Abbreviations are used for three frequently cited sources after their first full citation in notes:
DGFP Documents on German Foreign Policy, published by the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington
DS Department of State Decimal Files, in the National Archives, Washington
FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, published by the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington
1. Thomas Jefferson to Edward Carrington, quoted in James E. Pollard, The Presidents and the Press (New York: Macmillan, 1947), pp. 52-53; Oscar Wilde, quoted in James Reston, The Artillery of the Press: Its Influence on American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), p. 43; Adlai Stevenson, quoted in Thomas Bailey, The Art of Diplomacy (New York: Appleton, 1968), p. 124.
2. Arthur Morse, While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy (New York: Random House, 1967); Henry Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970); David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968); David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984); Saul Friedman, No Haven for the Oppressed: United States Policy Towards Jewish Refugees, 1938-1945 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1973); Monty Noam Penkower, The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983).
Recently additional attention has been devoted to the behavior of the organized Jewish community in research projects that are themselves somewhat controversial. Critics such as Lucy Dawidowicz have accused factions in the Jewish community of “revis[ing] the past for their own self-aggrandizement and unscrupulously distort[ing] the historic record” in order to justify and legitimize their current political agenda. The appointment of a private, blue-ribbon Commission on the Holocaust under the chairmanship of Arthur J. Goldberg, former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, which was charged with the task of “embark[ing] on a searing inquiry into the actions and attitudes of American Jews,” aroused a great deal of controversy. Lucy Dawidowicz accurately described this charge as sounding like an “arraignment.” Lucy Dawidowicz, “American Jewry and the Holocaust,” New York Times Magazine, April 18, 1982, pp. 47-48, 101-114. See also Marie Syrkin, “American Jewry During the Holocaust,” Midstream, October 1982, pp. 6-12. A few years ago Ariel Sharon, in an address to the Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations, accused the Jews of the free world of having remained silent during the war. Bernard Wasserstein, “The Myth of ‘Jewish Silence.’ “ Midstream, August-September 1980, p. 10. Monty Noam Penkower, “In Dramatic Dissent: The Bergson Boys,” American Jewish History, March 1981, pp. 281-309; David Wyman, “Letters to the Editor,” New York Times Magazine, May 23, 1982, p. 94. Wyman’s The Abandonment of the Jews offers the most piercing analysis of the American Jewish community’s reaction.
3. Elmer Roper, You and Your Leaders (New York, Morrow, 1957), p. 71; Selig Adler, Isolationist Impulse (London, Abelard-Schuman, 1957), p. 279.
4. Gay Talese, The Kingdom and the Power (New York: Bantam Books, 1970), p. 1. One foreign policy official described the function of the press as giving those in government a “daily feel” of the public’s reaction to events. Bernard C. Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 233-234. The fact that reporters see themselves as the public’s agents in breaking down any barriers which might impede the free flow of news also enhances the press’s importance in the foreign policy arena. Reston, p. 71; Theodore Peterson, “The Social Responsibility Theory of the Press,” in Fred S. Siebert, Theodore Peterson, and Wilbur Schramm, Four Theories of the Press (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1956), p. 91; Cohen, p. 32; William O. Chittick, State Department, Press and Pressure Groups: A Role Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1970), p. 6; Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago, 1954), pp. 93-115, and Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication (Glencoe, Ill., 1955), chap. 14, and pp. 32-33, 325, as cited in Peter G. Filene, “On Method and Matter,” chap. 1 in his Americans and the Soviet Experience, 1917-1933 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). Also see Filene pp. 1-7, for a discussion of some of the problems involved in analysis of mass media.
For an example of a veteran reporter’s reaction to the barring of his colleagues from the battlefield see Drew Middleton, “Barring Reporters from the Battlefield,” New York Times Magazine, February 5, 1984, pp. 36-37, 61 ff. For an analysis of the political impact of television see Austin Ranney, Channels of Power: The Impact of Television on American Politics (New York, 1984), as cited in Ted Koppel, “The Myth of the Medium,” New Republic, February 6, 1984, pp. 26-28; A. Lawrence Chickering, “The Media and the Message,” Commentary, February 1984, pp. 79-80.
5. Cohen, p. 255; Reston, pp. 75-76.
6. Frederick Oeschner, This Is the Enemy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1942), p. 130.
7. W. Phillips Davison, “More than Diplomacy,” in Lester Markel et al., Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (New York: Harper & Row, 1949), p. 132; Reston, pp. 69-71. Incidentally, because press criticism of government policy often tends to influence policy via an intellectual, political, and journalistic elite and not through the masses, the number of people who read a particular publication is often less important than who reads it.
8. Graham J. White, FDR and the Press (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), pp. 13, 22, 135; Raymond Clapper, Watching the World (New York: Whittlesey House, 1944), p. 51; Arthur Krock, Memoirs (New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1970), p. 183; Reston, pp. 67-68; Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduction by Jonathan Daniels (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972); James E. Pollard, “Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Press,” Journalism Quarterly, vol. 22, no. 3 (September 1947), p. 201.
9. Reston, pp. 67-68.
10. The Press Information Bulletins are to be found in Franklin D. Roosevelt Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y., White, pp. 79-81; James Reston, “The Number One Voice,” in Markel, p. 70; Pollard, p. 200; H. V. Kaltenborn, Fifty Fabulous Years (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1950), p. 172.
11. Chittick, pp. 24-25.
12. For examples of German concerns regarding American press coverage see: Richard Sallet to the Ministry of Propaganda, August 3, 1934, no. 569, III A 3140, Documents on German Foreign Policy (hereafter cited as DGFP), series C, III (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1957), p. 1111; Luther, April 8, 1935, DGFP, series C, IV, pp. 23-29; Investigation of Nazi Propaganda Activities and Investigation of Certain Other Propaganda Activities: Hearings Before the Special Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, 73d Cong., 2d sess. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1935); memorandum of a conversation between Ambassador Hugh Wilson and Joseph Goebbels, Berlin March 22, 1938, enclosed in a letter from Sumner Welles to President Roosevelt, April 22, 1938, Hugh Wilson folder, President’s Secretary’s File, Germany, FDRL, as cited in Sander Diamond, The Nazi Movement in the United States, 1924-1941 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974), p. 36. For additional discussion of German attempts to sway American public opinion and press coverage, see Chapter 6.
13. Thomsen to Berlin, November 20, 1939, no. 684, DGFP, series D, VIII, p. 432, as quoted in Saul Friedlander, Prelude to Downfall: Hitler and the United States, 1939-1941 (New York, Alfred E. Knopf, 1967), p. 56.
14. Reston, Artillery, p. 65; Friedlander, pp. 42-43, 52. For American attempts to influence the press see: Messersmith to Hull, March 25, 1933, DS 862.4016/496, as cited in Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American German Relations, 1933-1939,” Ph.D. diss. (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1971), p. 77; Messersmith to Hull, March 31, 1933, Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers (hereafter cited as FRUS), 1933, vol. II (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1949), pp. 341, 346; telephone call between Phillips and Gordon, April 2, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, p. 346.
15. For contemporary discussion of the evolution of these two fields and bibliographies see Harold G. Lasswell, “Propaganda,” Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York, Macmillan, 1934), vol. 12, pp. 521-528; Leila A. Sussmann, “The Public Relations Movement in America,” M.A. diss., University of Chicago, 1947; and Harwood L. Childs, ed., “Pressure Groups and Propaganda,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 179 (May 1935)—all as cited in Michael Schudson, Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers (New York: Basic Books, 1978), pp. 141, 211, n. 52.
16. In 1908 Congress stipulated in an appropriations bill that the government was to use no funds for “the preparation of any newspaper or magazine articles.” In 1913, after investigating the public relations activities of federal agencies, Congress passed a law prohibiting the government’s use of funds for “publicity experts.” But the law was the last futile attempt to try to stop what would soon become an accepted government activity. Edward L. Bernays, Propaganda (New York: Liveright, 1928), p. 27; F. B. Marbut, News from the Capital (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1971), pp. 192-196, all as cited in Schudson, p. 139, 141.
17. George Creel, How We Advertised America (New York: Harper & Row, 1920), p. 4; Harold D. Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the World War (New York: Peter Smith, 1927), p. 20; and James R. Mock and Cedric Larson, Words That Won the War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1939)—all as cited in Schudson, p. 212.
18. J. Roth, World War I: A Turning Point in Modern History (New York: Knopf, 1967), p. 109.
19. Lasswell, “Propaganda,” Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. 18, p. 582, as cited in Markel, p. 15.
20. Schudson, p. 142.
21. Ibid., pp. 156-57; Leo C. Rosten, The Washington Correspondents (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1937), p. 351. For an argument in favor of objectivity see Walter Lippmann, A Preface to Morals (New York: Macmillan, 1929, reprinted ed., Time Incorporated, 1964), pp. 222-224.
22. Donald F. Drummond, The Passing of American Neutrality, 1937-1941 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1955); William L. Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Challenge to Isolation, 1937-1940, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations/Harper & Row, 1952).
23. Franklin Reid Gannon, The British Press and Germany, 1936-1939 (London: Oxford, 1971), pp. 1-32; Harold Lavine and James Wechsler, War Propaganda and the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940), pp. 241-242.
24. Harrison Salisbury, Without Fear or Favor: An Uncompromising Look at the New York Times (New York: Times Books, 1980), p. xi.
25. Claud Cockburn, In Time of Trouble, as quoted in Gannon, p. xiv.
1. Sackett to Hull, March 9, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, pp. 206-209. For examples of some of the early laws see “Law for the Restoration of the Regular Civil Service,” Reichsgesetzblatt, 34, April 4, 1933, and “First Decree with Reference to the Law for the Restoration of the Regular Civil Service,” Reichsgesetzblatt, 37, April 11, 1933; reprinted in The Jews in Nazi Germany: The Factual Record of Their Persecution by the National Socialists (New York: American Jewish Committee, 1933), pp. 1-2.
2. The Jews in Nazi Germany, p. 21. For typical examples of coverage which did not focus on Nazi antisemitism see New York Herald Tribune, March 1, 1933, p. 1, March 2, 1933, p. 1, and New York Times, March 6, 1933, p. 1.
3. H. R. Knickerbocker, New York Evening Post, April 15, 1933, as cited in The Jews in Nazi Germany, pp. 24-27.
4. Pittsburgh Sun, March 24, 1933; Poughkeepsie News, March 11, 1933; Toledo Times, March 23, 1933—all cited in The Jews in Nazi Germany, pp. 71-79.
5. St. Louis “Times-Dispatch” (sic), March 24, 1933, as cited in The Jews in Nazi Germany, p. 81; Nashville Banner, as cited in Literary Digest, April 8, 1933, p. 3; New York Times, April 2, 1933.
6. Chicago Tribune, March 1, 1933, p. 1, March 3, 1933, p. 4; New York Times, March 5, 1933, p. 20.
7. New York Herald Tribune, March 8, 1933, p. 22; New York Times, March 10, 1933, p. 1, March 15, 1933, p. 10, March 20, 1933, p. 1; Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1933, p. 10, March 20, 1933, p. 1; Chicago Tribune, March 20, 1933, p. 1.
8. Toledo Times, March 23, 1933, as cited in The Jews in Nazi Germany, p. 77.
9. Los Angeles Times, March 16, 1933, p. 10, March 26, 1933, p. 2, March 27, 1933, p. 1.
10. New York Herald Tribune, March 25, 1933, p. 1.
11. New York Times, March 13, 1933, p. 1. On March 9 in a page 1 story Birchall portrayed the situation in Germany as one in which Nazi extremists were committing a variety of actions against Jews, including the “boyish trick” of flying a swastika over a synagogue. In one portion of the article he noted that the police had been ordered to investigate, and in another section he admitted that the police were under Nazi control. New York Times, March 9, 1933, pp. 1, 10.
