The Seven Years War
In North America, the Seven Years War was referred to as the French and Indian War, named for those forces the British were fighting. Although the war was also waged in Europe, India and the Caribbean, in North America the battle was for Canada. The Siege of Quebec during the summer of 1759 marked a turning point in fighting that had been long and brutal. Although the war officially extended from 1756 through 1763, the parties had been effectively at war since 1754. The pivotal battle at the Plains of Abraham is most familiar to modern readers. Early in the morning of September 13, 1759, General James Wolfe’s army moved upstream in the Royal Navy’s vessels. Scaling the cliff below the Plains of Abraham was a bold manoeuvre, one that General Montcalm never expected. That meant there was no real opposition.
Montcalm need not have met the British challenge at all, but that was the nature of war in those days. When his army did march from their camp to the east, they came at a run, and quickly became disorganized. The battle was brief and deadly. It lasted around fifteen minutes, although it must have seemed much longer to those involved. Six hundred British troops were wounded and sixty-one killed. One British officer estimated as many as fifteen hundred French casualties.
Scholars have long debated the wisdom of Montcalm’s coming out to meet Wolfe. So have re-enactors and writers. The result of the siege was a tide-turning event.
Some may say that battles are won by armies and their generals. That may be so, and yet the Royal Navy played a very important role during the siege. As this story shows, it provided transportation, as well as all the food and ammunition. It was sailors who dragged the massive guns up to the plains, and then insisted on fighting alongside soldiers. The navy was never really given credit for what it did that summer. But without its support, Quebec likely could not have been taken.
The fleet had gradually assembled at Louisbourg in the spring of 1759. There were 320 vessels, including 49 warships. It faced a journey of 1100 kilometres (600 nautical miles) to Quebec, one that was complicated by ice, fog and the treacherous waters of the St. Lawrence. But seventeen French pilots — men who knew the river very well — had been captured at Louisbourg the year before. And there were the charts that James Cook had drawn. Organized into three squadrons, the fleet was able to navigate up the St. Lawrence with little difficulty.
According to Pembroke’s log, she seems to have spent most of the summer anchored some distance from Quebec. She was too large a vessel to safely sail in waters so filled with shoals and mud flats, and subject to tides. There were other ships nearer the city, though. Three bomb vessels — Baltimore, Racehorse and Pelican — armed with mortars, bombarded the town.
It was important to get as many ships as possible upriver of Quebec. It would put them in a much safer position and allow the British to land troops. In doing so on the night of August 18, though, a vessel named Diana ran aground. For twelve hours she was fired upon by the French. It was necessary to throw most of her cannons overboard to lighten her. When she finally floated again, she was sent back to Halifax.
But the fleet did serve well. It was flat boats, longboats, barges and cutters, manned by sailors, that brought the army ashore for the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Sailors moved ammunition, and evacuated the wounded. The navy provided all the rum and biscuit that the soldiers consumed. Without it, the siege would have been impossible.
HMS Northumberland remained at Halifax that winter. On April 22, 1760, Northumberland and the fleet set sail for Quebec. On board were new copies of Cook’s maps, which had been printed in England. Within a month, the ship was anchored in front of the city.
Quebec had suffered that winter. Many sailors still had scurvy, that terrible condition caused by a lack of Vitamin C. The French attempted to retake Quebec, but by summer’s end it remained in British hands. Montreal had surrendered to British troops. Northumberland returned to Halifax that fall.
Mr. Cook often took out one of the ship’s boats. He produced maps of Halifax harbour and parts of the Nova Scotia coast. Then, in July of 1762, word came that the French were sending a force to Newfoundland to destroy the British fishery there. By September 13, Northumberland and the rest of the squadron were at St. John’s. A gale rose up, and the French ships were driven out to sea. The French garrison surrendered a few days later. Northumberland and the squadron sailed for England that October. Once there, the ship’s company was paid off and disbanded. James Cook, though, was not destined for a life ashore.
The war finally ended in 1763 with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The French would keep St. Pierre and Miquelon, two small islands off the coast of Newfoundland. Accurate charts of those islands, as well as the areas around Newfoundland where the French would still be allowed to fish, were needed. Cook was assigned as marine surveyor during the summers of 1763 to 1767, tasked with mapping much of the coast of Newfoundland. Some years later, Cook would chart Nootka Sound in British Columbia.
James Cook would go on to lead three expeditions to the south Pacific. These resulted in promotions to lieutenant and then captain. He circumnavigated the globe twice and drew detailed charts of Australia, New Zealand and numerous Pacific islands. In 1776 he was admitted to the Royal Society — an organization that promoted scientific research — for so successfully having prevented scurvy in his crew. Three years later, Cook and four marines were killed at Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii. His remains were buried at sea there.
In the age of sail, ships were made of wood, iron and canvas. Salt water, wind and battle took their toll, as did the passage of time. HMS Pembroke was no exception. After years of service during war, she was converted to be used as a hulk or storage ship in 1776. Pembroke broke up off the east coast of Canada in 1793.
The stories of Cook, Wolfe, Montcalm and all the other historical characters in this book are well known. But there are also the less celebrated folk to remember. There were farmers, common soldiers, sailors and Native allies. Their names may not be known, but they served an equally important part in fighting for what they believed. Like James Cook surveying the shores and rivers of this country, they helped chart Canada’s destiny.
On-board Ship
The Royal Navy was made up of many boys. They ranged from boys of six to young teens. Larger ships had a schoolmaster on board for young midshipmen. Boys destined to become ordinary sailors — they were referred to as ship’s boys — were trained by sea daddies, such as this book’s character, Tom Pike. Whether one was a common sailor or a midshipman, a life at sea could be a good choice of profession. There was steady work and decent food in a time that promised neither. In the future, midshipmen would come from high-ranking families. It would be necessary to have connections and influential family friends. But at the time of this story, a young man without such connections still could be a candidate.
Midshipmen spent their time studying mathematics, navigation and seamanship. They did not wear a uniform at this time, but would have had to supply themselves with suitable clothing. Not only the officers, but seasoned sailors, would be responsible for their training. Midshipmen would be expected to show respect to all of them. It may not have been adventurous, but such skills would be necessary for any midshipman who wanted to be an officer.
Farm animals, cats and dogs could be found on ships of war. The last two helped keep down the population of rats, which could be very destructive. One captain of that time said that his ship was so leaky, he was afraid the rats had chewed through the hull again. There are accounts of parrots and monkeys kept as pets. There are also accounts of tigers, a bear, and even an elephant being carried back to England in the name of science.