Advantages of understanding fibers … Linen fabric manufacture … Judging damask … Properties of linen … Why we are more careful with linen fabrics today … Laundering delicate vs. sturdy linen fabrics … About bleaching, avoiding shrinking, drying linen … Cotton fabric manufacture … Properties of cotton fibers and fabrics … Caring for cotton fabric … Manufacture of wool fabrics … Judging quality in wool … Worsted vs. woolen yarns … Properties of wool … Caring for wool fabrics … Hand-washing and machine-washing wool fabrics … Manufacturing silk fabrics … Raw, pure dye, duppioni, and wild silk … Properties of silk fiber and fabrics … Caring for silk fabrics … Bast fibers and their properties and uses … Permanent-press and resin-treated cotton, rayon, finer fabrics, and their blends … Washable antiques, heirlooms, and other fragile or valuable linen … Mothproofing wool
Imagine two shirts of identical bright color and cut, indistinguishable except that one is made of cotton and the other of polyester. One may fade, and the other almost surely will not. One may pill, the other won’t. One will wrinkle, the other will hardly wrinkle at all. One will be cool and comfortable in hot, sticky weather, the other may not be. These examples by no means exhaust the list of differences, all of which are functions of the fiber content of the two garments.
When you buy clothes, linens, towels, drapes, or other cloth goods for the home, you unavoidably choose one kind of fiber or blend of fibers over another. That choice determines how well the cloth will function in the role you envision for it, how it will feel, how long it will wear, how attractive it will remain as it ages, and how you will have to clean and care for it. To choose on the basis of style or look alone can lead to repeated experiences of frustration and unnecessary expense. To help you choose wisely and increase your awareness of how different fibers behave, in this chapter and the next I summarize the nature of the major fibers used in clothing and furnishings and offer a summary of how fabrics made from each of them are best cared for.
The natural fibers have a long and distinguished history. Linen, cotton, silk, and wool have each been used in clothmaking for millennia. They have been so important in our history that our language carries dozens of phrases and ideas borrowed from the manufacture and use of cloth of natural fiber—from calico cats and gingham dogs to getting fleeced, wearing sackcloth, and buying shoddy work or goods. Sometimes a restaurant disappoints you with its run-of-the-mill food. You might prefer tweedy friends to homespun ones, but certainly you want no sleazy ones.* The same richness of connotation cannot be expected of the synthetics, which are so recent. A young woman might be glad that her hair is flaxen and her skin like satin, but she will not cotton to being compared to polyester.
We draw upon the rich meanings of the natural fibers in a different way when we choose to put one rather than another on our backs or in our homes. Linen is dignified, and it often seems capable of heights of refinement and elegance that cotton cannot reach. Cotton is whatever you want it to be—plain or fancy, sensible, businesslike or whimsical, as you wish. Its very versatility works against its being a symbol of anything. Wool is comfortable, protective, warm, and prudent. Silk, as the fiber of true velvets, satins, and flowing chiffon scarves, retains an image of luxury and sensuousness. In each instance, these associations are derived from something in the way the fiber actually works or feels. A better acquaintance with the cloth made of these fibers will enable you to do more with fabrics in your home and to care for clothes and furnishings more successfully.
Linen
About Linen. Linen is so highly venerated that people tend to think of it as precious and delicate. But linen is available in sturdy constructions as well as fine. While some linens are fit for royal boudoirs and fragile lace on christening gowns, others are suitable for hard work as towels, bandages, everyday sheets, and other ordinary items. Flax is a remarkably strong, durable, and functional fiber. Linen is chosen for the finest damasks and the most delicate laces partly because it is lustrous and smooth but also because it has superior strength, launders so well, and lasts so long. Linen towels, handkerchiefs, clothes, nightgowns and nightshirts, sheets and pillowcases, and upholstery are often both lovely and exceptionally serviceable.
Linen fabric is made from fibers of the flax plant’s stem, which, like other plant fibers, are made of cellulose polymers. Good-quality linen is expensive, especially in the United States, which imports all of its fine linen and uses only small quantities of it each year. Linen is produced in many European countries. Traditionally, Belgian, Irish, and Italian linen are the most prized. Courtrai flax, grown in Belgium, creates the strongest and finest yarns, but Irish workmanship has long been regarded as superior. Belgian linen has a faint yellow cast; Irish linen is often skillfully sun-bleached to a prized degree of whiteness. French linen, also of high quality, is characteristically woven of round yarns, that is, it has not been put through the beetling process that is used to flatten linen. See “Beetling” in chapter 20, pages 314-15.
Not all linen produced in these countries is of the highest quality, however. The Confédération Européenne du Lin et du Chanvre, known as CELC, is an association of linen producers from Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom (including Northern Ireland). CELC, through its promotional organization, Masters of Linen, authorizes the use of its international linen trademark by producers who agree to meet its standards. The logo’s presence indicates that the linen originates in the European Union, in accordance with its social and environmental policies, and that it meets the Masters of Linen quality standards of construction, strength, dimensional stability (resistance to shrinking), and colorfastness. The logo is also an indication that you will find reliable care information—often a boon on tablecloths and other household fabrics because United States laws do not require care labels on articles other than apparel. Hang tags bearing the logo denote the fiber content of the linen fabric, that is, pure (100 percent) linen, minimum 50 percent linen, or linen union (cloth with cotton warp and linen weft). Although the Masters of Linen logo is helpful, you must still judge the quality of individual pieces for yourself.
