute of Psychiatry of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (1962—1987). Director of the All-Union Mental Health Research Center of the Soviet Academy of Medical Sciences (1982–1987).

Solomentsev, Mikhail (1913–2008).

Soviet politician. A secretary of the CC CPSU (1966–1971). Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the RSFR (1971–1983). Chairman of the Party Control Committee of the Central Committee (1983–1988), which oversaw the discipline of party members. Accused of aiding corruption in Uzbekistan during a series of criminal trials in the late 1980s and fired from his position by Mikhail Gorbachev.

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander (1918–2008).

Russian writer. Served as Soviet Army commander during World War II. Arrested in 1945 for anti-Stalin remarks in private letters, sent to Lubyanka prison for interrogation, sentenced in absentia to 7 years in a labor camp. Completed his sentence at multiple locations, ending at a special camp for political prisoners in Ekibastuz. Sent to internal exile in 1953 when his prison camp sentence ended. Freed from exile in 1956 and exonerated. Was allowed to publish only one novel One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich within the Soviet Union, based on his experiences in the Ekibastuz camp. Other books, Cancer Ward (1968), August 1914 (1971), and The Gulag Archipelago (1973), had to be published in the West via smuggling out manuscripts, given the KGB had seized some of his materials in 1965. Won the Nobel Prize in Literature (1970), which he could not receive until after his expulsion from the Soviet Union in 1974. Returned to Russia in 1994.

Sorsa, Taisto Kalevi (1930–2004).

Finnish politician. Began political career in 1969 in the Social Democratic Party of Finland. A 2008 book by historian Jukka Seppinen suggests Sorsa was at that time already receiving support from the KGB. Prime Minister of Finland (1972–1975, 1977–1979, 1982–1987). Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Finland (1975–1987). Minister for Foreign Affairs (1972, 1975–1976, 1987–1989). Vice president of the Socialist International in the mid–1970s. At the time, the Socialist International supported détente, and Sorsa had extensive contacts with U.S. and Soviet officials with regards to East-West relations and arms treaty talks. In 1994, he withdrew from Finnish presidential primaries as SDPF’s candidate, due to Vladimir Bukovsky’s revelations of Sorsa’s covert relationships with the Soviets for decades.

Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953).

Soviet revolutionary and politician. Born Joseph Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in the Republic of Georgia, then part of the Russian Empire. Ruled the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. Initially presiding over an oligarchic one-party system that governed by plurality, he became the de facto dictator of the Soviet state by the 1930s, holding the posts of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952) and Premier (1941–1953). Instituted the “Great Purge,” in which over a million were imprisoned and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939. Widely considered one of the 20th century’s most significant figures, he transformed the Soviet Union into a major industrial and military world power over three decades. Center of a pervasive personality cult within the international Marxist-Leninist movement, Stalin today is the focus of a nostalgic trend in Russia that attempts to minimize the brutal aspects of his regime.

Steen, Reiulf (1933–2014).

Norwegian writer and politician. Active in the Norwegian Labor Party (1958–1990), Vice chairman of the party (1965–1975), Chairman of the party (1975–1981). Norwegian ambassador to Chile (1992–1996). Vice president of the Socialist International (1978–1983). Chaired Norwegian branch of Helsinki Committee for Human Rights (1986–1992).

Stroilov, Pavel (1983–).

Russian historian living in London after being granted asylum by British judges in 2006. Fled Russia in 2003 after stealing 50,000 unpublished top-secret Kremlin documents from the archive of the Gorbachev Foundation. Wrote Behind the Desert Storm, a book that discusses what the stolen documents reveal about the First Gulf War. Translated Alexander Litvinenko's book Allegations into English and co-authored several works about the European Union with Bukovsky including EUSSR, which drew parallels between the EU and Soviet government.

Sudoplatov, Pavel (1907–1996).

