6 Resources for Further Research
The topic of genetically modified (GM) food is one that has aroused a great deal of debate and controversy in the past, a situation that continues to the present day. This chapter provides an annotated bibliography of a selection of the books, articles, reports, and Internet sources that provide background for this debate and that present some of the arguments on all sides of the controversy.
Books
Andersson, Meike S., and M. Carmen de Vicente. 2010. Gene Flow between Crops and Their Wild Relatives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
This book provides an extensive review of all that is known about the transfer of genes in the wild between domesticated GM crops and their wild relatives.
Bennett, David J., and Richard C. Jennings, eds. 2013. Successful Agricultural Innovation in Emerging Economies: New
Genetic Technologies for Global Food Production. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The authors point out that a growing world population requires the development of new types of agriculture to feed that population. They suggest that genetic engineering may be one method for doing so. The essays in this book are organized into four major sections: issues relating to plant science and food security; new genetic crops in developing nations; policy lessons learned in the development of genetically modified foods; and social, legal, and ethical issues related to GM foods.
Bertheau, Yves, ed. 2013. Genetically Modified and Non-genetically Modified Food Supply Chains: Co-existence and Traceability. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Co-Extra; Wiley-Blackwell.
The essays in this book are divided into eight major sections: introduction; managing gene flow; co-existence in food and feed supply chains; traceability and controls in food and feed supply chains; legal regimes, liability, and redress issues; data integration and DSS (decision support systems); related issues; and conclusion.
Bodiguel, Luc, and Michael Cardwell, eds. 2010. The Regulation of Genetically Modified Organisms: Comparative Approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.
The question as to how genetically modified organisms should be regulated has been answered in a variety of ways by different governmental jurisdictions around the world. This collection of essays reviews some of the regulatory mechanisms that have been developed in the European Union, which has perhaps devoted the greatest amount of time and energy to the issue, and in other parts of the world.
Carter, Colin Andre, GianCarlo Moschini, and Ian M. Sheldon, eds. 2011. Genetically Modified Food and Global Welfare. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.
The essays in this book deal with the belief that genetically modified crops and foods can be a significant factor in dealing with the world’s hunger issues, but that unnecessarily harsh regulatory systems (e.g., those in place in the European Union) have hampered the development of the full potential of the new technology.
Epstein, Samuel, and Beth Leibson. 2013. Good Clean Food: Shopping Smart to Avoid GMOs, rBGH, and Products That May Cause Cancer and Other Diseases. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, Inc.
Operating on the assumption that GM foods are not “good clean foods,” the authors recommend a number of practices that will allow consumers to find, purchase, and prepare such foods.
Falck-Zepeda, José, Guillaume Grueère, and Idah Sithole-Niang, eds. 2013. Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Economic and Policy Lessons from Countries South of the Sahara. Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
This book deals with the unique opportunities and problems faced by nations in southern Africa in the use of genetically modified products for the improvement of crop and food systems as a crucial way of meeting the nutritional needs of their citizens.
Ferry, Natalie, and A. M. R. Gatehouse, eds. 2009. Environmental Impact of Genetically Modified Crops. Wallingford, UK; Cambridge, MA: CABI.
The essays in this anthology discuss the results of research on the environmental impact of GM plants and seeds and the significance of this research on the development of policy on GM products. Some attention is also paid to the effects of GM products on human health.
Flachowsky, Gerhard, ed. 2014. Animal Nutrition with Transgenic Plants. Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
This valuable book provides a comprehensive review of the types of transgenic plants that have been developed for use as animal feeds and detailed information about specific aspects of that topic, such as studies on both first- and second-generation GM crops, applications in different parts of the world, public attitudes about the use of GM crops for animals, and ethical issues raised by the development of GM food crops.
Forman, Lillian E. 2009. Genetically Modified Foods. Minneapolis, MN: Abdo Group.
This book is a part of the publisher’s Essential Viewpoints series in which a variety of positions on the use of genetically modified products is provided by specialists and stakeholders in the field.
Halford, Nigel G. 2012. Genetically Modified Crops, 2nd ed. London: Imperial College Press.
This book provides a general introduction to the subject of GM crops, with a review of the history of the technology, steps in its practical development for today’s agriculture, and problems and issues that have arisen as a result of its introduction to the field.
Hauter, Wenonah. 2012. Foodopoly: The Battle over the Future of Food and Farming in America. New York: New Press.
The author is an organic farmer who is also a member of the national Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) movement. She explains in this book why efforts by local organic food farmers and the organizations they have created are not going to be enough to stem the growing control of the nation’s food supply by international industries such as Monsanto and Dow Chemical.
Heller, Chaia. 2013. Food, Farms & Solidarity: French Farmers Challenge Industrial Agriculture and Genetically Modified Crops. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
The author reviews the events that led up to an uprising of French farmers in opposition to the use of genetic seeds and genetic crops in French agriculture, and the significance this movement has had and is likely to have for the expanded use of GM products in agriculture in France and elsewhere.
Herring, Ronald J., ed. 2013. Transgenics and the Poor: Biotechnology in Development Studies. Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis.
Genetically modified crops and foods have been touted as a potentially critical element in helping to solve the world’s hunger problems. Yet that success has been somewhat limited. The essays in this book review some of the hoped-for achievements of modern agricultural biotechnology, some problems that have prevented more widespread adoption of the technology, and some specific case studies where the technology has and has not succeeded.
Hillstrom, Kevin. 2012. Genetically Modified Foods. Detroit: Gale Cengage Learning.
This book provides a general introduction for young adults to the topic of genetically modified foods and the debates surrounding their use.
Ho, Mae-Wan, and Eva Sirinathsinghji. 2013. Ban GMOs Now: Health & Environmental Hazards: Especially in the Light of the New Genetics. London: ISIS.
This book summarizes the risks to human health and the natural environment posed by the released of genetically engineered product into the environment. The authors encourage local communities to begin to take action against the continuing and expanded use of such products in countries throughout the world.
Jain, S. Mohan, and S. Dutta Gupta. 2013. Biotechnology of Neglected and Underutilized Crops. Dordrecht; London: Springer.
The 16 essays in this book are divided into four sections that deal with (1) three relatively unknown plants as possible food sources, (2) the development of techniques for dealing with certain so-called orphan crops, (3) a discussion of some neglected but potential oil crops, and (4) the potential for the genetic engineering of some better-known crops, such as Safflower, Jatropha, Bael, Taro, and Mangrove.
Kaufman, Frederick. 2012. Bet the Farm: How Food Stopped Being Food. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Kaufman discusses the scientific basis for the development of GM foods, reviews the history of their development and spread throughout the world, and points out the connection between GM foods and crops and worldwide economics and politics.
Kempken, Frank, and Chritian Jung, eds. 2010. Genetic Modification of Plants. New York: Springer.
This collection of essays provides a comprehensive and complete overview of the technologies involved in the production of genetically modified plants.