Manufacture of Linen. A process called hackling separates flax into long fibers and short fibers, or staple. The fibers are then spun into yarn for weaving or knitting. Only long staple, called line, is used for fine linens—handkerchief linen, fine tablecloths, fine lingerie, and dresses. Thus the label “pure linen” is not necessarily a guarantee of high-quality fabric. For very fine linen, hackling is done by hand to produce longer fibers than can be obtained by machine-hackling. Short fibers, called tow, however, might be used in a very thin, smooth, closely woven fabric. Dish towels that are 100 percent linen but have a bumpy, slightly rough texture are of tow, as are linen draperies and upholstery. If it were possible to untwist and examine the length of the fiber in linen fabric, you could determine for yourself whether the fiber is line or tow: line fibers are twelve to twenty inches long; tow fibers are shorter than twelve inches.
The characteristic smooth texture of line linen reflects the smoothness of flaxen yarn. Usually linen yarns used for table linens (but not those used for dress linens) are also subjected to beetling, which gives the fabric its characteristic flat, lustrous appearance. Beetling also renders linen more flexible and gives it a uniform thickness.
In its natural state, flax fiber ranges in color from pale yellow or cream to dark brown. To get white linen, the fibers or fabric must be bleached. The more the cloth is bleached, unfortunately, the weaker it becomes. The traditional Irish method of bleaching it by laying it out on the grass in sunlight is less damaging than the chemical bleaching that is more commonly done. Whatever method is chosen, linen may be bleached a little or a lot. (There are four grades of bleached linen: fully bleached or full white, three-quarters bleached, half or silver bleached, and quarter bleached.) Bleaching is used not only to produce lighter cream and white shades but to make it easier to dye the linen fibers to intense hues. Flax fibers’ hard, nonporous surface resists taking color. Brightly colored linen will have been much bleached and therefore may be weaker and have a shorter wear life than linen that has been less bleached. Nonetheless, if it is vat dyed or if it bears the Masters of Linen logo, it will have good colorfastness.
Fine linen is characterized by close and regular weaving and a smooth surface, free of bumps or knots. Fuzziness of any degree indicates either lower quality or the presence of another fiber blended in. Linen is available in many different weights, from very sheer to very heavy, and in very tight to very loose weaves. The heavier the weight of a linen fabric, the more durable it tends to be and the better it stands up to laundering. Fine flax cambric, for example, is delicate, while linen duck (a canvaslike fabric) is hardy.
Fine table linens are almost always jacquard-woven in single damask or double damask. Damask’s woven patterns show on both sides. Double damask has twice as many filling yarns as warp yarns, which makes its pattern show more distinctly. The thread count of double damask ranges from 165 to 400. In single damask, which usually has a balanced construction (equal numbers of warp and filling threads), the thread count is from 100 to 200. The higher thread counts are more desirable in both kinds of damask. You can assure yourself that you are getting good quality by examining the cloth with eyes and hand, by relying on reputable manufacturers, and by obtaining knowledgeable sales assistance when it is available.
Properties of Linen. Flax fibers are strong and can be rendered into hardy, durable linen fabrics as well as delicate ones. The strength of the best linen is equaled only by fabrics made of nylon and polyester. Flax is considered a durable fiber both because of this strength and because of its good resistance to abrasion (rubbing) and to the deteriorating effects of sunlight. However, wrinkle-resistance treatments and bleaching, especially strong chemical bleaching, will weaken it. (Antiwrinkling treatments will also render it less absorbent and affect its hand; see pages 313-14 and 321-22.) As it ages, it softens in a way that many people particularly enjoy.
JUDGING DAMASK
Double damask is not necessarily superior to single damask. If low-quality yarns are used for double damask and high-quality for single, the single may better. To be of better quality than single damask, double damask should have a higher thread count, superior yarn, and careful design and weaving. In durable, high-quality damask, the yarns are very even and the weave very close; otherwise the yarns will slip and the floats will wear out sooner. In general, longer floats are more beautiful, shorter floats more durable. The most beautiful, high-quality damasks are made of linen rather than cotton because the long, smooth flax fibers, when woven into damask’s long floats, do not pull out, fuzz up, and wear out as readily as cotton fibers do.
Flax fibers’ smooth surface neither attracts nor holds dirt and stains as much as less smooth fibers, including cotton, do. Linen clothing feels cool and comfortable in hot weather—more so than fabrics made from any other fiber. This is both because flax fibers are so smooth and flat and because they are one of the most absorbent of all fibers. (Even a linen garment will not be cool, however, if it is lined with a hot or inabsorbent fabric, so be sure to check the fiber content of linings.) Linen also dries quickly—faster than cotton fabric—and does not lint. Thus it makes excellent towels, handkerchiefs, and bandages. Linen is naturally crisp. It has more body than cotton and drapes better. Linen fabrics may shrink a bit when washed (unless they have been treated or are labeled “nonshrink”), but they shrink less than untreated cotton. It is always best to buy linen fabric preshrunk if possible. The presence of the Masters of Linen logo indicates that that linen fabric will resist shrinking.
Linen is not resilient—that is, it will wrinkle readily—unless treated to prevent wrinkling or blended with a less wrinkle-prone fiber. It is inelastic, too; linen clothes should be carefully fitted, for they will not “give” in wear. Because linen is stiff, a crease should not be repeatedly pressed in firmly or eventually the linen will actually crack there. Articles that are stored folded, such as sheets and tablecloths, may weaken along the fold line if they are always folded in the same way or if they are left folded for long periods, so periodically refold them or roll them on tubes. (See “Caring for Linen,” below.)
Linen is vulnerable to mildew but not to moths. It has good light resistance, more than cotton, eventually deteriorating only with long exposure to light. Concentrated acids, or even dilute acids if they are hot, can damage cellulosic fibers like linen. Over time, acid perspiration will also weaken it. If linen is stored in a starched state, silverfish may attack the starch and harm the linen.