12. Los Angeles Times, March 27, 1933, p. 1; Christian Century, April 5, 1933, p. 443.
13. Augusta (Maine) Journal, March 25, 1933.
14. Columbus (Ohio) Journal, March 24, 1933; Vernon McKenzie, “Atrocities in World War II: What We Can Believe,” Journalism Quarterly, vol. XIX, (September 1942), pp. 268-276.
15. Christian Science Monitor, February 18, 1933, p. 3, March 16, 1933, p. 12, March 22, 1933, p. 5; Moshe Gottlieb, “The First of April Boycott and the Reaction of the American Jewish Community,” American Jewish Historical Society Quarterly, vol. LVII (June 1968), p. 519.
16. Christian Science Monitor, March 24, 1933, p. 1; New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1933, p. 2, March 25, 1933, p. 1; William L. Shirer, 20th Century Journey: A Memoir of a Life and the Times, vol. II, The Nightmare Years, 1930-1940 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), p. 187.
17. Literary Digest, April 8, 1933, p. 3.
18. Marion K. Sanders, Dorothy Thompson: A Legend in Her Time (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), p. 185; New York Times, May 12, 1933, p. 12.
19. The Yellow Spot (New York: Knight Publications, 1933), p. 33. Ernst Hanfstaengl, a graduate of Harvard, was appointed to head a press bureau which was designed to influence foreign correspondents in general and those from America in particular. His mother was a member of a prominent Back Bay Boston family, the Sedgwicks. Ernst Hanfstaengl, Unheard Witness (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957); Christian Science Monitor, March 24, 1933, p. 8; Gottlieb, “The First of April Boycott,” p. 519.
20. Sigrid Schultz, Germany Will Try It Again (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1944), p. 117.
21. New York Times, March 26, 1933, sec. IV, p. 1; Time, April 3, 1933, pp. 16-17; Los Angeles Times, March 11, 1933, sec. II, p. 9; Nation, December 27, 1933, p. 728.
22. Louis Lochner, What About Germany? (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1942), p. 286.
23. New York Times, June 24, 1933, p. 12.
24. Memo, Hull to Sackett, March 21, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II; memorandum of press conference of Secretary of State, March 22, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, p. 328.
25. Memo, Gordon to Hull, March 30, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, p. 335.
26. New York Times, March 27, 1933, p. 1; New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1933, p. 1; Newsweek, April 1, 1933, p. 5.
27. Telephone call between Gordon and Phillips, March 31, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, p. 342; Gordon to Hull, March 23, 1933, FRUS, 1933, vol. II, pp. 328-331; Gordon to Hull, March 26, 1933, DS 862.4016/ 116, as cited in Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American German Relations, 1933-1939, Ph.D. diss. (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1971), p. 54.
28. Shafir, p. 77; New York Times, March 27, 1933, p. 1.
29. Louis Lochner to Betty Lochner, November 12, 1933, Lochner Papers, Mass Communications History Center, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. A portion of Lochner’s letters to his children who were students in the United States have been reprinted in “Round Robins from Berlin: Louis P. Lochner’s Letters to His Children, 1932-1941,” Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 50, no. 4 (Summer 1967), pp. 291-336; Chicago Tribune, January 28, 1936, p. 3.
30. FRUS, May 12, 1933, vol. II, p. 398.
31. Interview with C. Brooks Peters, February 12, 1985.
32. New York Herald Tribune, March 24, 1933, p. 2; Chicago Tribune, April 9, 1933, p. 4; Schultz, p. 187; Edgar Ansel Mowrer, Triumph and Turmoil: A Personal History of Our Times (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1968), p. 225.
33. FRUS, 1933, vol. II, pp. 403-406; Lilian Mowrer, Journalist’s Wife (New York: Morrow, 1937), p. 307. For bungled attempts to get the New York Evening Post and Philadelphia Public Ledger to recall Knickerbocker, see FRUS, May 12, 1933, vol. II, pp. 400-401.
34. Shirer, p. 138; S. Miles Bouton, “A Peculiar People,” in Robert Benjamin, ed., The Inside Story by Members of the Overseas Press Club of America (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1940), p. 116; interview with Howard K. Smith, February 27, 1985; Saturday Evening Post, June 2, 1934, p. 34; interview with Richard C. Hottelot, December 21, 1984.
35. Shirer, p. 551.
36. G. E. R. Gedye, “Vienna Waltz,” in Hanson Baldwin and Shepard Stone, eds., We Saw It Happen: The News Behind the News That’s Fit to Print (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1938), p. 68.
37. Louis Lochner, Always the Unexpected: A Book of Reminiscences (New York: Macmillan, 1956), p. 252; Lochner, What About Germany? p. 307.
38. Sigrid Schultz, “Hermann Goering’s ‘Dragon from Chicago,’” in David Brown and W. Richard Bruner, eds., How I Got That Story (New York: Dutton, 1967), p. 76.
39. Lochner, What About Germany? p. 303; Howard K. Smith, Last Train from Berlin (New York: Knopf, 1942), p. 48; interview with Percy Knauth, February 18, 1985; interview with C. Brooks Peters, February 12, 1985; transcript of recollections of Sigrid Schultz, Tribune Company Archives, tape 52A/000-745, part II, pp. 3-4, 14, Sigrid Schultz Collection, Mass Communications History Center of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.
40. Shirer, p. 229; Edgar Mowrer, pp. 225-226; H. R. Knickerbocker, Is Tomorrow Hitler’s? 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1941), pp. 213-214.
41. Edgar Mowrer, pp. 216-217, 224; Lilian Mowrer, p. 275, 287.
42. FRUS, May 12, 1933, vol. II, p. 399; Shafir, p. 43.
43. Manchester Guardian, April 9, 1933 (reprinted in New York Times, April 9, 1933); New York Times, December 24, 1933, p. 1.
44. Edgar Mowrer, Triumph, pp. 216-217, 224; Lilian Mowrer, pp. 275, 287.
45. FRUS, March 31, 1933, vol. II, p. 340.
46. Hamilton Fish Armstrong, Hitler’s Reich: The First Phase (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p. 19; Martha Dodd, Through Embassy Eyes (New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1939), p. 99; Hamilton Fish Armstrong, Peace and Counterpeace: From Wilson to Hitler (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), p. 530.
47. Macon (Georgia) Telegraph, May 25, 1933, as quoted in The Jews in Nazi Germany, pp. 20-21; Shafir, pp. 76-77.
48. New York Times, June 14, 1933, p. 4; The Jews in Nazi Germany, p. 16.
49. New York Times, May 29, 1933, p. 5; May 30, 1933, p. 14.
50. Edgar A. Mowrer, Germany Puts the Clock Back (New York: Morrow, 1933), pp. 230, 239; Baltimore Sun, August 1, 1935.
51. Lochner, What About Germany? p. 109; Frederick Oeschner, This Is the Enemy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1942), p. 56.
52. Dodd (White) to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016, Decimal Files 1538, Department of State, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter DS and file numbers only).
53. Chicago Tribune, March 13, September 14, 1932, February 4, 1933, March 13, 1933, March 24, 1933, August 9, 1933, August 11, 1933, August 12, 1933 (reprinted in Los Angeles Times, August 23, 1933), August 24, 1933, May 14, 1934, July 31, 1934—all as cited in Jerome Edwards, The Foreign Policy of Col. McCormick’s Tribune, 1929-1941 (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1971), pp. 66, 92-94. Joseph Gies, The Colonel of Chicago (New York: Dutton, 1979), pp. 130, 147; Schultz, Germany Will Try It Again, p. x; George Seldes, Tell the Truth and Run, (New York: Greenberg, 1953), p. 114; transcript of recollections of Sigrid Schultz, part II, p. 9.
54. Margaret K. Norden, “American Editorial Response to the Rise of Adolf Hitler: A Preliminary Consideration,” American Jewish Historical Society Quarterly, vol. LVII (October 1968), p. 293.
55. John Evelyn Wrench, Geoffrey Dawson and Our Times, as cited in Shirer, p. 206; Franklin Reid Gannon, The British Press and Germany, 1936-1939 (London: Oxford, 1971), p. 121.
56. New York Times, August 26, 1934, p. 1, August 27, 1934, p. 8. The North American Newspaper Alliance, for which Thompson wrote her column, issued her own report on her expulsion on August 26, 1934. The report was front-page news in many American newspapers. According to Ambassador Dodd, the reasons for her expulsion lay in her interview with Hitler in 1932 and her reports in 1933 condemning Hitler’s antisemitic campaign. Marian K. Sanders, Dorothy Thompson: A Legend in Her Own Times (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1973), pp. 167-168, 200; interview with William Shirer, December 19, 1984.
57. Enrique Hank Lopez, Conversations with Katherine Anne Porter (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969), pp. 175-176, 178, 180; Joan Givner, Katherine Anne Porter: A Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1982), pp. 259-263; Mary Anne Dolan, “Almost Since Chaucer with Miss Porter,” Washington Star, May 11, 1975.
58. Shirer, pp. 189, 193; Edgar Mowrer, p. 225; Lochner, What About Germany? p. 100.
59. Philadelphia Record, March 28, 1933.
60. Edgar Mowrer, p. 224; John Gunther, Inside Europe, (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1937), p. 10.
61. New York Times, August 11, 1935, p. 4.
62. William E. Dodd, Jr., and Martha Dodd, eds., Ambassador Dodd’s Diary, 1933-1938 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1941), pp. 157, 248, 288-289.
63. Dodd to Hull, July 30, 1935, August 20, 1935. For a less critical evaluation of the Hitler regime by an American official, see the report of Military Attaché Truman Smith to the War Department, September 24, 1935, Attaché Reports, reprint 2657-B-780/4, as cited in Shafir, p. 506.
64. New York Times, August 4, 1935, p. 19.
65. Edgar Mowrer, Triumph, p. 233; Dodd and Dodd, pp. 99, 298.
66. New York Times, August 4, 1935, p. 19.
67. Smith, Last Train from Berlin, p. 9, Lilian Mowrer, pp. 288, 313; Nation, October 18, 1933, p. 433; Rhea Clyman, “The Story That Stopped Hitler,” in Brown and Bruner, p. 58.
68. Another American Olympics visitor who would eventually become a virtual spokesman for Nazi Germany was Charles Lindbergh. When he met with reporters, he too lectured them on conditions in Germany. Shirer, pp. 232, 237; Martha Dodd, p. 99.
69. Howard K. Smith, who visited Germany when he was a student, was struck by American students’ failure to grasp the true nature of Nazi Germany. Smith, Last Train from Berlin, p. 9.
70. Memo, Messersmith to Hull, March 25, 1935, DS 862.4016/496, as cited in Shafir, p. 76.
71. Schultz, Germany Will Try It Again, p. 97. The American Commercial Attaché in Berlin, Douglas Miller, revealed that the Nazis even insisted that contracts which Americans signed with German firms had to carry a printed clause to the effect that “this contract is made under National Socialist principles.” Though those principles were never explicitly spelled out, American firms in Germany were often blackmailed into appointing Nazis to their boards and inviting Nazi delegations to the United States to “investigate whether the product was, in fact, Jewish.” Douglas Miller, You Can’t Do Business with Hitler (Boston: Little, Brown, 1941), pp. 88, 197-201.
72. During the winter Olympics Shirer, concerned about the way some American businessmen were responding to Nazism, arranged for them to have lunch with Miller. The “tycoons,” Shirer recalled, “told him what the situation was in Nazi Germany . . . . Miller could scarcely get a word in.” Shirer, p. 232.
73. Business Week, May 24, November 11, 1933, December 8, 1934, September 7, 1935, August 15, 1936, January 2, August 21, 1937, all as cited in Daniel Shepherd Day, “American Opinion of National Socialism, 1933-1937,” Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1958, pp. 112, 124; Harold C. Syrett, “The Business Press and American Neutrality, 1914-1917,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 32 (September 1945), pp. 215-230; Gabriel Kolko, “American Business and Germany, 1930-1941,” Western Political Quarterly, December 1962, pp. 715ff.