Member of the intelligence services of the Soviet Union and rose to the rank of lieutenant general. Was involved in several famous episodes including the assassination of Leon Trotsky, the espionage program which obtained information about the atomic bomb from the Manhattan Project, and Operation Scherhorn, a deception operation against the Germans in 1944. In 1953 was arrested as Lavrentiy Beria’s collaborator and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Served full term and was released in 1968. His autobiography Special Tasks made him well known outside the USSR, and provided a detailed look at Soviet intelligence and Soviet internal politics during his years at the top.

Suslov, Mikhail (1902–1982).

Soviet politician. Second secretary of the CPSU (1965–1982). Head of Propaganda Department of the CC CPSU (1949–1952). Abandoned teaching in 1931 to become a full-time politician. Took part in repressions and purges during Stalin’s rule. Suffered a political reversal upon Stalin’s death, but soon returned to some power in 1955, being re-elected to the Politburo. Opposed Khrushchev’s policy of de-Stalinization and played a key role in Khrushchev’s ousting in 1964. One of the most influential Soviet politicians in the 1960s.

Sverdlov, Yakov (1885–1919).

Soviet revolutionary and politician. Joined the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (1902) and soon after joined Lenin’s Bolshevik faction. Was involved in the failed 1905 Russian Revolution, while living in the Urals. Spent most of 1906–1917 either imprisoned or in exile. Was exiled in Siberia (1914–1916), along with Joseph Stalin. Elected to the CC CPSU (1917) and played an important planning role in the October Revolution. Chairman of the Central Committee Secretariat (1917–1919). Key planner and participant in repressions and mass killings in the Russian Civil War. Probably died of the Spanish flu pandemic.

Szilard, Leo (1898–1964).

Hungarian-German-American physicist and inventor. Conceived the nuclear chain reaction in 1933, presented the idea of a nuclear reactor with Enrico Fermi in 1934, and in 1939 wrote a letter for Albert Einstein’s signature that resulted in the Manhattan Project which built the atomic bomb. Received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959 and Albert Einstein Award in 1960.

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Taraki, Nur Muhammad (1917–1979, assassinated).

Afghan politician. President of Afghanistan (1978–1979). One of the founding members of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan in 1965. Initiated the Saur Revolution (1978), along with Hafizullah Amin and Babrak Karmal, establishing the communist Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Taraki initiated a very unpopular land reform in January 1979, locked up dissidents, and oversaw massacres of villagers; this led to popular uprisings. Tried but was unable to get the Soviet government to intercede and restore order. Overthrown in September 1979 and murdered in October 1979 upon the orders of Amin.

Tarkovsky, Andrei (1932–1986).

Russian filmmaker and writer. Directed the first five of his seven feature films in the Soviet Union, switching to Western production after defecting in 1982. During his Soviet years, he was censored heavily, having productions stopped by authorities and his films strictly controlled in distribution within the USSR. In 1983, his film Nostalghia was presented at the Cannes Film Festival, and Soviet authorities managed to block the film from receiving the coveted Palme d’Or prize; this interference hardened Tarkovsky against returning to the Soviet Union. In 1984, he publicly announced he would never return to the USSR. Died of lung cancer.

Tarsis, Valery (1906–1983).

Ukrainian writer. Joined the CPSU as a young man, became disillusioned in the 1930s, and officially broke with the party in 1960. Had his works smuggled outside the Soviet Union for publication. The overseas publication of his novel The Bluebottle (1962), led to a punitive psychiatric imprisonment. He wrote about his 8-month stay in the autobiographical novel Ward 7 (1965), one of the first published works on the abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union. Emigrated to the West in 1966 and was stripped of Soviet citizenship soon after. Lectured at various universities and colleges in the West after emigration, ultimately settling in Switzerland.

Thatcher, Margaret (1925–2013).

Born Margaret Roberts. British politician. Prime Minister of the UK (1979–1990). Leader of the Conservative Party (1975–1990). Dubbed the “Iron Lady” by a Soviet journalist, she was closely aligned with Ronald Reagan’s Cold War policies once he assumed the American presidency. Condemned the invasion of Afghanistan (1979), saying it exposed the bankruptcy of the policy of détente. The first British PM to visit China (1982). Went on a state visit to the USSR in 1984, meeting with Mikhail Gorbachev.