Despite its fine qualities and its various superiorities to cotton, linen is often so expensive that you are better off investing in cotton if your budget is limited. And although linen compares favorably with cotton in so many respects, it is considerably less versatile. There are fewer types of linen cloth, and it bears many fewer constructions. Linen is available in quite a few excellent blends with both natural and synthetic fibers. Look for the Masters of Linen trademark for assurances of quality with respect to colorfastness, shrinkage, strength, and cloth construction. Or, for colorfastness, look for a label that says “Colorfast” or “Vat dyed.”
Is Linen Delicate? Those Times and These Times. Household linens, such as sheets, towels, and lingerie, are likely to have care labels that prescribe laundering. All other linens today tend to have care labels that call for dry cleaning.
When it comes to highly tailored garments such as linen suits and jackets, and furnishings such as draperies, upholstery, and the like, take the drycleaning prescription very seriously. By home-laundering a dazzling linen summer suit whose care label prescribed dry cleaning, I turned it into a limp, shrunken, crooked-threaded mess. There are times, however, when both manufacturers and home launderers are a bit too timid about laundering linen. It is, after all, in principle, a strong, durable fabric. Not so long ago people did not hesitate to bleach, boil, and scrub linen vigorously, using strong chemicals like washing soda, to ensure that it was white, germ-free, and gorgeously gleaming. But today, even a care label that instructs you to wash the linen article does so in a way that makes you nervous. When you stop to consider why this change has taken place, it may help you to decide how you wish to treat your own prized linen fabrics.
In part, today we need to use more caution because our linens are less sturdy than linens were in the old days, when they were much heavier in weight, resin-free (resin treatments weaken cloth), and often made of the finest-quality flax. However, the gentle treatments recommended for linen today are not always addressed to its fiber content. For example, linen can take a lot of heat—hot wash water and a very hot iron—without damage. (A strong fiber by nature, linen is even stronger when wet.) Yet you are usually told not to wash it in hot water, and certainly not to boil it! One reason for the change is that dyes in colored modern linens may bleed or fade, whereas in the old days linen wasn’t dyed at all but came in shades of white, tan, and brown. Another reason is that the manufacturer thinks you will be angry if the article shrinks, whereas people expected and allowed for some shrinking in the old days. They did not use fitted sheets (there were no fitted sheets); rather, they got their sheets—and nightgowns, chemises, shirts, and tablecloths—big enough to shrink somewhat and still fit. And whereas today people tend to buy linen for its looks, in the old days people valued it as much for function as for its beauty. It was inconceivable to the sanitarily minded Victorian that you should not render your bed and body linens germ-free by boiling or that you should not do everything in your power to render them snowy white. It was precisely because linen resisted staining and soil and because sturdy linen could endure strenuous laundering that it was used for bedding, tablecloths, towels, underwear, and nightgowns.
A final difference that matters is that in the good old days people were expert ironers and used very hot irons. Today’s manufacturer is worried about what the home launderer will do when faced with the job of restoring a flat rectangle of a tablecloth—let alone a garment of complicated construction—to its smooth, prelaundered appearance. Many modern irons do not get quite hot enough to do linen well. Most people just don’t expect to iron or even know how to do fine or complicated ironing of an article that has to be very damp, requires a very hot iron, and may need starch, so the manufacturer shrugs and writes on the care label, “Don’t even try.” But you can certainly learn this simple and satisfying skill, and quickly too, if you are willing to practice and survive less than stellar results until you pass beyond the beginner’s stage.
It is, of course, always safest to follow the care labels. There are many reasons why care labels on linen articles might call for dry cleaning or very gentle laundering, even though linen is in principle a sturdy, highly washable fabric. To summarize and provide a few other examples:
Heirloom and antique linens always require special handling. (See pages 350-51.)
Linens may have water-soluble finishes that will dissolve in the wash, leaving you with a hopelessly limp, unsightly garment. If linen is not preshrunk—and it often is not—it may shrink significantly when washed, especially if the fabric has a loose weave.
Linen articles may have trims or linings that are not washable. Many colored linens are prone to fading and bleeding.
The manufacturer may fear that the skill required to iron some linen garments properly, especially heavyweight ones, will exceed the talents of the average person.
Ironing dark and bright-colored linens might cause seams and dart lines to turn white.
The fabric may be a blend that includes some fiber that requires a more conservative treatment than flax.
Loosely or delicately constructed linens might unravel, tear, snag, or shrink in the wash. Linen damasks that are not of the highest quality may be loosely woven with low-twist yarns and long floats.
Any construction or weaving factors that render other fabrics delicate may be present in linen fabrics. (See pages 267-80 and 330.)
Because of such contingencies, it is risky to disregard care labels on linen. And of course any risks are magnified by the premium in price that you pay for good linen. The high cost is enough to drive any of us to extreme caution.
Caring for Linen
Choosing a Good Laundering Technique. Laundering linen differs from laundering cotton in several respects. First, bleaching will usually be unnecessary, and chlorine bleach should usually be avoided. Second, shorter or gentler agitation is called for. Third, linen is best dried out of the dryer. In laundering any type of off-white linen, be cautious about the use of laundry detergents. Most contain optical brightening agents, which can change the color or create a dappled effect on some off-whites. (One manufacturer of linen damasks also advises against using detergents or other products that contain optical brighteners on white damask because, the manufacturer says, this will detract from the appearance of the subtle pattern. See “Optical brighteners,” pages 83-84, and “Detergents and soaps, mild,” pages 78-80, in the Glossary of Laundry Products and Additives.)
Cautious, conservative laundering is required for antique or heirloom linens; linens of very fine or delicate construction; less sturdy or lower-quality damasks; sheer fabrics; loose weaves or weaves with long floats or low-twist yarns; lace; embroidered (especially hand-embroidered) fabrics; cutwork; and similar linens. If you do not want to tackle the laundering of such linens, there are businesses that specialize in laundering antique and fine linens of all sorts.