74. Miller, p. 194. See Charles Higham, Trading with the Enemy (New York: Delacorte Press, 1983), for a discussion of American business connections with Nazi Germany. Higham demonstrates how American businesses continued to trade with Germany long after Pearl Harbor.
75. Christian Science Monitor, April 18, July 6, July 12, August 2, August 3, August 9, August 24, October 5, October 12, October 19, 1933.
76. Newsweek, July 29, 1933.
77. Armstrong, Hitler’s Reich, pp. 11-12; Los Angeles Times, June 2, August 29, August 31, September 3, October 6, October 14, November 11, 1933; Martha Dodd, pp. 27-28.
78. Chicago Tribune, August 9, August 11, August 12, 1933 (reprinted in Los Angeles Times, August 23, August 24, and August 25, 1933); Edwards, pp. 93-94; Shafir, p. 33.
79. Transcript of recollections of Sigrid Schultz, part II, pp. 7-8.
80. Christian Century, August 16, 1933, pp. 1031-1033.
81. Minneapolis Tribune, July 31, 1935; Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, August 31, 1935; Knoxville Journal, August 8, 1935; Grand Junction (Colorado) Sentinel, October 28, 1935; Harper’s, January 1935, p. 125; Armstrong, Hitler’s Reich, p. 19.
82. Philadelphia Record, March 28, 1933; New York Evening Post, March 27, 1933.
83. Philadelphia Ledger, March 28, 1933; Hartford Courant, March 28, 1933.
84. St. Louis Times Dispatch, March 24, 1933, as cited in The Jews in Nazi Germany, pp. 81-82; Columbus Journal, March 24, 1933; Toledo Times, March 23, 1933.
85. Collier’s, February 11, 1939, p. 12.
1. Saturday Evening Post, June 2, 1934, p. 36.
2. Kansas City Journal Post, July 25, 1935; Cleveland Plain Dealer, July 21, 1935; Davenport (Iowa) Times, July 29, 1935; Terre Haute Star, July 22, 1935.
3. Greensboro (North Carolina) News, July 24, 1935; Wilmington (Delaware) Journal, July 24, 1935.
4. Davenport (Iowa) Times, July 29, 1935; Birmingham (Alabama) Age Herald, July 22, 1935; Dallas News, November 18, 1935.
5. Houston Post, as cited in Literary Digest, April 8, 1933; Chicago Tribune, March 13, September 14, 1932, February 4, March 13, March 24, 1933, May 14, July 31, 1934; Cincinnati Enquirer, November 18, 1935; Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American German Relations, 1933-1945,” Ph.D. diss. (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1971), p. 33; Jerome Edwards, The Foreign Policy of Colonel McCormick’s Tribune, 1929-1941 (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1971), pp. 92-94.
6. Christian Science Monitor, March 28, March 30, 1933; New York Herald Tribune, March 27, 1933, pp. 1, 5, April 1, 1933, p. 1; New York Times, March 27, 1933, p. 4, April 1, 1933, p. 1; Literary Digest, April 8, 1933, p. 3.
7. Christian Science Monitor, April 4, 1933. In its editorial comment of April 2, 1933, the New York Times used a tongue-in-cheek manner and diagnosed millions of Germans as “suffering from malign obsessions, painful hallucinations and nervous disorders of an alarming kind . . . . They forget entirely the impressions which their wild conduct may make upon others. If they hear protests and appeals from the outside world [to stop the terror and boycott], these only heighten their persecution mania.” In his report from Germany, Frederick Birchall observed that the boycott had been limited to one day and said that “one would like to believe this to be a lasthour concession to the sober remonstrances of the few thinking Germans there seem to be left in this maelstrom of ultranationalist frenzy.” This, however, Birchall contended, was not the case. “Instead it must be confessed that the [boycott] movement has been revealed . . . as a triumph of propaganda on a scale never before achieved here, even in wartime.” As a result of the boycott and the preboycott propaganda, the German people had been incited to turn against the Jews. Hostility and hatred toward the Jews had increased significantly. Germans blamed Jews for spreading “atrocity” stories which maligned Germany. Furthermore, Birchall argued, by scaling down the boycott to one day and eliminating many of those who were initially to be boycotted, the government had achieved these ends but had avoided many adverse economic effects. In short, the propaganda objectives had been fulfilled at limited cost. New York Times, April 1, 1933. FRUS, 1933, vol. II, p. 333.
8. Christian Science Monitor, April 4, 1933. This was not the only time that the Christian Science Monitor directly accused Jews of bringing about their own misfortune. It also did so in 1939 when the SS St. Louis was meandering off the Cuban coast looking for a place to unload its Jewish refugee passengers (see Chapter 5). For background on the Christian Science movement see Erwin D. Canham, Commitment to Freedom: The Story of the Christian Science Monitor (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1958), p. 287, and Stephen Gottschalk, The Emergence of Christian Science in American Religious Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), pp. 273-274. There were prominent Social Gospel leaders who were extremely critical of Christian Science. Walter Rauschenbush described it as a “form of selfish spirituality which turned its back on the world.” Rauschenbush, A Theology for the Social Gospel, p. 103, as cited in Gottschalk, pp. 260-261.
9. Ismar Schorsch, Jewish Reactions to German Anti-Semitism, 1870-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), pp. 169-170.
10. Reformed Church Messenger, April 6, 1933, August 24, 1933, pp. 9-11, September 7, 1933, pp. 8-9; Lutheran Companion, September 2, 1933, p. 1105; Moody Bible Institute Monthly, May 1933, p. 392; King’s Business, June 1933, p. 171; Sunday School Times, December 9, 1933, p. 778, all as cited in Robert W. Ross So It Was True (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1980), pp. 33-36.
11. These questions appeared in The Christian Century on April 26, 1933, p. 574. The article, entitled “A Jew Protests Against Protesters,” by Robert E. Asher, appeared April 12, 1933, pp. 492-444. For The Christian Century’s comments urging restraint regarding judging Germany’s treatment of Jews, see April 5, 1933, p. 443. In light of The Christian Century’s eventual attitude toward Jewish immigration and the reports of mass murder, these early comments are instructive.
12. Walter Lippmann, “Today and Tomorrow,” Los Angeles Times, May 19, 1933 (emphasis added). In 1943 George Seldes described Lippmann as one of the two most influential columnists in the United States. (The other, he said, was Westbrook Pegler.) Lippmann was considered by many of his colleagues to be the commentator with the greatest influence on “all men of intelligence.” George Seldes, Facts and Fascism (New York: In Fact Inc., 1943), p. 233. DGFP, series C, The Third Reich, First Phase, I, January-October 1933 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1957), pp. 451-455.
13. David Halberstam, The Powers That Be (New York: Knopf, 1979), p. 370.
14. Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), pp. 191-192, 331. Lippmann rejected an invitation to join the Jewish Academy of Arts and Sciences and later turned down an award from that organization. He explained that he made it an “invariable rule not to accept awards or membership in organizations which have a sectarian character.” Steel, p. 619.
15. Henry Cantril, Public Opinion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), p. 381; Steel, p. 332.
16. Harper’s, January 1935, p. 126.
17. Columbus Dispatch, April 16, 1933.
18. Roosevelt-General Nogues talk, January 17, 1943, FRUS, Casablanca Conference, pp. 608-609. Later the same day Roosevelt repeated this proposal in conversation with General Henri Giraud, of France, ibid., 609-612. Wasserstein notes that at least on one occasion Churchill had expressed similar views. A letter from James de Rothschild to Churchill on May 27, 1938, contained the following statement: “When you spoke with such sympathy last week at Cran-borne about the Jewish situation in Germany, you mentioned that the number of Jews in the various professions and occupations had been, in the days before Hitler, very high in comparison with the proportion which Jews bore to the total population. The idea that this was so was fostered by Nazi propaganda, and has been widely accepted. I am enclosing an article which appeared in the Manchester Guardian of 3rd January 1936, which disproves this by official German statistics.” Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, Companion Vol. 5, The Coming of War (London, 1979), as cited in Bernard Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe, 1939-1945 (London: Institute of Jewish Affairs, 1979), pp. 207-208.
19. Los Angeles Times, March 21, March 25, March 30, April 6, 1933; Columbus (Ohio) Journal, March 24, 1933; Youngstown (Ohio) Vindicator, March 22, 1933; New York Times, March 9, 1933, pp. 1, 10.
20. Los Angeles Times, August 12, 1935, p. 2; Canton (Ohio) Repository, July 24, 1935; Wilmington (Delaware) Journal, July 24, 1935; La Crosse (Wisconsin) Tribune, July 23, 1935.
21. Boston Post, July 29, 1935.
22. Boston Evening Transcript, July 20, 1935; Literary Digest, August 3, 1935, p. 12.
23. A southern paper drew a revealing parallel between the Nazi Party and the Ku Klux Klan. Both organizations were founded, it claimed, by “men who were striving desperately to restore order from chaos. Their aims were good and they accomplished a great deal of good.” Soon, however, they descended into “hoodlumism, mob tyranny and butchery.” According to this theory, Nazi and KKK leaders had tried but been unable to restrain their followers from being swept up by the forces that they had rather innocently unleashed. Winston-Salem (North Carolina) Journal, July 23, 1935.
24. Trenton Times Advertiser, August 4, 1935; New York Herald Tribune, as cited in Birmingham (Alabama) News, July 20, 1935; Dallas Times Herald, July 17, 1935 (emphasis added); Winston-Salem (North Carolina) Journal, July 23, 1935; New York Times, February 21, March 1, August 20, 1935.
25. Atlanta Constitution, November 22, 1938; Hamilton (Ohio) Journal News, November 26, 1938.
26. Newsweek, July 27, 1935, p. 12; New York Times, July 20, 1935, p. 1.
27. Baltimore Sun, July 19, 1935; Davenport (Ohio) Times, July 20, 1935.
28. New York Post, July 17, 1935.
29. Rochester (New York) Democrat and Chronicle, July 22, 1935; Utica (New York) Press, July 19, 1935.
30. Trenton (New Jersey) Star Gazette, July 18, 1935; Jersey City Journal, July 19, 1935.
31. Memo, Dodd to Hull, July 17, 1935, FRUS, 1935, vol. II, p. 402-403; Shafir, p. 481.
32. William L. Shirer, 20th Century Journey: vol. II, The Nightmare Years, 1930-1940 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), p. 137; Time, July 29, 1935, p. 19; Newsweek, July 27, 1935, p. 12.
33. Chicago Tribune, March 13, March 24, 1933; Christian Science Monitor, March 7, 1933, p. 12; Los Angeles Times, March 15, 1933, sec. II, p. 4.
34. Christian Science Monitor March 24, 1933, p. 1. Not all Christian Science Monitor reports were skewed in this direction. A few days later the Christian Science Monitor bureau in Berlin offered a less sanguine picture, one which contradicted Steele’s optimistic assessment. The reporter acknowledged that while there was little active persecution, antisemitism continued in other forms. Newspaper articles attacked Jews. Propaganda designed to elicit hatred of Jews was to be found everywhere. Storm troopers on Berlin streets were to be seen selling pamphlets entitled “Jews demand Hitler’s murder.” Christian Science Monitor, March 27, 1933, pp. 1, 4.
35. New York Times, March 12, 1933, sec. IV, p. 4, July 10, 1933, pp. 1, 10; Nation, July 19, 1933, p. 59.
36. St. Paul Dispatch, Detroit News, St. Louis Post Dispatch, as cited in Literary Digest, April 8, 1933, p. 1.
37. During the same period an official rebuke was given to two towns where Jews had been forced to suffer a variety of indignities including pulling weeds out of a railway bed with their teeth. Goebbels’s and Schmitt’s comments coupled with the reprimand fostered a perception of evolving moderation in the treatment of Jews. However, the day after Schmitt’s remarks were publicized, an unnamed “high ranking German official” made it clear that the Minister of the Economy’s call for a hands-off policy did not represent any deviation from “Nazism’s plan to rear a purely ‘Aryan’ State.” New York Times, September 28, 1933, p. 1; September 29, 1933, pp. 10, 11, 18; Newsweek, October 7, 1933, p. 12.