Kimbrell, Andrew. 2007. Your Right to Know: Genetic Engineering and the Secret Changes in Your Food. San Rafael, CA: Earth Aware Editions.
This well-illustrated book is organized into five sections, dealing with human health issues, effects on the natural environment, the use of genetically altered seeds, GM foods found in the supermarket, and the future of food. Appendices provide useful guides for consumers who wish to know more about GM foods and their alternatives.
Komen, John, and David Wafula. 2013. Trade and Tribulations: An Evaluation of Trade Barriers to the Adoption of Genetically Modified Crops in the East African Community. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic & International Studies.
East Africa would appear to be one of the places in the world where the adoption of genetically modified crops would provide a key factor in dealing with the region’s food security issues. Yet, that process has been slow in happening. The authors explore trade, political, social, and other reasons for this situation.
Marchant, Gary Elvin, Guy A. Cardineau, and Thomas P. Redick. 2010. Thwarting Consumer Choice: The Case against Mandatory Labeling for Genetically Modified Foods. Washington, DC: AEI Press.
The authors argue that mandatory labeling of GM food products will not provide consumers with more choices about which they have greater information but fewer choices overall. They say that such laws and regulations only tend to reduce the number and quantity of GM foods that are available in the marketplace when, overall, the presence of such food products poses no threats to consumers and may actually improve their food choices and overall nutritional opportunities.
Miller, Debra A., ed. 2012. Genetically Engineered Food. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.
This book is part of Greenhaven’s At Issue series that focuses on important and controversial social issues. A number of writers express a variety of views on the topic of GM foods.
Oliver, Melvin J., and Yi Li, eds. 2013. Plant Gene Containment. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.
One of the most contentious issues surrounding the use of genetically modified seed and crops is the risk of escape of modified genes into other crops and/or wild plants. This book provides a number of articles dealing with technical aspects of this problem and its potential solutions.
Panesar, Parmjit S., and Satwinder S. Marwaha, eds. 2013. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Food Processing: Opportunities and Challenges. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
The 16 essays in this book deal with topics such as plant cell and tissue culture techniques in crop improvement, genetic transformation and crop improvement, production of biofertilizers, production of biopesticides, biotechnology in food processing, production of fermented foods, functional foods, and enzymes in food processing.
Pechlaner, Gabriela. 2012. Corporate Crops: Biotechnology, Agriculture, and the Struggle for Control. Austin: University of Texas Press.
This book deals with the issues that have been raised involved large multinational corporations and individual farming units over the purchase and use of genetically modified seeds and crops. The author presents four case studies dealing with specific examples of the types of issues that arise, using regulatory provisions, court cases, and other types of source documents.
Pollack, Mark A., and Gregory C. Shaffer. 2009. When Cooperation Fails: The International Law and Politics of Genetically Modified Foods. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
The authors review the systems that have been developed for the regulation of genetically modified products, primarily in the European Union and the United States, how those policies differ, and what effects they have had on the development of GM food technology.
Popp, Jennie, Marty D. Matlock, Nathan Kemper, and Molly Jahn. 2012. The Role of Biotechnology in a Sustainable Food Supply. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The 15 essays in this book consider a number of facets of the question as to whether genetically modified crops and foods can play a significant role in dealing with the world’s hunger problems, and what challenges and issues are raised by that question.
Robin, Marie-Monique. 2010. The World According to Monsanto: Pollution, Corruption, and the Control of the World’s Food Supply, trans. from French by George Holoch. New York: New Press.
One of the best of the many books written about the history and activities of the world’s largest biotechnology firm, which was the innovator of a host of genetically engineered foods, seeds, crops, and other products.
Segger, Marie-Claire Cordonier, Frederic Perron-Welch, and Christine Frison, eds. 2013. Legal Aspects of Implementing the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety was a complex document that laid out provisions for the shipment of GM crops and foods in the European Union and its trade partners. This book deals with the variety of legal issues that have arisen—and that may be expected to arise—as a consequence of that agreement. Various chapters deal with topic such as the involvement of the general public in the process, the compliance mechanism laid out by the treaty, the development of systems permitted by the treaty in various countries and regions, and global policy trends with regard to biosafety.
Smith, Jeffrey M. 2007. Genetic Roulette: The Documented Health Risks of Genetically Engineered Foods. Fairfield, IA: Yes! Books.
This book is a classic in the field because of its wide-ranging attack on the use of genetically modified organisms in agriculture and the food supply system. The author is the founding executive director of the Institute for Responsible Technology, an organization created to provide information about the risks and dangers of genetically modified crops and foods. His earlier book on the topic, Seeds of Deception: Exposing Industry and Government Lies about the Safety of the Genetically Engineered Foods You’re Eating, was published by Yes! Books in 2003.
Thompson, R. Paul. 2011. Agro-technology: A Philosophical Introduction. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
This textbook reviews the development of agricultural biotechnology over the centuries and considers the moral and ethical issues that have arisen as the technology of the field has expanded to include a host of processes from the field of genetic engineering.
Thomson, Jennifer A. 2013. Food for Africa: The Life and Work of a Scientist in GMCrops. Claremont, South Africa: UCT Press.
The author has been involved in research and development of GM crops since the 1970s. She describes her experiences in all aspects of that program, from development of GM plants to policy making to implementation of technology throughout Africa over a period of four decades.
Tutelyan, Victor, ed. 2013. Genetically Modified Food Sources. Amsterdam: Academic Press.
The essays in this book provide a comprehensive and technically detailed description of the safety issues involved in the production, distribution, and use of GM food products, along with the many actions that have been taken to regulate specific GM products.
Weasel, Lisa H. 2009. Food Fray: Inside the Controversy over Genetically Modified Food. New York: Amacom.
The author notes that the spread of GM foods and crops has, largely without concern in the United States, grown rapidly over the past few decades. She reviews that process and highlights some of the most important issues relating to the use of GM crops and foods.
Weirich, Paul, ed. 2007. Labeling Genetically Modified Food: The Philosophical and Legal Debate. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
The dozen essays in this book deal with a variety of issues associated with the labeling of GM foods, such as the current art and state of the procedure, European Union regulations, ethical issues in labeling GM foods, consumer responses to labeling procedures and regulations, and differing conceptions by consumer of GM food labeling.
Wozniak, Chris A., and Alan McHughen, eds. 2012. Regulation of Agricultural Biotechnology: The United States and Canada. Dordrecht; New York: Springer.
The 17 essays in this book focus on a general overview of the regulations dealing with genetically engineered products in the United States and Canada, as well as discussions of individual more specific issues related to this topic.
Zhang, Baohong, ed. 2013. Transgenic Cotton: Methods and Protocols. New York: Humana Press.
This book provides a technical review of the procedures for developing strains of transgenic cotton, places and types of adoptions, and effects on agriculture and the natural environment.