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Ustinov, Dmitry (1908–1984).

Soviet military leader. Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union (1976–1984). In the aftermath of WWII, played a crucial role in requisitioning German military resources, leading to the development of the Soviet missile and space programs. Under Brezhnev, Ustinov was in charge of developing the Soviet Union’s ICBM system and strategic bomber force. Strong proponent of the invasion of Afghanistan (1979). He made the development of a Soviet space shuttle top priority, worried that the U.S. shuttle would be used to deploy nuclear weapons over Soviet territory. Advised Andropov not to disclose possession of the black box from downed Korean airliner KAL 007 in 1992, as its tapes did not support the claim that the plane was on an American spy mission.

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Vance, Cyrus (1917–2002).

American lawyer and politician. Secretary of State under Jimmy Carter (1977–1980). Deputy Secretary of Defense under Lyndon Johnson (1964–1967). Secretary of the Army under John F. Kennedy and Johnson (1962–1964). Originally supported the Vietnam War, but by the late 1960s opposed administration policy and resigned his position in 1967. During the Carter administration, pushed for closer relations with the Soviet Union, often opposing National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski’s harder stance against the USSR. Negotiated SALT II agreement with Soviet ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin (1978), which was signed by Carter but not ratified by the U.S. Senate, so never went into effect. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979), Vance’s softer stance on the USSR lost him influence. Resigned in 1980 in protest against Brzezinski’s push for a military solution to the Iranian hostage crisis.

Vishnevskaya, Galina (1926–2012).

Russian soprano opera singer and recitalist named a People’s Artist of the USSR in 1966. Wife of cellist Mstislav Rostropovich. They performed together regularly and were friends of composer Dmitri Shostakovich. In 1974 she and her husband left the Soviet Union and initially settled in the United States, then later in Paris. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, she and her husband returned to Russia, where in 2002 she opened her own opera theater in Moscow. She died in Moscow in 2012.

Voroshilov, Kliment (1881–1965).

Soviet military officer. One of the original five Marshals of the Soviet Union (1917–1953). Member of the Politburo (1926–1960). Joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party in 1905 and became closely associated with Stalin during the Russian Civil War (1918). Played a key role in Stalin’s purges of the 1930s, denouncing many military colleagues at Stalin’s request. Incompetently commanded Soviet troops in the Winter War with Finland (1939–1940), leading to the death of about 185,000 troops; was shunted aside by Stalin to less critical military roles. Supervised the establishment of a communist regime in Hungary (1945–1947). After Stalin’s death, was part of the troika responsible for Lavrentiy Beria’s arrest, conviction, and execution. Pushed to less important roles and retired during Khrushchev’s reign. After Brezhnev toppled Khrushchev, Voroshilov was pulled out of retirement for a figurehead position.

Voslensky, Mikhail (1920–1997).

Soviet writer, scientist, and dissident. Was an interpreter for the Soviet Union during the Nuremberg Trials. In 1953–1955 he worked with the World Peace Council. Later he worked at the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Between 1954 and 1968 published four books on Germany’s international relations and taught history at Lumumba University in Moscow. In 1972 defected from the Soviet Union and later took on Austrian citizenship. In 1977 was stripped of Soviet citizenship, a decision revoked by Mikhail Gorbachev in 1990. Authored the book Nomenklatura: The Soviet Ruling Class (1980), which was translated into 14 languages.

Vyshinsky, Andrey (1883–1954).

Soviet official. Known as a state prosecutor of Stalin’s Moscow trials and the Nuremberg trials. During 1935 he became Chief Prosecutor of the USSR, and legal mastermind of Stalin’s Great Purge. During 1936, achieved international infamy as the prosecutor of the Zinoviev-Kamenev trial, the first of the Moscow trials during the Great Purge. In 1939, he introduced a motion to the Supreme Council to bring the Western Ukraine into the USSR. In 1940 was sent to Latvia to supervise the incorporation of that country into the USSR. Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1949–1953, after serving as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs for Vyacheslav Molotov since 1940. He also managed the Institute of State and Law of the Academy of Sciences.