38. Memo, Dodd to Hull, July 30, 1935, FRUS, 1935, vol. II, pp. 402-403; New York Post, July 31, 1935; Birmingham (Alabama) Herald, July 31, 1935; Washington Star, July 30, 1935.
39. Philadelphia Ledger, July 31, 1935; Pittsfield (Massachusetts) Eagle, July 30, 1935; Louisville Courier Journal, July 31, 1935; Wheeling (West Virginia) Register, July 31, 1935; Memphis Commercial Appeal, July 31, 1935; Galveston (Texas) News, July 31, 1935; Davenport (Ohio) Democrat, July 31, 1935; Schenectady (New York) Gazetteer, August 1, 1935; Syracuse Herald, July 31, 1935.
40. Troy (New York) Record, July 24, 1935; Jackson (Mississippi) Patriot, July 23, 1935; Washington Post, August 4, 1935.
41. Brooklyn Eagle, July 19, 1935; Oakland (California) Tribune, July 23, 1935; Cleveland Plain Dealer, July 21, 1935; Syracuse Post Standard, July 24, 1935.
42. New York Times, July 23, 1935, pp. 1, 18, July 24, 1935, p. 1.
43. Wallace R. Duel, People Under Hitler (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942), p. 4.
44. Birmingham (Alabama) Herald, July 31, 1935; Mobile (Alabama) Press Register, July 21, 1935; Knickerbocker Press (Albany, New York), July 20, 1935; memo, Dodd to Hull, July 30, 1935, FRUS, 1935, vol. II, pp. 402-403.
45. Milwaukee Journal, August 4, 1935.
46. Baltimore Sun, August 1, 1935; New York Post, July 31, 1935; Washington Post, August 4, 1935; Chattanooga Times, August 6, 1935.
47. Andrew Sharf, The British Press and Jews Under Nazi Rule (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 27.
48. Hamilton Fish Armstrong, Hitler’s Reich: The First Phase (New York: Macmillan, 1933), p. 55.
49. Streicher, whom Dodd described as the “greatest Jew baiter of all,” warranted a lengthy dispatch from the embassy to the Secretary of State. On August 15, 1933, the Stürmer editor gave his “maiden speech” in Berlin before a crowd of 12,000 to 14,000. (A few thousand could not get into the hall and listened to the speech over radio in a nearby hall.) Berlin was home for at least one-third of the Jews still in Germany when Streicher gave his speech. According to the American embassy, Streicher’s antisemitic harangue was “not without its significance.” Dodd believed that it reflected a “new offensive against the Jews.” He explained that incidents against Jews “involving physical violence are still occurring constantly but in a lessening degree; mental and spiritual persecution, on a ‘legalized’ basis, much more insidious and far-reaching, is supplanting it.” Memo, Dodd to Hull, July 30, 1935, DS 862.4016/1514; memo, Dodd to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016/1538; memo, Dodd to Hull, September 7, 1935, DS 862.4016/1550; Newsweek, August 24, 1935, p. 16.
Those who interpreted the antisemitic outbreaks, including the riots, as simply a manifestation of tension between extremists and moderates found their position bolstered by the statements of Hjalmar Schacht. Schacht, who remained the American press’s favorite German “moderate” until his ouster from power in 1939, criticized the extralegal actions of those such as the July rioters. However, he condoned legal antisemitism. When he was contrasted with someone like Streicher, it was easy to portray Schacht as a moderate. Newsweek praised him for his good courage and his willingness to criticize some of the antisemitic outbreaks. Newsweek, August 24, 1935. The Cleveland News went so far as to fret that he may have endangered himself by his outspoken comments. It cautioned him to be more judicious in his criticism. Cleveland News, August 20, 1935.
It is true that Schacht was a far more appealing and moderate character than Streicher or Goebbels. However, he supported measures which would not have bloodied Jews in the street but would have forced them into a modern ghetto. Schacht’s suggestions would have left Jews so economically deprived that they would have had to endure a living death. He advocated the slow and regulated institution of economic legislation against the Jews. He wished to avoid the foreign boycotts and financial disruptions which threatened to ensue each time there was an outbreak of violence. His position was predicated on financial calculations. He rarely differed with the basic antisemitic ideology of the party or its objective of eradicating the German Jewish community. In fact one of the most immediate results of the 1935 party rally at which the Nuremberg Laws were announced was a “stiffening of antisemitism” in Schact’s domain. Among other things, he gave notice to officials in the Reichsbank who were married to Jewish women. Dodd to Hull, September 26, 1935, DS 862.4016/1561. See also Hjalmar Schacht, My First Seventy-Six Years: The Autobiography of Hjalmar Schacht (London: Allan Hacht, 1955), p. 347.
One of the few press voices to demur from the general praise of Schacht was the New York Times. Although prior to the riots it had described him as a moderating influence, subsequently it accused him of wryly playing two games at one time. On one hand, he was genuinely concerned about the repercussions of a foreign boycott; on the other hand, he was also trying to establish an alibi in the face of economic collapse. It was wrong, the Times argued, to call him a humanitarian when, although he might decry wanton public attacks on Jews, he did not object to private persecution as long as it did not result in foreign repercussions. New York Times, February 21, March 1, August 20, 1935.
Christian Century took a similar stance. Schacht’s statements were for “foreign consumption, since if he had any convictions . . . he would have resigned long ago.” More of a pragmatist than a moderate, Schacht emerged as a popular figure in the American press because he could be so favorably compared with the other unsavory characters at the helm of the Germany state. He represented the elite, educated “good German” from whom, Americans hoped, would come the sanity and rational thinking then absent in Germany. Christian Century, September 11, 1935.
50. Prior to the events of the latter half of 1935, particularly the riots and the Nuremberg decrees, there had even been some confusion in the ranks of the German Jewish community as to whether their future was to be in Germany or outside of it. The rate of emigration slowed down markedly. In the first year of the Hitler regime 50,000 Jews left the Reich. In 1934 only 25,000 departed, and in fact many who had left returned. Some of the returnees were placed in concentration camps. As a result of what took place on July 15, 1935, and through November of that year, when the second set of laws governing Jewish rights of citizenship were issued, many leaders of the German Jewish community abandoned any hope for the survival of their community under Nazi rule. For expressions of pessimism on the part of German Jews, see Dodd to Hull, September 7, 1935, DS 862.4016/1550. See also Consul General Douglas Jenkins to Hull, November 4, 1935, FRUS, 1935, vol. II, pp. 292-293. For examples of the treatment of young German Jews who returned to their country from a foreign state, see memo, Consul General Samuel Honaker to Hull, August 23, 1935, DS 862.4016/1543. See also American Jewish Year Book, vol. 37, pp. 183-185, vol. 38, p. 320; Shafir, pp. 476-477.
Shortly after the riots, when rumors were rife about laws which would affect the status of the Jew in Germany, even the American embassy subscribed to the scapegoat explanation. It reported to Secretary of State Hull that “the tenets of the Party include making the Jew a scapegoat at a time when it is beset by serious internal difficulties. In this connection it is noticeable that even the lower class Germans have frequently been heard to express the view that intensive Jew-baiting is intended to divert attention from financial difficulties and domestic political opposition.” Memo, White to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016/1538.
51. Literary Digest, June 18, 1932, p. 19; Edgar Mowrer, Germany Puts the Clock Back (New York: Morrow, 1933), p. 239.
52. Cleveland News, September 17, 1935; Cincinnati Enquirer, September 18, 1935; Boston Transcript, September 16, 1935; Macon (Georgia) Telegraph, September 19, 1935; Flint (Michigan) Journal, September 19, 1935; Pueblo Springs (Colorado) Gazetteer, September 18, 1935; Fort Worth (Texas) Star Telegraph, September 19, 1935; Memphis Commercial Appeal, September 18, 1935; Denver News, September 21, 1935; Newsweek, September 21, 1935. Many papers which had not previously commented on Nazi persecution did so on the occasion of the Nuremburg Laws. Shirer, Nightmare Years, p. 226.
53. New York Herald Tribune, July 28, 1935; New York Sun, August 2, 1935; Washington Post, August 1, 1935; Lynchburg (Virginia) News, August 2, 1935; Richmond Times Dispatch, August 4, 1935; Kenosha (Wisconsin) News, September 9, 1935; Easton (Pennsylvania) Express. September 10, 1935.
54. Newsweek, September 21, 1935, p. 12.
55. Los Angeles Times, September 16, 1935. The headline in the New York Herald Tribune did make the ban on citizenship the lead item, but it referred to the change in flag twice:
MAKE SWASTIKA SOLE FLAG
IN REPLY TO N.Y. ‘INSULT’
SUBSERVIENT REICHSTAG IN EXTRA SESSION
OUTLAWS MIXED MARRIAGES, PUTS JEWS BACK IN MIDDLE
AGES
Memel ‘Tortures’ Decried by Hitler
World Anti-Jewish Flag ‘Insulted’ by Semites in New York
Replaces the Reich Imperial Banner
New York Herald Tribune, September 16, 1935.
56. Washington Herald, September 16, 1935.
57. New York Times, September 16, 1935.
58. Baltimore Sun, September 16, 1935.
59. Christian Science Monitor, September 16, 1935, p. 10.
60. In another example of an obfuscated reaction to the news, the Troy (New York) Record, September 17, 1935, believed the most important part of the laws was the limits placed on Jewish children’s education. “One might digest some of these proscriptions without gagging if it were not for the inhuman Asiatic practice recently embraced in Germany, of punishing children for fancied shortcomings of their ancestors.” The Record decried punishing children whose parents “are socially objectionable” (emphasis added). The Record’s description of Jews as “socially objectionable” indicated failure to comprehend the demonic place Jews occupied in Nazi ideology. The paper compared their treatment with Stalinist treatment of middle-class children and concluded the lot of Russian children was more trying because they were denied any education, while the Nazis promised state aid for “separate Jewish taught schools.” See also Meridan (Mississippi) Star, September 18, 1935; Beaumont (Texas) Enterprise, September 16, 1935; Boston Transcript, September 16, 1935.
61. Cleveland News, September 17, 1935.
62. New York Times, September 22, 1935.
63. Christian Science Monitor, October 17, 1935. See also Memo, Dodd to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016/1538.
64. Boston Transcript, September 16, 1935.
65. Diplomatic dispatches from the period indicate that as a result of previously issued antisemitic legislation the status of the Jew was quite dire. See, for example, report by Ralph C. Busser, American Consul in Leipzig, July 22, 1935, DS 862.4016/1503; report by American Consul General in Stuttgart Samuel W. Honaker, August 23, 1935, DS 862.4016/1543; memo, Dodd to Hull, October 17, 1935, DS 862.4016/1568.
66. Memphis Commercial Appeal, September 18, 1935.
67. New York Times, September 1, 1935, p. 12. Memo, Chargé in Germany J. C. White to Hull, August 20, 1935, DS 862.4016/1538; Dodd to Hull, September 26, 1935, DS 862.4016/1561.
68. Los Angeles Times, September 18, 1935, sec. II, p. 4; St. Louis Post Dispatch, November 17, 1935; Cincinnati Enquirer, September 18, November 18, 1935.
69. St. Louis Post Dispatch, May 22, 1935; Margaret K. Norden, “American Editorial Response to the Rise of Adolf Hitler: A Preliminary Consideration,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 30 (October 1968), pp. 290-301.