The experts disagree on the best ways to launder linen. To a large extent, the disagreements reflect different ideas about how long you should expect linen to last. If you really wish and expect washable sturdy linen to last a lifetime, you should give it the gentle treatment described below as suitable for washable delicate linens. But if vigorous cleaning is more important, consider whether you should choose the method directed for washable sturdy linens. (To clean antiques, heirlooms, and other fragile or valuable cottons and linens, see pages 350-51. The instructions immediately below are not appropriate for such items.)
Cautious Laundering Methods for Washable Delicate Linens
These instructions apply to washable delicate linens that have not become fragile through age and are not being preserved for posterity.
Washable delicate linens may be hand-laundered in mild detergent in the manner described in chapter 4, “Laundering,” pages 62-63. Or they will do fine on the gentle cycle of your washing machine, set for a short wash. If you have no gentle agitation setting, you might consider machine-washing delicate linens very briefly on regular agitation, but this requires you to exercise your judgment as to just how delicate the articles are. For protection while machine-washing, especially if the pieces have fringes, ties, or loose trim, place them in a mesh bag or an old pillowcase and fasten it closed. Use warm water for white linens and lukewarm for colored (or cool if the colored linens bleed readily). Use a mild detergent (preferably one without optical brightening agents if you are laundering off-whites or white damask). If you prefer a mild soap to a detergent, be sure that you have soft water. Rinse very thoroughly with plain cool water. (Those who are uncertain how to choose a mild detergent should read “Detergents and soaps, mild,” in the Glossary of Laundry Products and Additives, pages 78-80.)
To remove spots or stains or general dinginess or yellowing, first try soaking the fabric overnight in warm water with mild detergent. (However, protein stains—blood or egg, for example—get a cool-water soak; see the Guide to Stain Removal that begins on page 163.) Next, resort to sun bleaching and then to oxygen bleach, as described below. (I myself am willing to chance even chlorine bleach to cure stains or dinginess in delicate linen when I reach the point at which I feel I have nothing to lose.)
To dry linen, do not wring; roll it in a towel to remove excess moisture, then dry flat away from sources of heat. Hanging to dry can stress delicate fibers but will be fine for a sheer linen nightgown or blouse (one that you wear—not an antique). Use your judgment.
You can avoid ironing delicate lace if you gently pull it to its proper shape and then pin it to the towel or weigh it down around the edges with something harmless to prevent its curling up or drying crooked. Watch out that you do no harm with the pinning; put the point of the pin through holes in the lace.
If ironing will be safe and is necessary, take the linen up while it is still fairly damp. Then iron sheer or delicate linens on the wrong side with a medium iron; iron less sheer, less delicate linens on the wrong side with a hot iron. (See “Ironing Linen” in chapter 6, “Ironing,” pages 108-10.)
Laundering Washable Sturdy, Nonshrink, Colorfast, or White Linens
The following instructions apply to washable sturdy tablecloths, sheets, woven towels, clothes, and similar linens. Linen that has not been Sanforized or preshrunk may shrink moderately, and the hotter the water the more shrinking you may expect. (See “About Shrinking of Linen,” below.)
Use hot water and regular laundry detergent unless you need to avoid optical brighteners (on certain off-whites or on white damask; see “Optical brighteners” in the Glossary of Laundry Products and Additives, pages 83-84). If you use soap, make sure you have soft water. Set the machine for gentle or slow agitation or—if you have only one agitation speed—a short agitation period. (Although some experts think regular agitation is fine, my experience suggests that linen’s brittle fibers last longer if they are not beaten about too much. A front-loading washing machine would probably be less damaging on “regular” than an agitating top-loader.) Use a fast spin. Rinse thoroughly; using the extra-rinse option on your washer is a good idea. Do not wring. When you are having trouble getting linens clean with the foregoing procedures, add a long presoak, overnight if the problem is stubborn, with hot water initially.
Woven linens can be hung to dry; knits should dry flat. See “About Drying Linen,” below. Iron with a hot iron. (See pages 108-10 in chapter 6, “Ironing.”)
About Bleaching Linen. If you launder linen well and rinse it well, it is not likely to need bleaching. But sometimes dinginess develops or stains or spots occur. If bleaching becomes necessary, sun-bleaching is gentlest. To whiten linen and help remove spots, sun-bleach by laying the freshly washed, damp article in the sun, putting a sheet or some other protection under it. Make sure it will not be injured or soiled by animals or children. (The habit of laying stained fabrics on a bush to bleach them gave rise to the expression, “If that doesn’t take the rag off the bush.”)
City dwellers may cautiously resort to chemical bleaches on whites. On colorfast colored and white linens, try oxygen bleaches if you feel the linens need bleaching. If you need to avoid the optical brighteners or bluing that oxygen bleaches typically contain, consider using plain hydrogen peroxide (see pages 70-71). Chlorine bleach is generally unnecessary, but I have made occasional use of it, without mishap, on white, sturdy, washable linen that grew dingy. I use chlorine bleach on linen dish towels at each laundering; after several years, none has developed holes or any other apparent weaknesses.
About Shrinking of Linen. If you wish to use hot water, be sure to buy sturdy, well-made linens that are Sanforized or preshrunk or that are big enough to undergo some shrinkage and still fit. (The presence of the Masters of Linen logo indicates that the fabric should be dimensionally stable.) If you are deliberately shrinking non-preshrunk linens, however, be alert to size and to decorative patterns, such as those that are meant to track the edge of the table. If linen is not preshrunk and you cannot permit any shrinkage, you might consider dry-cleaning it, because even washing it in cool water and drying it flat or on the line will produce a bit of shrinking on each laundering until it is finally completely shrunk. But sooner or later—usually sooner—dry cleaning produces grayness, dinginess, or limpness in white or light linen. So be sure to search for a reliable dry cleaner and make your standards known when you deliver your linens.