Articles
Acharjee, Sumita, and Bidyut Kumar Sarmah. 2013. “Biotechnologically Generating ‘Super Chickpea’ for Food and Nutritional Security.” Plant Science: An International Journal of Experimental Plant Biology 207: 108–116.
The authors present a fascinating case study of an agricultural product, chickpeas, with a number of nutritional deficits that, in theory, could be improved by genetic engineering. They point out the technical problems involved with this challenge and describe some technical fixes for them.
Agarwal, Pradeep K., et al. 2013. “Bioengineering for Salinity Tolerance in Plants: State of the Art.” Molecular Biotechnology 54(1): 102–123.
This article provides an excellent introduction to the technology whereby plans can be genetically engineered for the development of specific desirable characteristics, in this case, an ability to grow and thrive in soil that would otherwise not be acceptable for their cultivation.
Aris, Aziz, and Samuel Leblanc. 2011. “Maternal and Fetal Exposure to Pesticides Associated to Genetically Modified Foods in Eastern Townships of Quebec, Canada.” Reproductive Toxicology 31(4): 528–533.
The authors report finding Bt toxins from GM crops in the blood of pregnant women and their fetuses at a hospital in Eastern Canada. The findings may contradict general expectations that the use of GM foods would have any significant effects on human health.
Arjó, G., et al. 2013. “Plurality of Opinion, Scientific Discourse and Pseudoscience: An In Depth Analysis of the Séralini et al. Study Claiming That Roundup™ Ready Corn or the Herbicide Roundup™ Cause Cancer in Rats.” Transgenic Research 22(2): 255–267.
The authors mount a vigorous attack on an article (mentioned in the title; also see later), claiming possible health effects from two popular Monsanto GM products. Also see “Robinson” under Internet resources and “Séralini et al.” in this section.
Armenakas, Sophia, and Macrene Alexiades-Armenakas. 2013. “Genetically-Modified Organisms in United States Agriculture: Mandate for Food Labeling.” Food and Nutrition Sciences 4(8): 807–811.
The authors review the role of GM organisms in the American agricultural system and suggest reasons for the labeling of food products with GM components.
Bennett, Alan B., et al. 2013. “Agricultural Biotechnology: Economics, Environment, Ethics, and the Future.” Annual Review of Environment and Resources 38: 249–279.
The authors provide an overview of the development of agricultural biotechnology over the past 15 years and suggest some possible future directions for genetic engineering of crops and foods.
Bouët, Antoine, Guillaume Gruère, and Laëtitia Leroy. 2013. “Market Effects of Information Requirements under the Biosafety Protocol.” International Economics 134: 15–28.
The authors attempt to predict the effect on world markets of the document requirements imposed by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. They find that signatories to the treaty and producers of GM crops and food are likely to suffer significant market losses, whereas producers of non-GM foods in signatory nations are likely to benefit from the treaty. Developing nations are likely to experience a negative impact also under terms of the treaty.
Brookes, Graham, and Peter Barfoot. 2013. “The Global Income and Production Effects of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops 1996–2011.” GM Crops & Food 4(1): 74–83.
The authors estimate that the planting of the four major GM crops—corn, soybeans, cotton, and canola—have resulted in a total benefit of $98.2 billion over the period covered by the report, with the majority of that profit going to developing nations.
Burening, G., and J. M. Lyons. 2000. “The Case of the FLAVR SAVR Tomato.” California Agriculture 54(4): 6–7.
The authors provide a concise history of the development, testing, and attempted commercialization of the world’s first GM tomato, a product that ultimately failed in the marketplace.
Dibden, Jacqui, David Gibbs, and Chris Cocklin. 2013. “Framing GM Crops as a Food Security Solution.” Journal of Rural Studies 29(2): 59–70.
The adoption of GM foods is often recommended as a contribution to the improvement of food safety.
Du, Bin, and Feng-Mei Zhu. 2013. “Safety Assessment and Countermeasures of Genetically Modified Food Advance.” Journal of Food Science and Technology 5(3): 318–322.
The authors review the general question of the safety of GM foods and discuss methods by which safety can be improved.
Entine, Jon. 2013. “Notorious Séralini GMO Cancer Rat Study Retracted, Ugly Legal Battle Looms.” Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/sites/jonentine/2013/11/29/notorious-seralini-gmo-cancer-rat-study-retracted-ugly-legal-battle-looms/. Accessed on November 30, 2013.
This article was written in response to a decision by the editor of the journal Food and Chemical Toxicology to retract an article about the health effects of GM foods on rats. See Séralini et al. (2012) in this section.
Espley, Richard V., et al. 2013. “Analysis of Genetically Modified Red-Fleshed Apples Reveals Effects on Growth and Consumer Attributes.” Plant Biotechnology Journal 11(4): 408–419.
The authors discuss tests they have conducted on a genetically engineered apple with consumers and find that those consumers have no negative response to changes that have been made in the apple (improved color and flavor).
Flipse, Steven M., and Patricia Osseweijer. 2013. “Media Attention to GM Food Cases: An Innovation Perspective.” Public Understanding of Science 22(2): 185–202.
The authors discuss in detail three specific cases in which media attention to a specific GM food–related case caused food manufacturers to alter their business practices. They make some generalizations about the relationship of media attention to GM food cases and innovation by the food industry.
Forabosco, F., et al. 2013. “Genetically Modified Farm Animals and Fish in Agriculture: A Review.” Livestock Science 153(1–3): 1–9.
The authors provide a very complete and helpful review of the status of the development of GM animals. They note that a number of modified species are being studied in research laboratories, but that only a small number of GM animals are close to being ready for marketing.
Frewer, L. J., et al. 2013. “Genetically Modified Animals from Life-Science, Socio-economic and Ethical Perspectives: Examining Issues in an EU Policy Context.” New Biotechnology 30(5): 447–460.
The Pegasus project is a program designed to study issues raised by the development, implementation, and commercialization of genetically modified animals and products produced from them. This paper describes a wide variety of activities designed by member of the project to determine public attitudes about these animals and products, with a view toward developing base concepts in the design of EU regulations of such products.
Galli, Gad, and Rachel Amir. 2013. “Fortifying Plants with the Essential Amino Acids Lysine and Methionine to Improve Nutritional Quality.” Plant Biotechnology Journal 11(2): 211–222.
Lysine and methionine are two essential amino acids that humans are unable to synthesize and that must, therefore, be obtained from plants in the diet. The authors discuss efforts to engineer plants to introduce or improve their ability to produce these two amino acids. They also discuss some of the technical problems involved in this line of research.
Gayen, Dipak, et al. 2013. “Comparative Analysis of Nutritional Compositions of Transgenic High Iron Rice with Its Non-transgenic Counterpart.” Food Chemistry 138(2–3): 835–840.
The nutritional value of GM and non-GM rice are compared, with the results being that the two are essentially identical except for the one trait (higher iron content) introduced by the GM process.