70. Memo, Dodd to Hull, September 26, 1935, DS 862.4016/1561; memo, Dodd to Hull, October 31, 1935, DS 862.4016/1573; Voelkischer Beobachter, October 23, 1935, as cited in Eliahu Ben Elissar, La Diplomatie du III Reich et les Juifs, 1933-1939 (Paris-Julliard, 1969), pp. 160-162.
1. New York Times, May 29, 1933.
2. New York Times, June 8, 1933, p. 1.
3. Richard D. Mandell, The Nazi Olympics (New York: Ballantine Books, 1971), p. 78. The Amateur Athletic Union of the United States (AAU) was scheduled to meet in November 1933. At that meeting, in a near-unanimous vote, it agreed not to certify athletes for the Games unless Germany’s position regarding Jewish athletes changed “in fact as well as in theory.” The AAU stated that the German Olympic Committee had violated the ideals of the Olympic Games and of sports competition by depriving German Jews of the right to “prepare for and participate in” Olympic competition. New York Times, November 21, 1933, p. 1, November 22, 1933, p. 28; Nation, November 29, 1933, p. 607; Literary Digest, December 2, 1933, p. 22.
4. Newsweek, April 22, 1933, p. 13. On July 2, 1933, the Nazi Minister of Education announced that Jews would henceforth be excluded from youth, welfare, and gymnastic organizations and that use of the facilities of all athletic clubs would be denied to them. Later that month Jews were forbidden from serving as lifeguards in Breslau. Eventually all swimming resorts were closed to them. It was not long before Jews who wished to train for the Games found the requisite playing fields and training camps off limits. Mandell, pp. 64-66; New York Times, November 28, 1933, p. 25.
5. Mandell, p. 81; Arthur Morse, While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 174; Eliahu Ben Elissar, La Diplomatie du III Reich et les Juifs (Paris: Julliard, 1969), pp. 167-170; Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American-German Relations, 1933-1939,” pp. 581, 584-585; New York Times, November 27, 1935, p. 14.
6. Literary Digest, July 11, 1936, p. 35; New York Times, November 23, November 26, December 1, 1933, October 22, p. 1, October 23, 1935; Grand Junction (Colorado) Sentinel, October 29, 1935.
Sherrill’s resignation from his ambassadorial post had been “joyfully accepted” by the State Department. See entry for January 11, 1934, Phillips Diary, Phillips Papers, as quoted in Shafir, p. 584; memo of Sherrill’s visit to Hitler in Munich on August 24, 1935, in Roosevelt Papers, President’s Secretary’s File, box 7, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y., Elissar, pp. 173-175; Morse, pp. 181-182; New York Times, September 27, 1934, p. 28.
7. Morse, p. 174; list of places forbidden to Jews is contained in Ambassador Dodd’s dispatch, May 17, 1935, DS 862.4016/1457. From the middle of 1933 on, warnings had come from American embassy officials in Germany, particularly George Messersmith, to the effect that German promises could not be trusted regarding Jewish participation in the Games. Memo, Messersmith to Hull, June 17, 1933, DS 862.4016/1181, and November 28, 1933, DS 862.4063/01 Games 1, as cited in Shafir, p. 581.
8. New York Times, December 7, 1934, p. 31, August 2, 1935, p. 8.
9. William Johnson, All That Glitters Is Not Gold (New York: Putnam, 1972), p. 176.
10. Ibid.
11. New York Times, August 12, 1935, p. 1; memo, Dodd to Hull, December 10, 1935, DS 765.84/3007, as cited in Shafir, p. 587.
12. H. J. Resolution 381 opposing the expenditure of public funds on the Olympics was introduced by Emanuel Celler of New York on August 16, 1935. Congressional Record, 74th Cong., 1st sess., 1935, 79, part 12 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1935), 13332; New York Times, August 16, 1935, p. 4.
13. Springfield (Massachusetts) News, July 27, 1935.
14. Commonweal, August 16, 1935; Norfolk (Virginia) Pilot, August 8, 1935.
15. Norfolk Pilot, August 24, 1935.
16. New York World Telegram, September 16, 1935; Troy Record, September 9, 1935; East St. Louis Journal, August 8, 1935; Trenton Gazette, August 10, 1935.
17. New York World Telegram, September 16, 1935.
18. Boston Globe, July 30, 1935.
19. Trenton Gazette, August 10, 1935.
20. Springfield (Illinois) Journal, August 11, 1935.
21. Johnson, pp. 175–176. Allentown (Pennsylvania) Call, September 8, 1935.
22. Saturday Evening Post, May 6, 1933, p. 71.
23. Chicago Tribune, July 5, 1936, p. 16.
24. Des Moines Register, November 5, 1935.
25. Superior (Wisconsin) Telegram, August 5, 1935; Seattle Star, August 7, 1935; Lawrence (Massachusetts) Eagle, August 1, 1935.
26. Atlanta Constitution, August 25, 1935.
27. Milwaukee Herald, September 10, 1935; Christian Century, August 7, 1935, p. 1007, August 14, 1935, p. 1028.
28. New York Times July 12, 1936. Memo, Dodd to Hull, January 30, 1936, DS 862.4016/1610; Messersmith to Hull, November 15, 1934, DS 862.4063/01. G. 57; Messersmith to Phillips, November 30, 1935, DS 862.00/3573; Messersmith to Geist, November 12, 1935, Frankfurter Papers, box 25, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., as cited in Shafir, p. 587.
29. Minneapolis Star, August 8, 1935; St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette, August 1, 1935. Bang was quoted in a “roundup” of sports writers’ opinions in the Knoxville Journal, November 8, 1935.
30. Lansing (Michigan) Journal, August 7, 1935; Wheeling (West Virginia) News Register, September 10, 1935.
31. Charleston (South Carolina) Post, August 6, 1935; Morse, pp. 359-360; Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue (New York: Waldon Press, 1970), p. 257.
32. Mandell, pp. 68, 77-78.
33. Dodd to Hull, January 30, 1936, DS 862.4016/1610. See also FRUS, 1936, vol. II, p. 197.
34. Charleston (South Carolina) Post, August 6, 1935.
35. Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, October 23, 1935; Albany Press, November 1, 1935; Charleston Post, August 5, 1935; Memo, Dodd to Hull, October 31, 1935, DS 862.4016/1573.
36. Los Angeles Times, August 7, 1935.
37. Los Angeles Times, September 13, 1935.
38. Mobile (Alabama) Register, November 9, 1935.
39. Literary Digest, August 31, 1935.
40. New York World Telegram, February 17, February 19, 1936; Mandell, pp. 87-88; Washington Post, August 3, 1936, p. 7, August 5, 1936, p. 7.
41. Los Angeles Times, September 9, 1935.
42. William L. Shirer, 20th Century Journey: A Memoir of a Life and the Times, vol. II, The Nightmare Years, 1930-1940 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1984), p. 233; author’s interview with William Shirer, December 19, 1984.
43. New York Times, October 22, November 4, 1935.
44. Compare the New York Times editorial of October 22, 1935, with that of Christian Century August 7, 1935. Commonweal, August 9, 1935; Waterbury Evening Democrat, August 30, 1935; New York American, October 7, October 17, 1935; New York Evening Post, October 22, 1935; Amsterdam News, August 23, 1935; South Bend (Indiana) News Times, September 26, 1935; Troy (New York) Record, September 9, 1935, as cited in Margaret K. Norden, “American Editorial Response to the Rise of Adolf Hitler: A Preliminary Consideration,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. 30 (October 1968), p. 295. For additional expressions of opposition to the Games see Patterson (New Jersey) Call, October 11, 1935, Wichita (Kansas) Beacon, October 18, 1935, and Dallas Times Herald, October 19, 1935.
45. Moshe Gottlieb, “The American Controversy over the Olympic Games,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly, vol. LXI (March 1972), p. 207; New York Times, October 1, October 22, 1935; Los Angeles Times, October 15, 1935; Economic Bulletin, November 1935, p. 6.
46. Easton (Pennsylvania) Express, October 24, 1935; Boise (Idaho) Statesman, October 23, 1935; Worcester Post, October 29, 1935. Sherrill to Louis Rittenberg, October 3, 1935, Felix M. Warburg Papers, box 331, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio; Shafir, p. 586; Gottlieb, pp. 188-189. For Brundage’s comments see Los Angeles Times, December 10, 1935, January 26, 1936. Wheeling (West Virginia) Register, December 8, 1935; New York Times, July 16, 1936.
47. Commonweal, November 8, 1935, p. 40, and November 29, 1935; Christian Century, August 7, 1935, p. 1007, and August 14, 1935; New York Times, October 22, 1935.
48. New York Times, October 23, 1935; Committee on Fair Play in Sports, Preserve the Olympic Ideal: A Statement Against American Participation in the Olympic Games in Berlin (New York, 1935), pp. 31-32.
49. Rochester (New York) Democrat and Chronicle, August 31, 1935; Los Angeles Times, August 7, 1935; Knoxville Journal, November 8, 1935.
50. Knoxville Journal, November 8, 1935; Time, November 4, 1935, pp. 61-62; Mandell, pp. 77-78, 86-87; Catholic World, January 1936, p. 394.
51. Christian Century, August 7, 1935, p. 1007, August 14, 1935, August 28, 1935, p. 1075; New York Times, August 5, 1935, p. 7.
52. George Messersmith wrote to Julian Mack, the Federal Judge and Zionist leader, appealing for public opposition to participation. When Mack relayed Messersmith’s sentiments to President Roosevelt, FDR described the American envoy as “one of the best men we have in the whole [Diplomatic] Service and I count greatly on his judgement.” Memo, Mack to Roosevelt, December 2, 1935, and Roosevelt to Mack, December 4, 1935, in Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs, vol. III, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969), p. 111; Memo, Dodd to Hull, October 11, 1935, DS 862.4063/01 G. 49; Dodd to Hull, December 10, 1935, DS 765.84/3007; Messersmith to Hull, November 15, 1934, DS 862.4063/01 G. 57; Shafir, 587.
53. New York Times, November 18, November 27, 1935.
54. Brooklyn Citizen, November 27, 1935; Troy (New York) Times Record, November 27, 1935; Washington Post, November 23, 1935; Philadelphia Record, December 2, 1935; Los Angeles Times, December 8, 1935.
55. Nation, October 16, 1935, p. 426, October 23, 1935, p. 461. Approximately 150 editorials were examined regarding the Olympic Games. Two-thirds of these favored a boycott and one-third opposed one.
56. Gottlieb, pp. 208-209; Los Angeles Times, November 28, December 2, 1935; New York Times, September 22, December 7, December 9, 1935.
57. Philadelphia Record, December 10, 1935; Washington Post, December 10, 1935; Hartford (Connecticut) Times, December 10, 1935; Indianapolis Star, December 12, 1935; Christian Science Monitor, December 11, 1935.
58. Wheeling (West Virginia) Register, December 9, 1935.
59. Philadelphia Record, December 10, 1935.
60. Los Angeles Times, December 9, 1935.
61. The Nation, August 1, 1936, p. 124; New York Times, August 16, 1936; interview with William Shirer, December 19, 1984.
62. Time, August 10, 1936, p. 40; August 17, 1936, p. 37; August 24, 1936, pp. 56-58.
63. Literary Digest, July 11, August 29, 1936; Los Angeles Times, July 14, 1936.
64. Chicago Tribune, July 5, 1936; Los Angeles Times, July 5, 1936, sec. II, p. 11, July 18, 1936, p. 13; Time, August 10, 1936, p. 40; New York Times, August 16, 1936. It is true that the more ostensibly anti-Jewish placards and newspapers did “disappear” for the duration of the Games. However, Streicher’s antisemitic journal Stürmer not only appeared but had on its cover a cartoon occupying half a page showing a “degenerate and brutal person labeled ‘Jew’ staring with envy and hatred at a German looking victor crowned with laurel.” At the bottom of the page in heavy black letters was the slogan “Jews are our Misfortune.” The issue contained a special article directed at foreign visitors, with long series of quotes from dead and living foreign antisemites. New York Times, July 30, 1936; Mandell, p. 159.