Vysotsky, Vladimir (1938–1980).

Soviet actor and singer-songwriter. Iconic Russian and Soviet cultural figure. Generally ignored by Soviet officials, wrote hundreds of songs and poems about Word War II, Soviet labor camps, the criminal underworld, and anti-Soviet material, disguised through allegory, parable, and buffoonery. Associated with the Taganka Theatre since 1965. Some controversy over his death, though his alcohol and drug use were likely the causes.

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Walesa, Lech (1943–).

Polish politician and labor activist. Co-founded Solidarity in 1980, the first independent labor union in the Soviet bloc. As a result of Solidarity’s activities, the communist Polish government declared martial law (1981–1983). Won the Nobel Peace Prize (1983). Continued Solidarity activities underground through the 1980s, leading to the Round Table Agreement with the Polish government, resulting in free elections in 1989. President of Poland (1990–1995).

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Yakir, Iona (1896–1937, executed).

Soviet military leader. Joined the Bolshevik Party in 1917 and participated in the Russian Civil War on the Bolshevik side. Following the Civil War, Yakir was an army commander in Ukraine, and started military reforms in training, strategy, tactics, and logistics. One of his major military reforms was allowing officers to act on their own initiative, a policy disliked by Stalin. In the Great Purge of 1936, several of Yakir’s associates were arrested by the NKVD; Yakir tried appealing to Stalin, which made Stalin even more distrustful. Yakir was arrested in 1937, along with 7 other military leaders; they were accused of being Nazi agents and Trotskyites. Was tortured into a confession and executed the day after the trial. Father of Pyotr Yakir.

Yakir, Pyotr (1923–1982).

Soviet historian and human rights activist. Wrote Childhood in Prison (1972), about his time in the prison camps after the death of his father, Iona Yakir. Pyotr and his mother spent almost 20 years in the prison camps. Pyotr being 14 years old when he was first imprisoned, with an initial sentence of 5 years, his crime being the son of “an enemy of the people”, with his sentence repeatedly renewed. Released and rehabilitated in 1957, thereafter studied at the Moscow State Historical and Archival Institute, after which he worked at the Institute of History of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Took part in human rights activism in the USSR starting in the mid–1960s, co-founder of the Initiative Group for the Defense of Human Rights in the USSR and protested the 1968 Invasion of Czechoslovakia. Arrested in 1972 after he published his memoirs, tried in 1973, and sentenced to internal exile.

Yakovlev, Alexander (1923–2005).

Soviet politician and historian. Member of the Politburo (1987–1990) and Secretariat (1986–1990) of the CPSU. Soviet Ambassador to Canada (1973–1983). Joined the CPSU (1944). Called the “godfather of glasnost”, considered to be the intellectual force behind the policies of glasnost and perestroika during Mikhail Gorbachev’s leadership. Founded and led the Russian Party of Social Democracy (1995) until its merger with other similar parties into the Democratic Choice of Russia – United Democrats bloc. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, wrote and lectured on history, politics, and economics.

Yakovlev, Yegor (1930–2005).

Soviet journalist. Named editor-in-chief of Sovietskaya Pechat journal in 1966, became a special correspondent for the Izvestia newspaper in 1968. Named editor-in-chief of the English-language newspaper Moscow News in 1986, transforming the paper in line with Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost and perestroika. Chairman of VGTRK (All-Soviet Television Company). Publisher of Obschaya gazeta (1993–2002).

Yakunin, Gleb (1934–2014).