Heap, Brian. 2013. “Europe Should Rethink Its Stance on GM Crops.” Nature 498(7455): 409.
Heap, president of the European Academies Science Advisory Council, suggests that changes in second-generation GM crop production have made it possible for the European Union to reconsider its tradition of relatively severe restrictions on the use of such crops.
Hollingworth, RobertM., et al. 2003. “The Safety of Genetically Modified Foods Produced through Biotechnology.” Toxicological Sciences 71(1): 2–8.
The Society of Toxicologists presents its official view on the use of GM foods in this editorial, pointing out that the issue is not so much GM foods as it is the principle of “substantial equivalence,” in which the safety of foods is based on a comparison with comparable natural, traditional, or conventional foods. On the basis of that standard, the writers say, most GM foodsappear to be safe for human use.
Kamle, Suchitra, and Sher Ali. 2013. “Genetically Modified Crops: Detection Strategies and Biosafety Issues.” Gene 522 (2): 123–132.
This paper provides “an overview on the production of GM crops, their acceptabilities, detection strategies, biosafety issues and potential impact on society” and “overall future prospects.”
Kouser, Shahzad, and Matin Qaim. 2013. “Valuing Financial, Health, and Environmental Benefits of Bt Cotton in Pakistan.” Agricultural Economics 44(3): 323–335.
This article attempts to place a dollar value of the conversion of cotton farming in Pakistan from traditional to GM crops. The authors report that the conversion has resulted in an increase in value of $79 per acre, half of which is attributable to health benefits and half to environmental benefits.
Lang, John T. 2013. “Elements of Public Trust in the American Food System: Experts, Organizations, and Genetically Modified Food.” Food Policy 41(2): 145–154.
When confronted with complex socioscientific issues, such as the use of GM foods, the public may turn to trusted organizations for reliable information on which to base their opinions and decisions. How does the public decide which organizations to trust? That question provides the motivation of the research that led to this paper.
Lemaux, Peggy G. 2008. “Genetically Engineered Plants and Foods: A Scientist’s Analysis of the Issues (Part I).” Annual Review of Plant Biology 59: 771–812.
The author provides a very complete and even-handed review of the process of plant biotechnology and a discussion of the pros and cons associated with that technology.
Marcous, Jean-Michel, and Lyne Létourneau. 2013. “A Distorted Regulatory Landscape: Genetically Modified Wheat and the Influence of Non-safety Issues in Canada.” Science and Public Policy 40(4): 514–528.
The authors discuss the ways in which social and political factors were involved in the normal process of regulatory decision making on the release of GM crops in Canada, showing that this process was treated quite differently from comparable issues in the same general category because of these factors.
Martin, Cyrus. 2013. “The Psychology of GMO.” Current Biology 23(9): R356–R359.
The author notes that GM foods have received the “seal of approval” from most scientists, yet large numbers of the general population remain opposed to the production and use of these foods. He explores some political and cultural reasons for this phenomenon.
Martinelli, Lucia, Malgorzata Karbarz, and Helena Siipi. 2013. “Science, Safety, and Trust: The Case of Transgenic Food.” Croatian Medical Journal 54(1): 91–96.
The authors consider the reality that scientists and the lay public view safety issues associated with GM products in quite different ways, largely determined by the attitudes required of researchers about controversial topics.
Masip, Gemma, et al. 2013. “Paradoxical EU Agricultural Policies on Genetically Engineered Crops.” Trends in Plant Science 18(6): 312–324.
The authors review current regulatory policies in the European Union with regard to genetically modified crops and foods and raise a number of issues about those policies. They call those policies “contradictory and irrational” and suggest that they are damaging EU and world economies.
McColl, K. A., B. Clarke, and T. J. Doran. 2013. “Role of Genetically Engineered Animals in Future Food Production.” Australian Veterinary Journal 91(3): 113–117.
The authors note that the commercialization of genetically engineered animals has proceeded at a pace much slower than that for GM plants. They review progress in the field for the purpose of providing information “so that veterinarians and animal health scientists are better able to participate in the debate on GE animals.”
McHughen, Alan, and Stuart Smyth. 2008. “US Regulatory System for Genetically Modified [Genetically Modified Organism (GMO), rDNA or Transgenic] Crop Cultivars.” Plant Biotechnology Journal 6(1): 2–12.
This paper provides a superb review of the history of regulatory actions in both the United States and the European Union beginning in the mid-1980s until almost the present day.
Mehrotra, Shweta, and Vinod Goyal. 2013. “Evaluation of Designer Crops for Biosafety—a Scientist’s Perspective.” Gene 515(2): 241–248.
Noting the essential role that safety determination plays in the development and commercialization of GM crops, the authors explore the methods that are available to scientists for determining how safe these crops are likely to be.
Mutuc, Maria, Roderick M. Rejesus, and Jose M. Yorobe, Jr. 2013. “Which Farmers Benefit the Most from Bt Corn Adoption? Estimating Heterogeneity Effects in the Philippines.” Agricultural Economics 44(2): 231–239.
The authors point out that a number of studies have been done on the extent to which farmers adopt the technology of GM crops, but few studies have been done on factors that affect differences in acceptance within a country or region. In this study, they find that the new technology is least likely to be adopted by farmers who do not irrigate their farms, who are located far from seed distribution centers, and who have little background in disease identification.
Nap, Jan-Peter, et al. 2003. “The Release of Genetically Modified Crops into the Environment.” The Plant Journal 33: 1–18.
This early article discusses the environmental effects of releasing GM crops into the natural environment and regulations dealing with the procedure.
Nep, Shauna, and Kieran O’Doherty. 2013. “Understanding Public Calls for Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods: Analysis of a Public Deliberation on Genetically Modified Salmon.” Society & Natural Resources 26(5): 506–521.
The authors describe their analysis of public discussion in British Columbia about the possible approval of genetically engineered salmon in Canada and classify the types of arguments they heard in the discussion.
Nielsena, Thea. 2013. “Consumer Buying Behavior of Genetically Modified Fries in Germany.” Journal of Food Products Marketing 19(1): 41–53.
The author describes an experiment in which consumers in Germany are given the option of purchasing French fries from street carts that are either GM or non-GM products. She analyzes the reasons that purchasers gave for choosing one product over another.
Oczek, Jeremy P. 2000. “In the Aftermath of the ‘Terminator’ Technology Controversy: Intellectual Property Protections for Genetically Engineered Seeds and the Right to Save and Replant Seed.” Boston College Law Review 41(3): 627–658.
The author discusses legal issues related to the development and use of genetic use restriction technology (GURT; so-called terminator technology) for the production and sale of seed for crops.
Okeno, James A., et al. 2013. “Africa’s Inevitable Walk to Genetically Modified (GM) Crops: Opportunities and Challenges for Commercialization.” New Biotechnology 30(2): 124–130.