About Drying Linen. Tumbling in the dryer causes linen fabric to become terribly wrinkled; all the tumbling is hard on the fabric, and for many household linens it is quite unnecessary as they dry quickly and you must iron them very damp. Flax, keep in mind, is a rather brittle fiber. Thus good care for linen fabric includes not bending and jerking it too much, especially when it is dry. One manufacturer actually recommends removing linen from the washer after the spin cycle and ironing it right away. This manufacturer probably has in mind the front-loading type of washing machine common in Europe but not the United States, which spins laundry much dryer than ours do. However, the advice does make a point: you want linen to be quite damp when you iron it, so there is no reason to risk damage by tumbling it dry. If you feel you must put sturdy linen in the dryer, keep the drying time short and be sure to remove the linen when it is still very damp. If you are concerned about shrinkage, dry the linen on a low setting.
It is best, however, to hang an article made of linen to dry or to dry it flat. When it is the proper degree of dampness for ironing, roll it up tightly, place it in an airtight plastic wrap or bag, and put it in the refrigerator or freezer if you do not intend to iron it within a few hours. If you are going to iron it soon, wrap it so that the dampness does not evaporate in the meantime.
On ironing linen, see chapter 6, “Ironing,” pages 108-10.
Cotton
About Cotton. Cotton is the true “miracle fiber.” It is the fiber of democracy: it can be anything it wants to be, ambitious or humble, and its qualities can be enjoyed by rich and poor alike. More cotton is used in the United States than any other fiber.
Cotton, like flax, is a cellulosic fiber. It is derived from the fuzzy fibers surrounding the seeds of the cotton plant. It has many of the virtues of flax. It is absorbent, cool, crisp, smooth, and strong, even if, in each case, less so than linen. The quality of cotton fabric, like that of linen, is determined by the closeness and regularity of the weave and the construction of the fabric as well as the kind of cotton plant that provided the fibers from which it was made. The cotton plant determines the fiber’s color, strength, luster, fineness or coarseness, and the length of the staple—short, medium, long, or extra long. (Long-staple cotton is 1⅛ inches or more in length; extra long is 1⅜ inches or more.) In general, the longer the staple, the better and the more costly the cotton fabric made from it and the more strength, smoothness, softness, luster, and durability it has.
Measured by these criteria, the best kind of cotton fiber is said to be Sea Island cotton, first grown off the coast of Georgia and now grown in the West Indies. This is a lustrous fiber with the finest and longest staple of all cottons (from 1½ to 2½inches), and therefore it is used to manufacture the very finest cotton fabrics. It is now available only in small quantities, and you are unlikely to find many fabrics made of it. I have encountered men’s shirts and pajamas made of Sea Island cotton, and I have bought Sea Island cotton fabrics in a piece goods store.
Pima cotton, another superior type of cotton, is a crossbreed of American and Egyptian cottons that is grown in Texas, the Southwest, and southern California. Pima cotton, like Sea Island cotton, is extra-long staple (its staple length ranges from 1⅜ to 1⅝ inches), uniform, very fine, lustrous, strong, and light in color, which means it needs less bleaching than darker cottons. The Supima Association is an organization of pima cotton farmers that promotes pima cotton and authorizes the use of the Supima trademark only on fabrics of 100 percent pima cotton. (The Supima Blends trademark indicates that the fabric contains at least 60 percent pima cotton. The other 40 percent may be composed of other types of cotton or other types of fibers.)
Egyptian cotton, grown largely in the Nile Valley, is a third extra-long staple, better-quality cotton, with a staple length running from 1½ to 1¾ inches. It comes in a number of varieties; although all are long or extra-long staple, only some are of the highest quality, and you cannot rely on labels announcing “Egyptian cotton” as a guarantee that you are getting the best. Egyptian cotton fibers range from light cream to dark tan; they are said to be less uniform than pima cotton fibers.
When purchasing goods bearing labels indicating that they are made of “Sea Island” or “Egyptian” cotton, look to see whether they are said to be of 100 percent of this type of cotton; otherwise they may be made of a mixture of fine and less fine cottons or other types of fiber. When purchasing pima cotton goods, look for the Supima trademark or for a statement about the percentage of pima cotton the article contains.
Most United States cotton, however, as well as most of the world’s cotton, is upland cotton; most cotton goods, including clothes, towels, sheets, and diapers, are made of upland cotton. The Seal of Cotton, with ts familiar cotton boll, is a registered trademark of Cotton Incorporated, an industry organization supported by growers of upland cotton. This seal indicates fabric made of 100 percent upland cotton; the Natural Blend trademark indicates that the fabric contains at least 60 percent upland cotton. Upland cotton, too, comes in a number of varieties and staple lengths, and these are of different quality, but none are as long and strong as Sea Island, fine Egyptian, or pima cotton; its staple length averages 13/16 to 1 ¼ inches. Yet quality in cotton is to some extent relative to purpose. In towels, for example, my preference is for upland cotton, which seems to me to be most absorbent and soft.
South American cottons are to be found on the market in a wide range of quality. Asiatic cotton imported into the United States is almost always of relatively short staple and is usually used only for lower-quality cotton goods.
Fine-quality cotton goods will often be labeled “Combed cotton.” Combed cotton fabric is made of combed yarns that contain the longest of the long-staple cotton fibers. Combed yarns are stronger, smoother, and more durable than carded yarns and make higher-quality fabrics.