Russian priest and human rights activist. Member of the Russian Parliament (1990–1995). Ordained a Russian Orthodox priest (1962), and appointed to a parish in a town near Moscow. Wrote an open letter with fellow priest Nikolai Eschliman (1965), arguing that the Russian Orthodox Church must be liberated from Soviet control; the letter was distributed by samizdat. In retaliation, he was not allowed to continue his parish ministry (1966). Created the Christian Committee for the Defense of Believers’ Rights in the USSR (1976) and was arrested and convicted for anti-Soviet agitation (1980). He served his sentence in a KGB prison, then a labor camp, and then internal exile; was granted amnesty in 1987 by Mikhail Gorbachev. Returned to his ministry as a priest, working until 1992. In 1992 published materials about the cooperation between the Moscow Patriarchate and the KGB. Published code names of several KGB agents who held high-ranking positions in the Russian Orthodox Church. Was defrocked by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1993.

Yeltsin, Boris (1931–2007).

Soviet and Russian politician. First President of the Russian Federation (1991–1999). Member of the CPSU (1961–1990). Joined the Secretariat of the CC CPSU under Mikhail Gorbachev (1985) and became a member of the Politburo (1986), though he resigned soon afterward due to the slow pace of reforms. Won presidency of the Russian Republic in 1991 in its first democratic elections, after which a coup against Gorbachev was launched by communist hardliners, and in the aftermath the Soviet Union was dissolved. Yeltsin then became President of the Russian Federation, during which he attempted radical reforms, bringing a market economy to Russia. Favored friendly relations with the West. Widely accused of allowing corruption in the new systems, setting up economic oligarchs. Resigned in 1999, choosing Vladimir Putin as his successor.

Yevtushenko, Yevgeny (1932–2017).

Born Yevgeny Gangnus. Soviet and Russian poet. Politically active during the Khrushchev Thaw (1950s-early 1960s), and wrote the poem Babi Yar (1961), a chilling dedication to the persecution of Jews by both the Nazis and Soviet Union. This poem and others by Yevtushenko were set to music by Dmitri Shostakovich in his Symphony No. 13 (1962). Despite his criticisms of the Soviet regime in this and other poems, he was able to travel extensively abroad when there generally were restrictions on foreign travel by Soviet citizens. Many contemporaries accused him of duplicity and collaborating with the Soviet regime. Since 2007, he divided his time between the U.S. and Russia, teaching at the University of Tulsa (Oklahoma) and City University of New York. Died of heart failure in Oklahoma.

Yezhov, Nikolai (1895–1940, executed).

Soviet official. Head of NKVD (1936–1938). Joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and fought in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Rose through various political positions in the 1920s. Appointed head of various departments in 1930, elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party in 1934, and became a secretary of the Central Committee in 1935. Became favored by Stalin during the Great Purge, as Yezhov was tasked with interrogating those who had fallen out of favor and getting them to confess in show trials via the use of torture. In 1938, was replaced as head of NKVD by Lavrentiy Beria, as it became clear he had fallen from Stalin’s favor as the purges were subsiding. Arrested in 1939, he was tortured and forced to confess to multiple political and other crimes in a manner similar to those he had overseen in the Great Purge. Sentenced to death and shot. Best remembered for a photograph with Stalin from which Soviet censors removed his presence.

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Zagladin, Vadim (1927–2006).

Soviet politician. One of the leading theoreticians of perestroika. From 1964–1988, First Deputy Secretary of the International Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. From 1988–1991, a close advisor to Gorbachev on perestroika and glasnost. Continued his advisory role within the Gorbachev Foundation until his death. Vice-President of the Association for Euro-Atlantic Cooperation (AEAC), which promoted links between Russia and NATO. A personal friend of Francois Mitterrand, Willy Brandt and Giorgio Napolitano, Zagladin was the theorist of a reformed communism that would be very close to European social democracy. He authored many books on international relations.

Zedong, Mao (1893–1976).