The authors argue that the lack of sufficient arable land in most parts of Africa means that African nations will inevitably take greater advantage of the opportunities of improved food production provided to them by GM goods. They review some of the policy decisions that have already been take for the encouragement of research and expanded planting of GM crops on the continent.
Panda, Rakhi, et al. 2013. “Challenges in Testing Genetically Modified Crops for Potential Increases in Endogenous Allergen Expression for Safety.” Allergy 68(2): 142–151.
This article reviews the regulatory procedures involved in testing for the possible allergenicity of genetically modified food products and raises the question as to the efficacy of such procedures and the conditions under which such testing may or may not be necessary.
Phillips, Diane M., and William K. Hallman. 2013. “Consumer Risk Perceptions and Marketing Strategy: The Case of Genetically Modified Food.” Psychology & Marketing 30(9): 739–748.
The authors note that the way new products are received by consumers is determined to a considerable extent on the way they are marketed. They examine this idea by presenting a series of consumer panels with GM foods labeled in a variety of ways to see how the labeling process affects acceptance of the products.
Price, William D., and Lynne Underhill. 2013. “Application of Laws, Policies, and Guidance from the United States and Canada to the Regulation of Food and Feed Derived from Genetically Modified Crops: Interpretation of Composition Data.” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61(354): 8349–8355.
The authors provide a review of the ways in which Canadian and U.S. governmental agencies have dealt with the problem of regulating and labeling genetically modified foods and feeds.
Schwartz, Stephan A. 2013. “The Great Experiment: Genetically Modified Organisms, Scientific Integrity, and National Wellness.” Explore 9(1): 12–16.
The author comments in detail on the controversial report that ingestion of GM foods reduces the life span of rats and increases the risk of tumors. (See Arjó et al. and Seralini et al. in this section and Robinson in the Internet section.
Séralini, Gilles-Eric, et al. 2012. “Long Term Toxicity of a Roundup Herbicide and a Roundup-Tolerant Genetically Modified Maize.” Food and Chemical Toxicology 50(11): 4221–4231.
This is a very important paper that reports on a study in which rats fed food containing GM products died at a greater rate and developed more tumors than did control animals who did not receive those foods. This article was late attacked vigorously by a number of scientists who objected to a variety of features of the report. See Arjó et al. in this section and Robinson in the Internet section. In November 2013, Elsevier, publisher of Food and Chemical Toxicology, announced that it was retracting the paper, not because the data were fraudulent or incorrect, but because the results were “inconclusive” and therefore “do not reach the threshold of publication.” The publisher’s decision was met with a firestorm of protest by opponents of GM crops and foods who claimed that the retraction was motivated by political, economic, or other nonscientific factors. For more on the case, also see the Elsevier announcement at http://www.elsevier.com/about/press-releases/research-and-journals/elsevier-announces-article-retraction-from-journal-food-and-chemical-toxicology and articles by “Entine” in this section.
Silva Dias, João, and Rodomiro Ortiz. 2012. “Transgenic Vegetable Breeding for Nutritional Quality and Health Benefits.” Food and Nutrition Sciences 3: 1209–1219.
This article provides an excellent review of research done on the genetic modification of plants for the purpose of increasing their nutritional value. It deals both with products that are well along in the development stage and with those that are still in the early stages of research.
Van Zwanenberg, Patrick, and Valeria Arza. 2013. “Biotechnology, Controversy, and Policy: Challenges of the Bioeconomy in Latin America.” Technology in Society 35(2): 105–117.
The authors consider the various ways in which new forms of agricultural biotechnology can impact farming communities by comparing the process by which GM cotton crops were introduced into two very different farms in Argentina.
Vàzquez-Salat, Núria, and Louis-Marie Houdebine. 2013. “Will GM Animals Follow the GM Plant Fate?” Transgenic Research 22(1): 5–13.
The authors of this paper trace the history of the development and commercialization of genetically engineered plants and animals and point out common issues and differences between the two experiences retrospectively and prospectively.
Verma, Charu, et al. 2011. “A Review on Impacts of Genetically Modified Food on Human Health.” The Open Nutraceuticals Journal 4: 3–11.
The authors of this article cite a large number of studies that support their views that the health risks posed by genetically modified foods and crops are too extensive and too well studied to ignore.
Zhao, J., et al. 2013. “Nutritional Composition Analysis of Meat from Human Lactoferrin Transgenic Bulls.” Animal Biotechnology 24(1): 44–52.
The researchers compared the nutritional value of traditional (non-GM) and GM beef and found no differences on a number of measures.
Reports
Barker, Debbie, Bill Freese, and George Kimbrell. 2013. Seed Giants vs. U.S. Farmers: A Report by the Center for Food Safety & Save Our Seeds. Washington, DC: Center for Food Safety.
This report discussed the ways in which seed production and sales have changed over the past few decades in the United States and how farmers have essentially become “serfs” to large biotechnology companies that invent, produce, and sell those seeds.
Bull, Alan T., Geoffrey Holt, and Malcolm D. Lilly. 1982. Biotechnology: International Trends and Perspectives.
This report discusses in detail virtually all that was known at the time about the risks and benefits involved in the genetic engineering of plants and animals for a variety of purposes.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2000. Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. http://bch.cbd.int/protocol/text/. Accessed on August 18, 2013.
This treaty provides an outline for the transport of engineered organisms across international borders. It is an addendum to the 1993 Convention on Biological Diversity.
Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health, Board on Life Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Institute of Medicine, and National Research Council of the National Academies. Safety of Genetically Engineered Foods: Approaches to Assessing Unintended Health Effects. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2004.
Although now somewhat dated, this book is important because it provides the views of a group of the most highly qualified scientists and other stakeholders in the debate over GM foods with regard to the safety of GM products and steps that should be taken to continue testing for and validity that safety.
Genetically Engineered Crops: Agencies Are Proposing Changes to Improve Oversight, but Could Take Additional Steps to Enhance Coordination and Monitoring. 2008. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office. GAO-09-60. http://www.gao.gov/assets/290/283060.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
The Government Accountability Office (GAO) reports on its investigation of six instances in which GM seeds or crops were released into the environment and the ways in which federal agencies responsible for oversight of GM crop use responded to these events. The agency makes a number of recommendations for improving the response to such events.
Genetically Modified Foods: Experts View Regimen of Safety Tests as Adequate, but FDA’s Evaluation Process Could Be Enhanced. 2002. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office. GAO-02-566. http://www.gao.gov/assets/240/234718.pdf.Accessed on August 21, 2013.
In the single most important report on GM foods by a U.S. governmental agency, the General Accounting Office (now the Government Accountability Office) assesses the risks posed by such products and concludes that they “pose the same types of inherent risks to human health as conventional foods.”
Gurian-Sherman, Doug. 2009. Failure to Yield: Evaluating the Performance of Genetically Engineered Crops. Cambridge, MA: Union of Concerned Scientists.