No American paper seemed to have been as taken with the Games as the French Ambassador to Germany, who declared them “the apotheosis of Hitler and his Third Reich.” André François-Poncet, The Fateful Years: Memoirs of a French Ambassador in Berlin, 1931-1938 (New York, 1949), pp. 203-207; Robert Dallek, Democrat and Diplomat: The Life of William E. Dodd (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 288; Franklin Ried Gannon, The British Press and Germany, 1936-1939 (London: Oxford, 1971), p. 102.
65. Washington Post, July 25, 1936; Los Angeles Times, July 27, 1936, sec. II, p. 9.
66. Los Angeles Times, July 27, 1936, sec. II, p. 9, August 2, 1936, p. 1 and sec. II, p. 11, August 4, 1936, sec. II, p. 4.
67. Washington Post, February 17, 1936; New York Times, August 14, 1936; Los Angeles Times, July 18, July 31, August 7, 1936. Gallico was then one of the highest paid and most respected sports writers in the country. When he covered the competition at Garmisch, he was about to leave sports writing to take up a career as a writer. Shirer, Nightmare Years, p. 235.
68. Literary Digest, July 11, 1936, p. 33.
69. New York Times, July 6, 1936, p. 14.
70. Time, February 17, 1936, p. 37; New York Times, July 12, July 18, July 31, 1936, August 1, 1936, p. 1, August 2, 1936, p. 1, August 16, 1936.
71. New York Times, August 3, 16, 1936.
72. Washington Post, July 30, 1936, sports section, p. 1.
73. Los Angeles Times, August 2, 1936, sports section, p. 1; William Shirer, Berlin Diary, (New York: Knopf, 1941), author’s interview with William Shirer, December 19, 1984; Mandell, p. 108.
74. Washington Post, February 9, 1936, August 2, 1936, p. 7.
75. Washington Post, August 3, 1936, p. 7.
76. Washington Post, August 5, 1936, p. 7, August 6, 1936, p. 17, August 16, 1936, part B, p. 5; August 17, 1936, p. 7.
77. For treatment of Owens see: Time, August 17, 1936, p. 37; Washington Post, August 6, 1936, p. 1; Washington Post, July 31, 1936; New York Times, August 3, 1936, p. 1, August 4, 1936, p. 1; Nation, August 15, 1936, p. 185; Literary Digest, August 29, 1936, p. 33.
78. Wise to Brandeis, October 6, 1936, Brandeis Collection, roll 26, as quoted in Shafir, pp. 593-594. After the Games, Ambassador Dodd was far less sanguine than his boss, the President. He reported to Washington that the “Jewish population awaits with fear and trembling the termination of the Olympic period which has vouchsafed on them a certain respite against molestation.” He doubted that the Nazis would be “quite so foolish” as to immediately resume their “spectacular” antisemitic activities and thereby “spoil the good impression” they had made on foreign opinion by the Games. Some of the press echoed Dodd’s fears. Actually the Nazis waited a while before actively pursuing their antisemitic campaign. The Games marked the beginning of a slight pause in the persecution of the Jews. “Political Report of the Ambassador in Germany,” FRUS, 1936, vol. II, August 19, 1936, p. 202. Williamsport (Pennsylvania) Sun, July 29, 1936.
79. Shirer, Nightmare Years, p. 232.
80. Interview with Howard K. Smith, February 27, 1985.
81. Mandell, p. 118.
1. New York Times, March 23, April 3, 1938. Gedye’s report of April 3 was cited by State Department official George Messersmith as a reliable description of what was happening in Vienna. It was, Messersmith wrote in a personal letter, “an unspeakably horrible situation.” George Messersmith to Jacob Billikopf, April 4, 1938, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio. His article and the fact that he was ordered out of Austria by the Nazis for his reports were also mentioned by some papers in their editorials. See, for example, San Jose Mercury Herald, April 9, 1938.
2. For listing of editorials see the Press Information Bulletin, March 24 through April 14, 1938. Bulletins are to be found in Franklin D. Roosevelt Papers, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, N.Y.
3. Shlomo Shafir, “The Impact of the Jewish Crisis on American-Jewish Relations, 1933-1939,” Ph.D. diss. (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1971), pp. 696-697; Dieckhoff to Foreign Ministry, March 22, 1938, DGFP, series D, I, pp. 696-697.
4. Detroit Free Press, March 23, 1938.
5. Greensboro (North Carolina) Record, March 24, 1938.
6. Newsweek, April 4, 1938, p. 11; Miami Herald, March 26, 1938; Trenton (New Jersey) Gazette, March 26, 1938.
7. Trenton (New Jersey) Gazette, March 26, 1938; Mobile (Alabama) Register, March 25, 1938.
8. Newsweek, April 4, 1938; Lansing (Michigan) Journal, March 27, 1938. For a detailed description of Freud’s treatment by the Nazis, see Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (New York, Basic Books, 1961), pp. 512-518.
9. FRUS, 1938, vol. I, pp. 740-741. “The Press Conferences of President Franklin D. Roosevelt,” XI (March 25, 1938), 248-250; David S. Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), p. 43. The President announced that the conference would attempt to alleviate the situation of all political refugees, including those from Russia, Spain, and Italy, and not just Jews. This may have been an attempt to diffuse some of the criticism that he believed would be leveled at the plan for the conference. Roosevelt may have also reasoned that this broad approach was a way of winning the support of those who were concerned about Spanish or Russian refugees. At any rate it misfired. Certain papers cited it as a means of camouflaging the fact that these were mainly Jewish refugees, while others complained that it was a sign that the plan was but the beginning of a broad liberalization of immigration. Roosevelt Press Conference, March 25, 1938; Chattanooga Times, March 26, 1938; Huntington (West Virginia) Advertiser, March 25, 1938.
10. The German quota was not filled from 1930, when quotas were first instituted, until 1939. The allowance for Germany was 25,957; after the Anschluss it was combined with the Austrian quota for a total of 27,360. The following table shows the number of immigrants who entered under the German quota during the first five years of Nazi rule:
1933 |
1,445 |
1934 |
3,744 |
1935 |
5,532 |
1936 |
6,642 |
1937 |
11,536 |
See Louis Adamic, America and the Refugees, pp. 10-11, and Lewis and Marian Shibsby, “Status of the Refugee Under American Immigration Laws,” Annals, CCIII, May 1939, 78ff., both cited in Henry L. Feingold, The Politics of Rescue: The Roosevelt Administration and the Holocaust, 1938-1945 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 313, n. 39.
11. Achilles memorandum on refugee program under cover memo from Butler to Duggan and Drew November 15, 1938, DS 840.48 Ref./900 1/2, as cited in Shafir, p. 702.
12. Paterson (New Jersey) News, March 28, 1938; El Paso Times, March 27, 1938; Portland Oregonian, March 25, 1938.
13. Time, April 4, 1938, p. 12; Memphis Commercial Appeal, March 27, 1938; Pasadena Star News, March 26, 1938.
14. Memphis Commercial Appeal, March 27, 1938; Dayton (Ohio) News, March 29, 1938.
15. Charleston (South Carolina) News and Courier, March 29, 1938.
16. FRUS, 1938, vol. 1, pp. 740-741; Birmingham Age Herald, March 29, 1938; Providence Journal, March 28, 1938; Paterson News, March 28, 1938.
17. There were of course those who were not reassured by these stipulations. In addition, many papers were buoyed by their belief that through America’s gates would come a stream of “brainy men,” the Einsteins and Freuds, the “brilliant minds of the old world.” Augusta (Georgia) Chronicle, March 27, 1938; Memphis Commercial Appeal, March 27, 1938; Boston Globe, March 28, 1938; La Crosse (Wisconsin) Tribune, March 30, 1938; Cincinnati Enquirer, March 30, 1938; Jacksonville (Florida) Journal, March 31, 1938; Indianapolis News, March 26, 1938.
18. New Bedford (Massachusetts) Standard Times, March 28, 1938; Greenville (South Carolina) News, March 27, 1938; Butte (Montana) Post, April 2, 1938; Indianapolis News, March 31, 1938.
19. Norman Bentwich, Wanderer Between Two Worlds (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1941), pp. 185-186; Shafir, p. 700.
20. South Bend (Indiana) Tribune, April 2, 1938; Jacksonville (Florida) Journal, March 31, 1938.
21. Salem (Oregon) Journal, March 30, 1938; Time, April 4, 1938, p. 12.
22. Roosevelt to Frankfurter March 26, 1938, as quoted in Shafir, pp. 705-706.
23. Time, April 4, 1938, pp. 11-12; Newsweek, April 4, 1938, pp. 10-11. Wyman interview with George L. Warren, former executive secretary of the President’s Advisory Committee on Political Refugees, corroborates this view that the plan for the conference and the conference itself were part of the design to move America away from its strictly isolationist stance. See Wyman, pp. 44, 236, n. 2.
24. For delineation of groups which opposed the plan see Wyman, pp. 46-47; Shafir, pp. 715-716. Jackson (Michigan) Citizen Patriot, April 3, 1938.
25. Binghamton Press, March 26, 1938.
26. Youngstown (Ohio) Vindicator, March 26, 1938; Milwaukee (Wisconsin) Journal, March 30, 1938; Missoula (Montana) Missoulian, April 5, 1938.
27. Milwaukee Journal, March 28, 1938; Ft. Wayne News Sentinel, March 29, 1938.
28. Milwaukee Journal, March 30, 1938.
29. Portland (Oregon) News Telegram, March 30, 1938.
30. Detroit News, April 5, 1938.
31. Christian Century, November 30, 1938, pp. 1456-1459.
32. Holyoke (Massachusetts) Trans-Telegram, November 16, 1938.
33. Newsweek, June 27, 1938, p. 16. Proceedings of the Intergovernmental Committee, Evian, July 6-15, 1938, Verbatim Record of the Plenary Meetings of the Committee, Resolution and Reports, July 1938.
34. New York Times, July 6, 1938, p. 1; Newsweek, July 18, 1938, p. 13.
35. Little Rock Gazette, July 8, 1938.
36. Lewiston (Idaho) Tribune, July 7, 1938; San Francisco Chronicle, July 9, 1938; New York Times, July 6, 1938.
37. Washington Post, July 3, 1938; Houston Chronicle, July 7, 1938; Providence (Rhode Island) Journal, July 11, 1938; Boston Herald, July 13, 1938.
38. New Orleans Times Picayune, July 15, 1938; Houston Chronicle, July 7, 1938; Chattanooga Times, July 18, 1938.
39. Salt Lake City Tribune, July 8, 1938.
40. Philadelphia Record, July 17, 1938.
41. Baltimore Sun, July 16, 1938; Boston Transcript, July 18, 1938; Cincinnati Enquirer, July 18, 1938.
42. Utica (New York) Observer Dispatch, July 11, 1938; El Paso Times, July 8, 1938.
43. Detroit Free Press, July 11, 1938.
44. Galveston Texas News, July 9, 1938.
45. Norfolk (Virginia) Pilot, July 10, 1938; Buffalo Courier Express, July 14, 1938.
46. Time, July 18, 1938, p. 16; New York Herald Tribune, July 12, 1938.
47. New York Times, July 8, 1938.
48. New Republic, July 20, 1938, pp. 291-292.
49. Richmond News Leader, July 13, 1938.
50. Philadelphia Record, July 17, 1938.
51. Newsweek, July 18, 1938, p. 13.
52. Washington Star, July 13, 1938. See also Washington Post, July 10, 1935.
53. New York Herald Tribune, July 17, 1938; New York Times, July 14, 1938; Boston Transcript, July 9, 1938; Houston Chronicle, July 18, 1938; Buffalo News, July 18, 1938; Newark Star Eagle, July 22, 1938; Albany Knickerbocker News, July 11, 1938; San Francisco Chronicle, July 18, 1938.