Properties of Cotton. Cotton fibers are naturally very absorbent, and so are fabrics made of them. Cotton fabrics are often preshrunk. If they are not, they tend to shrink; the more loosely woven the fabric, the more it will shrink. Cotton cloth wrinkles, but not quite so much as linen. The cotton knits that have been so deservedly popular for so long wrinkle less than cotton wovens. In addition, much cotton fabric on the market, including cotton in blends, has been subjected to wrinkle-resistance treatments. (But these tend to alter the cloth’s hand, weaken it, and render it less absorbent. See “Resin Treatments,” pages 321-22, and “Antiwrinkling Treatments,” pages 313-14.)
Cotton fabric is cool, but not quite as cool as linen because its fuzzier, less smooth surface holds warmed air. Although cotton fabric is highly absorbent, it dries more slowly than linen. It can be delightfully cool on a hot summer’s day, therefore, as it grows damp from perspiration. Cotton is also strong and durable, although, once again, a bit less so than linen. Cotton fabrics are generally crisp and hold their shape well. Cotton fiber is inelastic but cotton fabrics may acquire “give” or “stretch” from their construction or that of their yarns, for instance, through crêpeing or knitting. And because cotton fibers have a relatively rough surface, cotton fabrics are not quite as dirt- and stain-resistant as linen. One of cotton’s chief advantages over linen, however, is that it takes dyes very well, although colorfastness varies from poor to excellent depending on the dye and the dyeing process. Cotton fabrics generally have low luster, but those made of long-staple cotton fibers have higher luster.
Like linen, cotton fabric is stronger wet than dry. It has fairly good resistance to degradation by light, but it will yellow and weaken with prolonged exposure to sunlight. It mildews readily if left damp but will not be attacked by moths. (In cotton/wool blends, however, moths might attack the wool.) Like all fabrics made of cellulosic fibers, cotton fabric is vulnerable to strong acids. Acidic perspiration has a slightly deteriorating effect on cotton over time. Certain other acids occasionally used in the home, such as hydrochloric, sulfuric, and oxalic acid, will quickly do damage; the hotter and stronger the acidic solution, the greater the damage.
Cotton fabrics are available in every conceivable quality, coarse and fine; in a huge variety of woven and knitted constructions; and in blends with both natural and synthetic fibers.
Caring for Cotton. Subject to the usual caveats regarding finishing treatments, dyes, loose or otherwise delicate weaves, trims, and linings, cotton garments are in principle machine-washable, withstand vigorous and strong detergents, and are also dry-cleanable. Cotton clothes, bedsheets, and tablecloths can be laundered on the regular wash cycle, unless the care label indicates otherwise or unless the article in question is delicate in some respect. Unless treated or preshrunk to prevent it, woven cotton fabrics shrink modestly, and knitted cotton fabrics less modestly. Avoiding hot water and high dryer temperatures reduces shrinkage of cotton knits.
Cotton fabrics may safely be bleached with ordinary household bleaches as long as this is done properly and they are rinsed thoroughly. Chlorine bleach, used according to the manufacturer’s directions, is usually safe on white and colorfast cottons. (But prolonged use weakens the fabric. See “Bleaches,” pages 70-74, and “Optical brighteners,” pages 83-84, in the Glossary of Laundry Products and Additives.) Cotton that has been resin-treated to make it wrinkle-resistant is weaker, however, and may last longer if you avoid bleaching it with a chlorine bleach.
Cotton fabrics tend to yellow with age or long exposure to sunlight. For this reason, you often hear these days that if you line-dry cotton you should put it in the shade. Keep in mind, however, that this is the long-term effect of sunlight. The short-term effect is that sunlight bleaches cotton—whitens whites and fades colors. If I had a clothesline, I would put white cotton in the sun if I wanted to whiten it, but I would not leave it there for more than a few hours, and I would always put colored cottons (and other colored fabrics) in the shade. If your cotton has yellowed from sunlight, by the way, you can usually bleach the color out. (My mother tells me that boiling for forty-five minutes or an hour with detergent will do the trick, too, but no one today has facilities for boiling, so I do not recommend this for bulky items.) Another problem with line-drying cotton is that some cotton is treated with optical brightening agents that yellow in the sunlight. But this problem seems to be rare. Yellowing from either cause tends to show up only on white or light cottons—for instance, on a pastel blue that turns dull. If your sturdy white cottons or linens have yellowed from unknown causes, try the remedy in “Yellowing of White Cottons or Linens,” page 168.
Cotton fabrics can take a hot iron, and woven cottons usually need ironing unless they have received a resin treatment to reduce wrinkling, in which case the warm or permanent-press setting is usually recommended. Use starch or sizing for added crispness.
On the care of permanent-press cotton and cotton blends, see pages 349-50. See also pages 369-70 in chapter 22, “The Man-Made Fibers and Blends.”
Wool and Other Hair Fibers
About Wool. Nature designed wool for comfort. Wool fabric, woven from sheep’s fleece, offers you a bit of what it gave the sheep: warmth, softness, cushioning, protection from dampness, and absorbency. Almost all wool fabrics that you can buy are made from sheep’s wool, but the term “wool” on a garment’s label can also refer to fibers obtained from the fleece of Angora or cashmere goats and to fibers drawn from the coats of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuña. Wool fibers are the warmest of all natural fibers. They can absorb a great amount of moisture without feeling damp and are naturally water-repellant. Wool fabric will not keep you dry in a pouring rain, but it will easily keep a sprinkle or a chilly mist at bay. Moreover, as wool fibers absorb water they actually release heat. This means that in cold, damp weather wool fabric will feel remarkably warm and comfortable, a fact that has been well appreciated for millennia. Wool fibers can also be woven into fabrics that are so lightweight and porous that they are considered suitable for summer wear. Wool is also widely used for furnishings, especially upholstery, carpets, and rugs. Wool fabric can be smooth or rough, fine or coarse. Although raw wool fibers are the weakest of the natural fibers (and grow still weaker when wet), wool fabrics can be constructed to be extremely durable. Wool fabrics are generally more expensive than either cotton or linen because of wool’s expensive production process, beginning with the breeding of sheep.