The author begins by noting the promises made by proponents of GM crops and foods with regard to an expected increase in crop yields. He then surveys the available literature and comes to the conclusion that these promises have not been kept, and crop yield improvements were seen over the preceding decade where the result of factors other than the use of GM products.
National Research Council, et al. 2010. The Impact of Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
The authors of this extensive and intensive report call it “the first comprehensive assessment of the effects of GE-crop adoption on farm sustainability in the United States.” The study examined the ways in which genetically engineered crops have affected the incomes, agronomic practices, production decisions, environmental resources, and personal well-being of American farmers.
Safety Evaluation of Foods Derived by Modern Biotechnology: Concepts and Principles. 1993. Paris: Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development.
This report provides a general overview of the principles involved in the genetic modification of organisms, some of the many applications that may result from such research, potential risks associated with genetic engineering, and some principles on which the monitoring and regulation of GM genetically modified organisms can be based.
“State/Local Efforts to Control GMOs.” Organic Consumers Association. http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_27247.cfm. Accessed on August 20, 2013.
This website provides an invaluable resource on the types of laws and regulations adopted by state and local jurisdictions on the use or prohibition of GM organisms within their districts.
Strategies for Assessing the Safety of Foods Produced by Biotechnology. 1991. Geneva: Food and Agriculture Organisation and World Health Organisation.
This joint report reviews some applications to which genetic engineering has been put and is likely to be put in the future, along with potential risks associated with those applications and methods for assessing those risks in the future.
Internet Sources
“8.1 Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs).” World Trade Organization. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/sps_e/sps_agreement_cbt_e/c8s1p1_e.htm. Accessed on August 30, 2013.
This publication by the World Trade Organization deals with the special issues involved in the transboundary trade of such products among different countries and steps that have been taken to deal with those issues.
“20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods.” World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/. Accessed on August 29, 2013.
This fact sheet provides a very complete and detailed introduction to the subject of GM foods, dealing with issues such as why GM foods are produced, how they differ from traditional foods, what potential risks they pose to human health and to the environment, and how they are regulated nationally.
“AgBioWorld.” http://www.agbioworld.org. Accessed on December 12, 2013.
AgBioWorld is the website of the AgBioWorld Foundation, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization located in Auburn, Alabama, designed to provide science-based information on all aspects of agricultural biotechnology. The website provides not only current news and information on agricultural biotechnology but also current and past issues of the organization’s newsletter, AgBioView Newsletter.
Antoniou, Michael, Claire Robinson, and John Fagan. 2012. “GMO Myths and Truths.” Earth Open Source.org. http://earthopensource.org/files/pdfs/GMO_Myths_and_Truths/GMO_Myths_and_Truths_1.3.pdf. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
A very well-documented and written report on many essential aspects of GM foods, such as the techniques used in genetic engineering, regulations on GM products, health hazards of GM foods, specific health issues related to Roundup products and glyphosate, effect of GM crops on farms and the natural environment, the effects of climate change on the debate over GM crops and foods, and problems involved in feeding the world now and in the future.
“Are Biotech Foods Safe to Eat?” WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/features/are-biotech-foods-safe-to-eat.Accessed on August 29, 2013.
WebMD is a highly regarded and trustworthy website dealing with a host of health and medical issues. On this web page, it reviews the nature of GM foods, their risks and benefits, and the best current information available on their safety.
Beans, Laura. 2013. “New Generation of Genetically Engineered Crops Found to Drastically Increase Use of Toxic Pesticides.” EcoNews. http://ecowatch.com/2013/08/30/new-generation-genetically-engineered-crops-increase-toxic-pesticides/.Accessed on December 13, 2013.
The author reports on and discusses new research that suggests that farmers in the United States are drastically increasing their use of pesticide because of the genetically modified crops they are now planting.
Benbrook, CharlesM. 2012. “Impacts of Genetically Engineered Crops on Pesticide Use in the U.S.—the First Sixteen Years.” Environmental Sciences Europe. http://www.enveurope.com/content/24/1/24/abstract. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
The author finds that the amount of herbicide used on engineered corn, cotton, and soybean crops has actually increased over the period of time for his study, a seeming contradiction to what one might expect. The change has occurred because of the evolution of herbicide-resistant weeds that require ever-increasing amounts of herbicide for their control.
Biello, David. 2010. “Genetically Modified Crop on the Loose and Evolving in U.S. Midwest.” Scientific American. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=genetically-modified-crop. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This very interesting article reports on the spread of GM canola among native and cultivated version of the crop in parts of the Midwest. Especially interesting is the host of comments from readers about the role that Monsanto’s policies and practices have or have not had in this phenomenon.
Bocco, Diana. “Top 10 Genetically Modified Food Products.” Science and Society. http://dsc.discovery.com/tv-shows/curiosity/topics/10-genetically-modified-food-products.htm. Accessed on September 2, 2013.
The author reviews the status of 10 major food products that have been genetically modified: sugar beets, corn, potatoes, tomatoes, squash, Golden Rice, soybeans, oils, animal feed, and salmon.
Boyle, Rebecca. 2011. “How to Genetically Modify a Seed, Step by Step.” Popular Science. http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2011-01/life-cycle-genetically-modified-seed.
Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This very well-written article explains the process of genetically engineering a seed in sufficient detail to understand the process but not to overwhelm the reader.
Carpenter, Janet, and Leonard Gianessi. 1999. “Herbicide Tolerant Soybeans: Why Growers Are Adopting Roundup Ready Varieties.” AgBioForum. http://agbioforum.org/v2n2/v2n2a02-carpenter.htm. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
The authors provide a very detailed history and discussion of the development of genetically modified soybean crops in the United States.
“Contribution from the Network of ‘GM-Free’ European Regions and Local Authorities on the Subject of Co-existence between GMOs and Conventional and Organic Farming.” http://www.gmo-free-regions.org/fileadmin/files/gmo-free-regions/GMO-Free-Network_Flyer_EN.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
This brochure was developed by the Network for the Vienna conference held in April 2006. Its purpose was to explain the goals and activities of the Network in regulating and controlling the use of GMO products within the region that, at the time, consisted of 43 regions in Europe.
“Daisy Q&As.” AgResearch, New Zealand. http://www.agresearch.co.nz/news/Lists/news/Attachments/74/Daisy%20Q+A%201%20Oct%2012%20for%20web.pdf. Accessed on December 11, 2013.
This fact sheet provides answers to a number of basic questions about a genetically engineered cow, Daisy, produced by this New Zealand company that produces hypoallergenic milk, milk lacking in a protein that causes allergic reaction in humans who consume it.
Dugan, Sean. “The Pros and Cons of Genetically Modifying Your Foods.” Article 3. http://www.article-3.com/the-pros-and-cons-of-genetically-modifying-your-food-912185. Accessed on August 29, 2013.