54. Fortune, July 1938, pp. 80-82.
55. Tulsa (Oklahoma) World, July 15, 1938; Erie (Pennsylvania) Dispatch Herald, July 15, 1938; Springfield (Illinois) Journal, July 17, 1938.
56. Los Angeles Examiner, November 16, 1938; San Francisco Chronicle, November 16, 1938; Seattle Post Intelligencer, November 17, 1938.
57. Newsweek, June 27, 1938, p. 16; Lionel Kochan, Pogrom, 10 November 1938 (London: Andre Deutsch, 1957), p. 127; DGFP, series D, IV, 1938, pp. 639-640.
58. New York Times, November 13, 1938; Bill Graves to Roosevelt, November 12, 1938, DS 862.4016/1826, as cited in Shafir, p. 819; Sander Diamond, “The Kristallnacht and the Reaction in America,” YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science, vol. XIV (1969), pp. 200-203.
59. For the sheer mass of comment see Press Information Bulletin for the period from November 10 to early December 1938.
60. Newsweek, November 21, 1938, p. 18; Nation, July 5, 1933, p. 2.
61. Kochan, p. 11.
62. KnoxvilleJournal, November 15, 1938; Butte (Montana) Post, November 23, 1938; New Haven Journal Courier, November 23, 1938; Washington Times, November 15, 1938.
63. New York Daily News, November 15, 1938, p. 27.
64. Wilmington (Delaware) News, November 13, 1938; Newsweek, November 21, 1938, p. 18; Kochan, p. 15.
65. Dallas Times Herald, November 16, 1938; Denver News, November 17, 1938; Philadelphia Bulletin, November 22, 1938; Pittsburgh Press, November 16, 1938; Macon (Georgia) Telegraph and News, November 20, 1938; Portland (Oregon) Journal, November 18, 1938.
66. Virginian Pilot, November 15, 1938; Charleston (West Virginia) Gazette, November 25, 1938; Phoenix Republic, November 19, 1938; New York Evening Post, November 17, 1938; Philadelphia Record, November 18, 1938; San Antonio (Texas) Express, November 23, 1938; Schenectady Gazette, November 25, 1938.
67. Fort Worth Star Telegram, November 19, 1938.
68. Lynchburg (Virginia) News, November 28, 1938; Richmond News Leader, November 22, 1938; East St. Louis Journal, November 21, 1938; Binghamton (New York) Sun, November 22, 1938; Chester (Pennsylvania) Times, November 20, 1938; Troy (New York) Record, November 22, 1938.
69. Gary (Indiana) Post Tribune, November 16, 1938; Denver News, November 23, 1938; Waco (Texas) News Herald, November 22, 1938; Rapid City News Journal, November 23, 1938; Gadsden (Alabama) Times, November 20, 1938; Richmond News Leader, November 22, 1938; Houston Press, November 17, 1938; Ogden (Vermont) Standard Examiner, November 24, 1938.
70. New York Times, November 16, 1938, p. 22.
71. Cleveland Plain Dealer, as cited in New York Times, November 12, 1938; Nation, January 7, 1939; Rutland (Vermont) Herald, November 24, 1938; New Orleans Times Picayune, November 16, 1938; Paterson (New Jersey) News, November 18, 1938; Fort Worth (Texas) Star Telegram, November 17, 1938; Portland Oregonian, November 17, 1938; Canton (Ohio) Repository, November 18, 1938; St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette, November 18, 1938; Tacoma (Washington) News Tribune, November 26, 1938; Pittsfield Berkshire Eagle, November 19, 1938.
72. St. Louis Post Dispatch, November 25, 1938; Baltimore Evening Sun, November 14, 1938.
73. New York Times, November 14, 1938, p. 18; see also Christian Science Monitor, November 15, 1938, pp. 1, 5; Cleveland Plain Dealer, as quoted in Los Angeles Times, November 17, 1938, p. 4; Nation, January 7, 1939, pp. 33-35. This was also one of the major theses of Soviet reports regarding Kristallnacht. The attacks were, a Pravda editorial concluded, a “direct result of the hopeless position in which the Fascist dictatorship has found itself.” Pravda, November 16, 1938, as cited in Kochan, p. 137.
74. Saturday Evening Post, April 22, 1939, p. 104.
75. Interview with Senator Alan Cranston, May 7, 1985.
76. Staatzeitung und Herald, as quoted in Nineteenth Century, January 1939, p. 120; Contemporary Jewish Record, January 1939, p. 42; Springfield Republican, as quoted in New York Times, November 12, 1938, p. 4; Tampa Tribune, November 15, 1938; Helena (Montana) Independent, November 15, 1938; Hamilton (Ohio) Journal News, November 19, 1938; Springfield (Illinois) State Register, November 20, 1938; Huntington (West Virginia) Advertiser, November 19, 1938; Eugene (Oregon) News, November 19, 1938.
77. Diamond, p. 36. Jan Ciechanowski, Defeat in Victory (New York: Doubleday, 1947), p. 119.
78. Chattanooga (Tennessee) News, November 15, 1938; Chicago News, November 19, 1938; New York Herald Tribune, November 13, 1938; Trenton (New Jersey) Gazette, November 19, 1938; Durham (North Carolina) Herald, November 21, 1938.
79. Atlanta Constitution, November 22, 1938; Hamilton (Ohio) Journal News, November 26, 1938.
80. Franklin Reid Gannon, The British Press and Nazi Germany, 1936-1939 (London: Oxford, 1971), p. 228.
81. Lincoln (Nebraska) Journal, November 15, 1938.
82. Time, November 11, 1938, p. 19; Newsweek, November 21, 1938, pp. 17-18.
83. The Philadelphia Record, as cited in Contemporary Jewish Record, November 1939, p. 56, and January 1939, pp. 41-50. See also Commonweal, November 25, 1938, p. 113, and Christian Century, November 23, 1938, pp. 1422-1423.
84. New York Times, November 10, 1938, p. 1, November 11, 1938, p. 3; New Republic, November 23, 1938, p. 60; Christian Science Monitor, November 10, November 12, 1938.
85. Louisville Times, November 17, 1938; Frederick (Oklahoma) Leader, November 17, 1938; Schenectady Union Star, November 18, 1938; Danville (Virginia) Register, November 20, 1938; Long Beach Press Telegram, November 16, 1938.
86. Ashville (North Carolina) Citizen, November 16, 1938; Roswell (New Mexico) Dispatch, November 18, 1938; Boston Transcript, November 14, 1938.
87. Time, November 28, 1938, p. 10.
88. Time, November 21, 1938, pp. 18-19, November 28, 1938, pp. 10-11; Newsweek, December 12, 1938, p. 16; New Republic, December 21, 1938, p. 189; Commonweal, December 9, 1938, p. 177; Joseph Alsop and Robert Kintner, American White Paper: The Story of American Diplomacy and the Second World War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940), pp. 24-25; Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt, introduction by Jonathan Daniels (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972), vol. XII, p. 224; Selig Adler, Isolationist Impulse, (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1957), p. 279; Elmer Roper, You and Your Leaders: Their Actions and Your Reactions, 1936-1956 (New York: Morrow, 1957), p. 71. Diamond, p. 205; Shafir, p. 829.
89. Not only did the President ignore the State Department’s advice on the statement, but he did not adhere to the language of the statement that had been prepared for him by the Department. Immediately prior to delivering it to the press, he changed the wording. The proposed statement read as follows: “The news of the past few days from Germany has shocked public opinion in the United States. Such news from any part of the world would inevitably produce a similar reaction among the American people. With a view to gaining a first hand picture of the situation in Germany I asked the Secretary of State to order our Ambassador in Berlin to come home for report and consultation.” Press Conferences of Roosevelt, vol. XII, pp. 227-229. See also Cordell Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull (New York: Macmillan, 1948) vol. I, pp. 24-25, 599; Shafir, pp. 828-829; Diamond, p. 205.
90. New York Times, November 16, 1938, p. 1; Newsweek, November 28, 1938, p. 11; Philadelphia Inquirer, November 16, 1938; Huntington (West Virginia) Advertiser, November 19, 1938.
91. There was no unanimity of opinion in the State Department regarding an American response. George Messersmith, the former Consul in Berlin, urged that Ambassador Wilson, who was due to visit in the near future anyway, be recalled “for consultation.” Messersmith advocated this step because, among other things, he believed it would constitute a fitting response to American public opinion. Others in the State Department argued against removal of America’s representative from Germany. Pierrepont Moffat objected to yielding to “pressure in favor of one particular population or group.” He objected to Wilson’s recall and counseled that some means be found of making a “gesture that would not . . . hurt us.” See the Moffat Diary entries for October 29-30 and November 14 as quoted in Shafir, p. 825. It is true that Wilson was planning a visit to the United States, but he left earlier than was intended and was clearly summoned home by FDR in the wake of the pogrom. New York Times, November 15, 1938; FRUS, 1938, vol. II, pp. 402-403.
92. New York Sun, November 15, 1938; Minneapolis Star, November 19, 1938.
93. Milwaukee Journal, November 18, 1938; Toledo (Ohio) Blade, November 21, 1938; Witchita (Kansas) Eagle, November 19, 1938; Indianapolis Star, November 19, 1938; Miami News, November 21, 1938.
94. New York Herald Tribune, November 19, 1938, p. 10; Fortune, April 1939, p. 102; New York Times, November 15, 1938, p. 1, November 16, 1938, p. 4.
95. St. Louis Globe Democrat, as quoted in New York Times, November 12, 1938; Chicago Tribune, November 17, 1938.
96. Nation, July 6, 1940, pp. 4-5; New Republic, November 23, 1938, p. 60, November 30, 1938, p. 87, June 28, 1939, p. 197, April 28, 1941, pp. 592-594; Commonweal, November 24, 1938, p. 113; Collier’s, December 31, 1938, p. 50. See also Survey Graphic, October 1940, pp. 524-526; New York Daily News, March 16, 1939, as quoted in Admission of German Refugee Children: Joint Hearings Before a Subcommittee on Immigration, U. S. Senate, and Subcommittee on Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, 76th Cong., 1st sess., on S.J. Res. 64 and H.J. Res. 168, April 20-24, 1939, p. 31; Forum, November 1938, pp. 209-210. Davenport (Iowa) Democrat, November 22, 1939; Denver News, November 15, 1938; Richmond News Leader, November 16, 1938; New York Daily News, November 19, 1938; Wichita (Kansas) Eagle, November 18, 1938; Hartford Courant, November 15, 1938.
97. Pittsburgh Press, November 16, 1938.
98. Binghamton Sun, November 29, 1938; South Bend (Indiana) News Times, November 28, 1938; Vicksburg (Mississippi) Herald, November 29, 1938.
99. John R. Carlson, Under Cover (New York: Dutton, 1943), p. 66; Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 7, 1939, p. 3; Wyman, pp. 6-7; Survey Graphic, October 1940, p. 534ff; Commonweal, October 6, 1939, pp. 531-533, November 25, 1938, p. 11; Current History, May 1939, pp. 19-22; New Republic, July 20, 1938, pp. 291-292; Time, December 5, 1938, p. 18; Michael N. Dobkowski, Politics of Indifference (Washington: University Press of America, 1982), p. 286.
100. Pittsburg Press, November 16, 1938; St. Joseph (Missouri) Gazette, November 21, 1938; Wilmington (Delaware) News, November 21, 1938; Kansas City Journal, November 19, 1938; Danville (Virginia) Register, November 11, 1938; Pasadena Star News, November 15, 1938; Lake Charleston (Louisiana) American Press, November 18, 1938; Huntington (West Virginia) Advertiser, November 23, 1938; South Bend (Indiana) News Times, November 28, 1938; Binghamton Sun, November 29, 1938; Dallas Dispatch, November 28, 1938.