Chinese communist revolutionary. Founding father of the People’s Republic of China, which he ruled as Chairman of the Communist Party of China from its establishment in 1949 until his death in 1976. His theories, military strategies, and political policies are collectively known as Maoism. Following the foundation of the People’s Republic, he solidified his control through land reforms and a psychological victory in the Korean War. In 1957 launched a campaign known as the Great Leap Forward that aimed to rapidly transform China’s economy from agrarian to industrial. The campaign led to the deadliest famine in history and the deaths of 20–45 million people between 1958 and 1962. In 1966, Mao initiated the Cultural Revolution, a program to remove so-called “counterrevolutionary” elements in Chinese society, which was marked by a violent class struggle. In 1972, he welcomed American President Nixon in Beijing, signaling the start of a policy of opening China to the world.

Zhirinovsky, Vladimir (1946–).

Born Vladimir Eidelstein. Russian politician. Leader of the Liberal Democratic Party (1992–); Leader of the LDP in the Duma (2011–). Ultranationalist populist in ideology, known for his confrontational style and anti-Western rhetoric. Co-founder of the Liberal Democratic Party (1991), which, according to former Politburo member Alexander Yakovlev, was a joint project of the CPSU and the KGB. The LDP plays a nominal role as opposition to Putin’s regime.

Zhivago, Yuri (fictional).

Titular character of Boris Pasternak’s most famous novel, Doctor Zhivago. This character, a doctor, is portrayed as a poet, idealistic, sensitive and indecisive through the revolutionary changes in Russia from 1905 to World War II.

Zhivkov, Todor (1911–1998).

Bulgarian politician. Communist leader of Bulgaria (1954–1989). Completely submitted to Soviet directives for Bulgaria, and even requested Bulgaria to be incorporated into the USSR twice (1963, 1973), though it is not clear how sincere those requests were. In the 1980s, following Soviet policy, Bulgaria became more economically stagnant and the Bulgarian Communist Party’s increasing corruption undermined Zhikov’s rule. He ultimately resigned in 1989 after out-of-control public riots, leading to multiple deaths. Placed under house arrest in 1990, tried for embezzlement in 1991, and convicted and sentenced to seven years’ imprisonment in 1992. Allowed to serve his sentence under house arrest due to age and ill health. Later acquitted (1996), and died of pneumonia in 1998.

Zia-ul-Haq, Muhammad (1924–1988).

Pakistani four-star general who served as the 6th President of Pakistan for almost ten years. The country’s longest-serving de facto head of state. Educated in Delhi University, Zia saw action in World War II as a British Indian Army officer in Burma and Malaya. Fought as a tank commander in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965. In 1970 led a military mission to Jordan, instrumental in defeating the Black September insurgency against King Hussein. Assuming the presidency in 1978, Zia played a major role in the Soviet-Afghan War. He was killed in a mysterious plane crash near Bahawalpur in 1988.

Zinoviev, Alexander (1922–2006).

Russian logician and writer. Criticized the Soviet political system in the 1970s through his novels Yawning Heights (published in Sweden in 1976) and The Radiant Future (1978), losing his academic post in the Logic Department at Moscow State University as a result. Emigrated to West Germany (1978), and continued writing books criticizing the Soviet system. Ceased to criticize communism at the start of perestroika, and began defending some aspects of Soviet communism. Returned to Russia in 1999.

Zorkin, Valery (1943–).

Russian judge. Chairman of the Constitutional Court of Russia (1991–1993, 2003–). Disputed the legality of Boris Yeltsin’s decision to dissolve the Supreme Soviet of Russia (1993). As a result, was forced to resign as Chairman of the Constitutional Court but remained a judge. Briefly forced off the court at the end of 1993, reinstituted in 1994. Elected Chairman again in 2003.

Zubatov, Sergei (1864–1917).

Russian official during the Tsarist era. Director of the Moscow security (Okhrana) Bureau between 1896 and 1902, and Director of the Special Section of the Interior Ministry’s Department of Police in 1902–1903. Known for his establishment of a system of surveillance to monitor the activities of revolutionary organizations. Between 1901–1903, created legal pro-government trade unions to divert workers from social agitation into organizations that demanded purely economic reforms and operated under the secret surveillance of police. After a series of strikes, the unions were disbanded and Zubatov expelled from office. He committed suicide during the February Revolution in 1917 after hearing the news of the Tsar’s abdication.