The author provides a good general introduction to the topic of GM foods, mentions that, for the most part, they are safe to eat, and then explains why such a controversy has arisen over them.
“Environmental Concerns.” Biotechnology and Agricultural Education Program. University of Hawaii. http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/biotech/EnvironmentalConcerns.html. Accessed on December 4, 2013.
This web page provides a clear and concise summary of the potential risks to the natural environment posed by the presence of GM seeds and crops.
Enviropig™. University of Guelph. http://www.uoguelph.ca/enviropig/. Accessed on December 11, 2013.
This website provides a comprehensive description of the research program conducted at Guelph to produce a more environmentally friendly domestic pig, along with information about the technology involved, environmental benefits, commercialization, societal issues, and other related topics.
Fresco, Louise O. “Genetically Modified Crops Are Here to Stay.” Spotlight 2001. http://www.fao.org/ag/magazine/0111sp.htm. Accessed on August 29, 2013.
The author is assistant director-general of the Food and Agriculture Organization Agriculture Department. As the title makes clear, she does not think there is any way to stop the use of GM crops around the world. She recommends instead considering the role of GM crops in the overall scheme of agriculture, remaining aware of the many other forms of agriculture to which farmers do and should have access.
“Genetically Engineered Animals.” U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/animalveterinary/developmentapprovalprocess/geneticengineering/geneticallyengineeredanimals/default.htm. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This website provides a host of useful information about the genetic engineering of animals from the standpoint of one of the U.S. government’s primary regulatory agencies. Included are sections on the process by which the genetic engineering of animals is carried out, current research in the field, general questions and answers about genetically engineered animals, and actions by the Food and Drug Administration related to supervision and regulation of genetically engineered animals in the United States.
“Genetic Engineering.” Grace Communications Foundation. http://www.sustainabletable.org/264/genetic-engineering.
Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This website provides a comprehensive and easy-to-understand introduction to the topic of GM foods with links to useful articles and websites that provide more detailed information on the topic.
“Genetically Modified Crops.” Case Studies in Agricultural Biosecurity. Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/biosecurity/education/dualuse-agriculture/2.-agricultural-biotechnology/genetically-engineered-crops.html. Accessed on December 12, 2013.
This excellent video and accompanying text reviews all major aspects of the technology of and debate over the use of GM crops, including sections on methods of gene transfer in plants, Bt corn, StarLink corn, Biopharming, edible vaccines, and the potential risks involved in genetic modification of plants.
“Genetically Modified Crops.” Green Facts. http://www.greenfacts.org/en/gmo/index.htm. Accessed on December 11, 2013.
This website is an excellent resource of information on a variety of environmental issues, such as air pollution, biodiversity, chemical substances, climate change, consumer safety, and GM crops.
“Genetically Modified Food.” Social Issues Research Center. http://www.sirc.org/gate/. Accessed on August 30, 2013.
This organization claims to believe in a balanced debate on issues surrounding the use of GM food. The majority of its articles appear to argue in support of such foods, however. In any case, the articles do provide a fair presentation of reasons not to fear about the use of GM foods as well as to understand the benefits they may offer human societies.
“Genetics and Genomics Timeline.” Genome News Network. http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/index.php. Accessed on August 13, 2013.
This website provides a comprehensive and understandable introduction to major events in the story of the research on genes, DNA, and DNA technology.
Gilbert, Natasha. 2013. “Case Studies: A Hard Look at GM Crops.” Nature. http://www.nature.com/news/case-studies-a-hard-look-at-gm-crops-1.12907#/superweeds. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
This article reviews the status of three specific issues related to the development and use of GM crops: the appearance and spread of herbicide-resistant “super-weeds,” the spread of transgenes to nonengineered natural crops, and the psychological stress on some farmers as a result of dealing with these new products. The same article is available on the Scientific American website at http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=a-hard-look-at-3-myths-about-genetically-modified-crops.
“GM-Free Regions Networks Declaration of Rennes.” http://www.gmo-free-regions.org/fileadmin/files/declaration_rennes_en_051130.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
This web page contains the text of the Declaration of Rennes, adopted in 2005 by member regions of the European Network for the control of genetically modified organisms.
“GMOs: Engineering and Environmental Disaster.” Earth Justice. http://earthjustice.org/gmo. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
This website presents the argument that the distribution of GM organisms in the environment will produce a host of new problems, such as the growth of herbicide-resistant “superweeds” and the spread of new genetic material throughout the environment.
“Golden Rice Is Part of the Solution.” Golden Rice. http://www.goldenrice.org/. Accessed on August 26, 2013.
This web page provides a good background on the history, nature, and applications of one of the world’s best-known (and often controversial) engineered food crops, Golden Rice.
Gonsalves, Carol, David R. Lee, and Dennis Gonsalves. 2004. “Transgenic Virus-Resistant Papaya: The Hawaiian ‘Rainbow’ was Rapidly Adopted by Farmers and Is of Major Importance in Hawaii Today.” APSnet. http://www.apsnet.org/publications/apsnetfeatures/Pages/PapayaHawaiianRainbow.aspx. Accessed on December 11, 2013.
The authors describe the problems created in Hawaii by the spread of papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) beginning in 1992, and the way in which a genetically modified form of the papaya plant, introduced in 1998, provided a rapid and highly effective solution to this problem.
Grant, Bob. “AAAS: Don’t Label GM Foods.” The Scientist. http://www.thescientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/33057/title/AAASDontLabelGMFoods/. Accessed on August 30, 2013.
This article reports on an action by the American Association for the Advancement of Science in opposition to the labeling of GM foods. Of special interest is the extensive list of responses and commentaries to the article.
Harmon, Amy, and Andrew Pollack. 2012. “Battle Brewing over Labeling of Genetically Modified Food.” New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/25/science/dispute-over-labeling-of-genetically-modified-food.html?_r=0. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
The authors review the debates going on in state legislatures and at the ballot box over the labeling of GM foods, providing a nice review of both the pros and cons of that practice. The article drew a very large number of comments from readers that are well worth reading.
Jaffe, Greg. 2013. “What You Need to Know about Genetically Engineered Food.” The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/what-you-need-to-know-about-genetically-engineered-food/272931/#comments. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
The value of this article is not so much the clear, general introduction it provides to the topic but the vigorous exchange of views in the blog section of the website that discusses the activities of a variety of organizations that support or oppose the use of GM products.
“Journal Retraction of Séralini Study Is Illicit, Unscientific, and Unethical.” GM Watch. http://www.gmwatch.org/index.php/news/archive/2013/15184-journal-retraction-of-seralini-study-is-illicit-unscientific-and-unethical. Accessed on November 30, 2013.
This article was written about the decision by the journal Food and Chemical Technology to retract an important article on the health effects of GM corn on rats. See Séralini et al. in the Articles section.