101. Richmond (Virginia) News Leader, November 14, 1938; Toledo (Ohio) Times, November 16, 1938; Erie (Pennsylvania) Times, November 21, 1938; Springfield (Ohio) Sun, November 22, 1938; Madison (Wisconsin) Times, November 26, 1938.
102. Christian Science Monitor, November 15, 1938, p. 1.
103. Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the movement, requested that her followers pray at the time of the Russo-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion. According to her, this was the “greatest contribution they could make toward the peace of mankind.” Stephen Gottschalk, The Emergence of Christian Science in American Religious Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), pp. 267-268.
104. Christian Century, November 30, 1938, pp. 1456-1459; Cincinnati Times Star, November 19, 1938; Binghamton Press, November 19, 1938; Tulsa (Oklahoma) World, November 18, 1938; Oakland Tribune, November 22, 1938; New Haven Journal Courier, November 23, 1938; Tampa (Florida) Tribune, November 21, 1938; Mobile (Alabama) Register, November 19, 1938; Akron (Ohio) Beacon Journal, November 18, 1938; Danville Register, November 20, 1938; Lewiston (Indiana) Tribune, November 18, 1938; Spokane Spokesman Review, November 17, 1938.
105. Charles Stember, Jews in the Mind of America (New York: Basic Books, 1966), pp. 140, 145-148. Roosevelt was also careful about other aspects of his action. He reassured the press that those citizens of the Reich in the United States on visitors’ visas who would be allowed to remain “were not all Jews by any means.” Press Conferences of Roosevelt, vol. XII, pp. 238-241.
106. Fortune, July 1938, p. 80, April 1939, p. 102. A Gallup poll taken at the time revealed that 95 percent of the American public was opposed to American involvement in European affairs. William Langer and S. Everett Gleason, The Challenge to Isolation (New York: Harper, 1952), p. 36.
107. New York Times, November 16, 1938, p. 22.
108. Adler, pp. 270-273; Public Opinion Quarterly, October 1939, pp. 595-596; Langer and Gleason, pp. 14, 39, 51; Public Opinion Quarterly, October 1939, p. 599; DGFP, series D, IV, pp. 639-640.
109. Time, December 5, 1938, p. 18; Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century (New York: Vintage Books, 1980), p. 173. Lippmann failed even to mention antisemitism as a contributing factor to the creation of a refugee problem. Instead he attributed the situation to the fact that there were “too many shop keepers, professional men, artists and intellectuals.” All of which were code words for Jews. Los Angeles Times, November 13, 1938; Birmingham Age Herald, November 19, 1938; Bethlehem (Pennsylvania) Globe Times, November 19, 1938; Cincinnati Times Star, November 19, 1938; Brockton Enterprise and Times, November 18, 1938; Charleston (West Virginia) Gazette, November 24, 1938.
110. National Jewish Monthly, January 1939, p. 156; Herbert Hoover, Further Addresses upon the American Road (New York: Scribner, 1940), p. 244.
111. Springfield Republican, as cited in Contemporary Jewish Record, January 1939, pp. 41-50; Christian Science Monitor, November 16, 1938; Time, November 28, 1938, p. 11; New Republic, November 30, 1938, p. 87; Newsweek, November 28, 1938, pp. 13-14, December 12, 1938, pp. 16-17; Atlantic Monthly, December 1938, p. 77; Christian Century, December 7, 1938, p. 1485.
112. Washington News, November 17, 1938; Camden (New Jersey) Courier, November 18, 1938; Knoxville (Tennessee) News Sentinel, November 16, 1938; Pittsburgh Press, November 17, 1938; Houston Chronicle, November 18, 1938; El Paso Herald Post, November 17, 1938; A. J. Sherman, Island Refuge: Britain and Refugees from the Third Reich, 1933-1939 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), p. 173; Minutes Franco-British talks of 24 November 1938, Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939, third series, vol. 111 (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office), pp. 294-296.
113. New York Times, November 23, 1938.
1. I wish to thank my former student Leah E. Weil for her research on Congressional action regarding immigration restriction and the child refugees of Europe, 1938-1941.
2. Public Opinion Quarterly, October 1939, pp. 595-596; Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 85, 1457-1458, 2338-2341, 2805, 3865-3868, 4817-4819, and appendix, 641-642, 656-666, 835-836, 1073-1074, 1681-1682, 1886-1887, 2057-2059, 2792-2794, 3299; Admission of German Refugee Children: Joint Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Immigration, United States Senate, and a Subcommittee of the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, 76th Cong., 1st sess., April 20, 21, 22, and 24, 1939, pp. 8, 45-49ff. For additional background on this period see David Wyman, Paper Walls: America and the Refugee Crisis, 1938-1941 (Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, 1968), p. 67ff.
3. New York Herald Tribune, February 11, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 11.
4. Galveston News, February 20, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 21. See also Sioux City Journal, February 18, 1939; Ashville (North Carolina) Times, February 23, 1939; Washington Evening Star, February 16, 1939, in German Refugee Children, pp. 12, 17, 34.
5. Cincinnati Enquirer, May 25, 1939, as quoted in Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 84, p. 2793; New York Daily News, March 16, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 31; St. Petersburg (Florida) Evening Independent, March 24, 1939, in German Refugee Children, p. 38.
6. Washington Post, February 13, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 9.
7. Miami Herald, February 21, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, pp. 22-23 (emphasis added); Christian Century, November 30, 1938, pp. 1456-1459.
8. Nation, July 1, 1939, p. 3, as cited in Wyman, p. 85ff; New York Sun, as quoted in Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 84, p. 1681; Pathfinder, February 25, 1939; Montgomery Advertiser, February 17, 1939; Fort Wayne Journal Gazette, February 19, 1939, in German Refugee Children, pp. 14, 17, 20. Even the bill’s supporters felt compelled to argue that not only Jews would be aided. Sidney Hollander, president of the National Council of Jewish Federations, testified in support of the bill. In his testimony he observed that “statements have been made . . . that if this bill is passed, it will benefit primarily Jewish children . . . . If it were [true], I doubt if I would as strongly urge the passage of the bill.” David Brody, “American Jewry, the Refugees and Immigration Restriction (1932-1942),” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, June 1956, vol. 45, p. 343.
9. Pensacola News, February 21, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 27.
10. Dayton Daily News, February 20, 1939, as quoted in German Refugee Children, p. 33.
11. Those who offered this view bolstered their argument against the Wagner—Rogers bill by citing Roosevelt’s speech at the White House Conference on Children which had been held during April, the same month that the first hearings on the bill took place. Admission of German Refugee Children: Hearings Before the Committee on Immigration and Naturalization, House of Representatives, 76th Cong., 1st sess., on H.J. Res. 165 and H.J. Res. 168, May 24, 25, 31, and June 1, 1939, p. 67.
12. Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 84, part 14, A-3237; Wyman, pp. 95-96; Henry Cantril, Public Opinion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951), p. 1081.
13. Congressional Record, 76th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 84, part 14, A-3237; Wyman, pp. 95-96.
14. Cantril, p. 1150; Reader’s Digest, May 1939. Of the Jews polled, 26 percent were against any change in the quotas.
15. New York Times, June 2, 1939, p. 1, June 3, 1939, p. 3, June 5, 1939, p. 1, June 6, 1939, p. 1, June 7, 1939, p. 1, June 8, 1939, p. 1; Los Angeles Times, June 1, 1939, p. 1.
16. Washington Post, June 3, 1939; Greensboro (North Carolina) News, June 5, 1939, Bakersfield Californian June 5, 1939.
17. Philadelphia Record, June 5, 1939; New York Herald Tribune, June 3, 1939; Memphis Commercial Appeal, June 3, 1939; Pittsburgh Post Gazette, June 14, 1939; Fresno (California) Bee, June 8, 1939.
18. New York Herald Tribune, June 3, 1939; Richmond (Virginia) Times Dispatch, June 14, 1939; Reno (Nevada) State Journal, June 3, 1939.
19. Richmond (Virginia) Times Dispatch, June 14, 1939. Also placing blame on Cuba were the Muncie (Indiana) State, June 10, 1939; South Bend (Indiana) Tribune, June 3, 1939; Utica Observer Dispatch, June 7, 1939; Brooklyn Eagle, June 4, 1939; and Pittsburgh Post Gazette, June 3, 1939.
20. Louisville Courier Journal, June 9, 1939. The Washington Star, June 17, 1939, also argued that Cuba had committed no act of inhospitality or harshness.
21. Seattle Times, June 5, 1939.
22. Columbia (South Carolina) State, June 3, 1939.
23. Christian Science Monitor, June 2, 1939.
24. Bridgeport (Connecticut) Post, June 4, 1939; Evansville (Indiana) Courier, June 6, 1939; Charlotte (North Carolina) News, June 3, 1939; Christian Science Monitor, June 2, 1939; Richmond (Virginia) News Leader, May 30, 1939.
25. St. Louis Post Dispatch, June 4, 1939.
26. Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 19, 1939; St. Louis Globe Democrat, June 18, 1939.
27. Baltimore Sun, June 3, 1939; Chattanooga (Tennessee) News, June 8, 1939; Milwaukee Post, June 6, 1939; Danville (Illinois) Commercial News, June 4, 1939; New York Post, June 6, 1939; New York Mirror, June 5, 1939.
28. New York Times, June 8, 1939, p. 24.
29. Greensboro (North Carolina) Press, June 5, 1939; Dallas Times Herald, June 13, 1939; Butte (Montana) Post, June 5, 1939.
30. Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 5, 1939; Milwaukee Journal, June 2, 1939; Cleveland News, June 21, 1939; Buffalo Courier Express, June 2, 1939.
31. Hartford (Connecticut) Courant, June 3, 1939; Frederick (Oklahoma) Leader, June 13, 1939; Canton (Ohio) Repository, June 14, 1939.
32. Baltimore Sun, June 20, 1939; Philadelphia Record, June 5, 1939; Des Moines Register, June 14, 1939; Charleston (South Carolina) Post, June 19, 1939; Gary (Indiana) Post Tribune, June 16, 1939; Charlotte (North Carolina) News, June 20, 1939; Berkeley Gazette, June 12, 1939; Kansas City (Missouri) Times, June 17, 1939.
33. Boston Globe, June 17, 1939.
34. Watertown (New York) Times, June 3, 1939; Washington Star, June 4, 1939.
35. Springfield (Illinois) State Register, June 5, 1939.
36. Missoula (Montana) Missoulian, June 7, 1939; Seattle Times, June 5, 1939.
37. Hartford (Connecticut) Times, June 3, 1939.
38. Bridgeport (Connecticut) Times Star, June 6, 1939.
39. Greensboro (North Carolina) Record, June 9, 1939.
40. Syracuse (New York) Herald, June 5, 1939.
41. Newsweek, September 12, 1939, p. 17; Time, September 12, 1939, p. 30.
1. Dieckhoff to Hans-Georg Machensen, November 24, 1937, Dieckhoff to Weizsacker, December 20, 1937, DGFP, series D, I, pp. 649, 658-661. Sander Diamond, The Nazi Movement in the United States, 1924-41 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1974), pp. 21-22, n. 2.
2. Diamond, p. 23.
3. Donald M. McKale, The Swastika Outside Germany (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1977); Ladislas Farago, The Game of the Foxes (New York: McKay, 1971); John Rogge, The Official German Report (New York: Thomas Yoseloff, 1961).
4. FRUS, vol. 1, November 27, 1937, p. 174; Dieckhoff to Weizsacker, November 8, 1938, Les Instructions Secrètes de la Propaganda Allemande (Paris: La Petit Parisien, n.d.), as cited in Alton Frye, Nazi Germany and the American Hemisphere, 1933-1941 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967), pp. 31, 213. Diamond, p. 39.
5. John Roy Carlson, Under Cover: My Four Years in the Nazi Underworld of America (New York: Dutton, 1943).