Wool fibers are classified in two main ways: according to the kind of sheep the fiber comes from and according to the kind of fleece. Merino sheep are the source of merino wool fibers, the finest, softest, strongest, and most elastic wool fibers; because of these qualities, merino wool is the warmest type and spins into yarns well. But merino is not the most durable. The names of the sheep whose wool is most durable are not likely to appear on labels. (“Shetland” and “Botany” refer to places the sheep are raised—the Shetland Islands in Scotland and Botany Bay in Australia.) There is a wide variety in the quality of wool fibers, but quality is relative to function; the coarse, durable wool that makes a good carpet would make a rough, uncomfortable sweater.
Classification by type of fleece reflects the age and condition of the sheep and its fleece. Lamb’s wool is a fleece of very fine quality. Fabrics of lamb’s wool are the softest of all, but less strong than those made of mature wool. Hogget wool, the first shearing off year-old sheep, is highly desirable because it is still quite soft yet stronger than lamb’s wool. Later shearings, from older (and dirtier) sheep, are progressively less desirable for clothing fabrics. Other decidedly inferior classes of fleece are taken from slaughtered or badly nourished sheep. Taglocks are the inferior (torn or discolored) pieces of any fleece.
New Wool and Recycled Wool. Previously manufactured wool yarn and fabrics may be recycled and used in new products. When recycled wool, known also as “shoddy,” “reclaimed,” “reused,” or “reprocessed” wool, is added to new wool, it can add durability, especially if it was of a good grade, but at he cost of some warmth, softness, and resilience. Although the term “recycled” may be relatively new, the practice of recycling wool is quite old. Products containing recycled wool may well be of good quality, and they are generally less expensive than 100 percent new wool fabrics. The Wool Products Labeling Act requires that labels state what percentage, by weight, of wool is contained in a fabric and how much of it is new (or virgin) and how much recycled. A label guaranteeing 100 percent new wool does not, however, and is not intended to, guarantee a wool fabric of superior quality, let alone one superior to all fabrics containing recycled wool. Even very inferior grades of wool, such as pulled wool (from slaughtered sheep), might properly be identified as 100 percent new wool. A fabric made of a high-grade recycled wool would be superior to one made of low-grade new wool.
American Wool
Pure New Wool Woolmark
Harris Tweed Certification Mark
Evaluating Wool. The Wool Products Labeling Act does not require any indication of the breed of sheep or the type of fleece used in a garment or other wool product. Thus it can be difficult to determine the quality of the wool fiber used. There are several trademarks you can look for that help in assessing the quality of wool fibers and fabrics. The Woolmark is the trademark of The Woolmark Company. It may be used only on fabrics of 100 percent new wool that meet The Woolmark Company’s quality specifications. The Woolmark Blend symbol, created in 1971, indicates quality apparel yarns of wool blends containing at least 50 percent new wool (80 percent for carpets and rugs; 60 percent for furnishings and bedding). The Wool Blend symbol, introduced in 1999, identifies quality apparel yarns containing at least 30 percent but less than 50 percent new wool. The presence of the logo of the American Wool Council, a division of the American Sheep Industry Association, indicates that the article contains a significant percentage of wool that originated in the United States—at least 20 percent in all-natural-fiber articles or 30 percent when blended with synthetics. As a condition of receiving permission to use the logo, the manufacturer agrees to use it only on goods of highest quality, samples of which it agrees to supply to the American Wool Council. Genuine Harris tweeds, which are known for their quality of construction, durability, and exclusive designs, can be identified by the symbol of the Harris Tweed Authority.
Tags or labels indicating that the fabric is of merino wool are one means of determining good quality. But use common sense. Recently, I have seen some not inexpensive merino sweaters of mediocre to poor quality. The sweaters were knitted very thinly in a latticework pattern (with lots of holes). Thus for your money you got little cover, little warmth, and little wool—but what you got was indeed merino. The indication on the label of the proportions of new and recycled wool fiber tells something about the relative durability and resilience of the fabric, but, unless you know about the quality of both, this information is of limited use. A “Superwash” or “H2O Wools” (J. P. Stevens Company) label indicates that the wool fabric has been resin-treated to render it machine-washable. Machine-washable Woolmark fabrics are labeled “Easy Care.” You should be sure to read the care label to see whether handwashing or dry cleaning is going to be necessary. Labels may also indicate preshrinking treatments, other treatments rendering wool washable, antiwrinkling treatments, permanent creasing, and so forth.
Much can be learned by sight and touch. If wool feels harsh and stiff, it is of an inferior grade for use in clothing. If it feels very soft and resilient (that is, it does not wrinkle when crushed in the hand), it is of a high grade for this purpose. But softness and resilience are not a guarantee of strength. The addition of some reprocessed or reused wool may indicate increased durability. Napping tends to weaken any fabric; if wool is highly napped it may not be strong. Tightly twisted yarns are stronger than loosely twisted yarns; and yarns in two or more ply are progressively stronger than single-ply yarns. Always observe the quality of the weave. You can usually rely on the representations of reputable retailers and manufacturers and knowledgeable sales clerks, but I find that many sales clerks are as much in the dark as I am.