Mannion, A. M., and Stephen Morse. 2013. “GM Crops 1996–2012: A Review of Agronomic, Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts.” University of Surrey Centre for Environmental Strategy Working Paper 04/13. http://www.surrey.ac.uk/ces/files/pdf/04-13%20Morse_Mannion_GM%20Crops.pdf. Accessed on December 4, 2013.
This research paper examines the available research on a host of issues related to the use of GM products, including advantages and disadvantages of such products, agronomic impacts, environmental and ecological impacts, economic impacts, and social impacts, followed by a discussion of the import of this evidence and conclusions that can be drawn from the available research. A very useful list of references is also included.
Mather, Robin. 2012. “The Threats from Genetically Modified Foods.” Mother Earth News. http://www.motherearthnews.com/homesteading-and-livestock/genetically-modified-foods-zm0z12amzmat.aspx#axzz2nNYmt2k7. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
The author argues that “[g]enetically modified foods and crops pose serious threats to human and animal health, but Big Ag doesn’t want you to know that.” Some interesting reactions and responses from readers are included in the blog for this website.
McCarthy, Erin. 2011. “Label GM Foods? Our Right2Know.” Grace Communications Foundation. http://gracelinks.org/blog/661/label-gmo-foods-our-right2know. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This essay makes the point that the debate over GM foods is not likely to end soon, but one fundamental point that remains is that consumers have the right to know what is in their foods and that, therefore, there should be no hesitation in labeling of foods containing GM products.
Mestel, Rosie. 2012. “GMO Foods Don’t Need Special Label, American Medical Assn. Says.” Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jun/21/news/la-heb-gmo-foods-medical-association-20120620. Accessed on August 30, 2013.
This article reviews the actions of the American Medical Association in opposition to the required labeling of GM foods.
Meyer, Hartmut. 2007. “GMO-Free Regions Manual: Case Studies from around the World.” http://www.gmo-freeregions.org/fileadmin/files/gmo-free-regions/GMO_free_regions_manual.pdf. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
This brochure describes the general philosophy and practice of GM-free zones in regions around the world, with detailed descriptions of such programs in the United States, Chile, New Zealand, Philippines, and the European Union.
Miller, Henry I. 2013. “Debunking ‘The Big Lie’ about Genetically Engineered Crops.” Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/sites/henrymiller/2013/05/23/debunking-the-big-lie-about-genetically-engineered-crops/. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
Miller writes in response to the upcoming March Against Monsanto by pointing out what he sees as the many fallacies perpetrated by opponents of GM crops and foods.
“Outcrossing and Gene Flow.” GM Compass. http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/safety/environmental_safety/170.genetically_modified_plants_out_crossing_gene_flow.html.Accessed on December 4, 2013.
This article explains the process by which genes can be transferred from one organism to another organism of the same or different species in nature and how this information relates to safety issues posed by GM crops.
Pearce, Fred. 2012. “What Are Environmentalists Taking Anti-Science Positions?” Environment 360. http://e360.yale.edu/feature/why_are_environmentalists_taking_anti-science_positions/2584/. Accessed on December 4, 2013.
The writer accuses some members of the environmental movement of ignoring sound scientific evidence on some controversial topics, including GM crops and foods. The article engendered a large number of (generally) very thoughtful responses.
“Pest Resistant Crops.” Gene Watch. http://www.genewatch.org/sub-568238. Accessed on August 28, 2013.
This valuable web page provides a very complete discussion of the history and current use of pest-resistant crops, with a number of useful links to related pages.
Phillips, Theresa. 2008. “Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and Recombinant DNA Technology.” Scitable by Nature Education. http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732. Accessed on December 13, 2013.
This article provides an excellent general overview of the current and possible future uses of GM crops and foods, with a discussion of some of the safety and other issues related to the field.
Pollack, Andrew. 2013. “In a Bean, a Boon to Biotech.” New York Times. November 15, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/business/in-a-bean-a-boon-to-biotech.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0. Accessed on December 11, 2013.
The author describes the development of a genetically modified form of soybeans that have reduced (or zero) trans fat, making the product safer and healthier for the human diet. The product was first introduced in the United States in 2011, and its use was promoted indirectly by the Food and Drug Administration’s 2013 decision to recommend or require the elimination of trans fat from many foods.
Robinson, Clare. 2013. “Tumorous Rats, GM Contamination, and Hidden Conflicts of Interest.” Spinwatch. http://www.spinwatch.org/index.php/issues/more/item/5495-tumorous-rats-gm-contamination-and-hidden-conflicts-of-interest. Accessed on August 21, 2013.
Robinson discusses in detail the publication of a report on possible health risks posed by GM foods, reaction to that report by a number of scientists, and possible conflicts of interest associated with those reactions. For more detail, see Séralini et al. and Arjo et al. under the Articles section.
Ronald, Pamela. 2013. “The Truth about GMOs.” Boston Review. http://www.bostonreview.net/forum/pamela-ronald-gmo-food. Accessed on October 30, 2013.
The author points out that the development of GM crops can provide one important way of increasing the world’s food supply, thus helping to solve one of the world’s most serious problems: mass hunger. She explains why she thinks GM crops are a safe and effective way for dealing with this issue.
Schauzu, Marianna. 2000. “The Concept of Substantial Equivalence in Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically Modified Organisms.” AgBiotechNet. http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/349/schauzu.pdf. Accessed on August 20, 2013.
The author reviews the development and meaning of the term substantial equivalence and its continued use in the assessment of the safety of GM foods around the world.
“Should We Grow GM Crops?” Harvest of Fear. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/exist/yes2.html. Accessed on December 4, 2013.
This web page reviews some of the socioeconomic objections that have been raised to the use of GM crops.
Then, Christoph. 2013. “30 Years of Genetically Engineered Plants—20 Years of Commercial Cultivation in the United States: a Critical Assessment.” Testbiotech. http://www.testbiotech.de/sites/default/files/TESTBIOTECH%20Cultivation_GE_%20plants_US.pdf. Accessed on September 11, 2013.
This report provides an excellent review of the development of agricultural biotechnology in the United States and Europe since the 1980s, with emphasis on differences in the ways in which the two regions have dealt with the new technology.
Tyson, Peter. “Show We Grow GM Crops?” Frontline. Harvest of Fear. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/exist/. Accessed on August 30, 2013.
This presentation is an extraordinary piece that allows readers to hear arguments both for and against the use of GM crops in such a way that they can adjust their opinions as they hear more and more points on each side of the debate.
“Weighing the GMO Arguments: For/Against.” FAO Newsroom. http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo7.htm and http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo8.htm. Accessed on August 29, 2013.
These two pieces by the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization provided two of the most complete, lucid, and unbiased arguments for and against the use of GM foods available on the Internet.
Products labeled with Non Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) are sold at the Lassens Natural Foods & Vitamins store in Los Feliz district of Los Angeles. A number of states and local communities have now voted to require the labeling of genetically modified foods in their jurisdictions. (AP Photo/Damian Dovarganes)