Different grades of wool may be blended during the manufacturing process to make a hardier or less expensive fabric. Wool/synthetic blends (the percentage of each fiber will be noted on the label) often combine beauty with comfort, serviceability, and economy. Wool fiber contributes softness, warmth, absorbency, and drapability while synthetic fibers can add increased wrinkle-resistance, crease retention, or strength to the fabric and help prevent sagging, bagging, or stretching. Wool/microfiber blends have been particularly praised as giving the appearance and hand of a fine-quality wool.
Cashmere, a type of goat hair, is synonymous with luxury and costliness, but cashmere, like all other types of wool, can be of better or worse quality. The best-quality cashmere, with its exceptional silky softness, is made only of the longest and finest fibers. You will find many garments accurately labeled “100 percent cashmere” that, however, are made only of the less desirable short fibers. If you are inexperienced with cashmere, stop into a good shop and run your hand over its best cashmere sweaters; you will quickly learn what fine cashmere really feels like. One textiles expert advises you to notice, in addition, whether the fabric wrinkles or creases after you scrunch it or returns to its original smoothness, as high-quality goods should do. Test cashmere blends in the same way.
Worsted and Woolen Yarns. Wool yarns fall into one of two types: worsted and woolen. Long wool fibers are used for worsted yarns. They are separated out from short ones and laid parallel (by several processes, including carding and combing) before spinning. The long wool fibers spin into a smoother and firmer yarn. Short wool fibers are used for woolen yarns. They are not combed and are rendered nonparallel so they will spin into fuzzier yarns than worsted yarns.
Worsted fabrics have the flat, hard, smooth feel of tailored wool suits and dresses. Worsted fabrics are usually found in twill rather than plain weave. Worsteds are considerably stronger and more wrinkle-resistant than woolens, and they resist dirt better because they are not fuzzy. However, they can develop unattractive worn, shiny spots.
Woolen fabrics feel soft and fuzzy. Their fuzziness renders them warmer than worsteds but less durable. They are often napped, which gives even more softness but means they hold dirt more readily. Woolens are familiar in sweaters, blankets, sportswear, and jackets.
Oiled wool has had more natural lanolin left on the fibers than usual, which creates extra water-repellancy, and thus might be used in heavy, water-shedding sweaters.
Properties of Wool. Wool is a soft—not crisp—fabric. Although technically wool is a weak fiber, fabrics made from it are exceedingly durable. Wool fabrics have good resistance to abrasion, and both woven and knit wool fabrics can be constructed so that they have excellent strength. Hard-twisted wool yarns, in two or more ply, make very durable fabrics. Wool has fairly good resistance to pilling, which increases its durability in uses such as carpeting. (Although wool fabrics pill, the pills break off and thus do not accumulate as they do on fabrics made of synthetic fibers.) Wool fabrics drape gracefully.
Wool fabrics tend to be warm because wool fibers have scales and crimps that create air pockets that trap body warmth. It is also highly absorbent. It can hold great quantities of perspiration and atmospheric moisture while still feeling dry Moreover, as wool absorbs water it liberates heat and makes the wearer feel even warmer; thus it well deserves its reputation as the fiber of choice for cold, damp climates. Wool fabric is resilient (resists wrinkling). Wrinkles will disappear when the garment or fabric is steamed. But because its resilience is reduced when it is wet, you should not walk on a wet wool carpet or wear a wool garment you have just steam-pressed.
Wool fabrics shrink in water unless treated. Woolens shrink more than worsteds, but both shrink. Look for the “Superwash” or “Easy Care” marks on tags or for some other trademark or label indication that the wool will resist shrinking in water. Wool/synthetic blends may be more resistant to shrinking in water than 100 percent wool that has received no nonshrinking treatment, but such blends are sometimes more prone to pilling. Wool ordinarily has low static buildup but in a very dry atmosphere can become quite static-charged. It is stain-resistant; liquids will run off wool or penetrate it slowly, giving you time to blot them up. Dust and dirt often brush off wool. But it can also absorb and hold odors.
Wool fabrics are highly vulnerable to damage by moths. Sometimes they are given a mothproof finish.
Although wool resists mildew, it may succumb if left damp for a long period. Wool has low resistance to ultraviolet radiation.
Caring for Wool. Wool tends to hold dirt. Because of wool’s elasticity, wool garments should be allowed to “rest” for twenty-four hours in order to return to their proper shape before they are worn again. According to one authority, wool garments should also be left to rest for a few days after dry cleaning or washing. If wool fabrics are left to rest, their fibers age or “anneal.” The wool molecules actually rearrange themselves into more energy-efficient configurations. To prepare a garment for resting, empty the pockets, button or zip it up, and hang it straight on a hanger with broad shoulders or fold it and lay it in a drawer or on a shelf. Brush wool garments after wearing and allow them to air, properly hung on a hanger or folded, before replacing them in your closet or dresser. Brushing not only helps keep the cloth clean, it is also good protection against moths; airing will reduce odors. Wool, however, does not hold body odors the way synthetics sometimes do and can actually help get rid of underarm odors by absorbing them. To freshen and unwrinkle wool garments, hang them in a steamy bathroom or use a steaming device. You will help wool garments stay clean longer if, after brushing and before airing, you simply wipe them down with a barely damp white, lint-free cloth. Make sure you let them air-dry before replacing them in the closet or drawer.
Wool fabrics are usually dry-cleaned. Some (including some cashmere) are washable, but wool is softened by moisture and heat, and shrinking and felting may occur when the fabric is washed, especially in alkaline solutions. Because shrinking and felting are much less of a problem with dry cleaning, most care labels call for this. For instructions on hand-washing and machine-washing wool, see page 345.
Even washable wools require careful laundering. Because ordinary laundry detergents all create an alkaline wash-water solution, wool should be washed with special detergents. Use a gentle soap or detergent that is nonalkaline or near-neutral pH. (See “Detergents and soaps, mild” in the glossary at the end of chapter 4.) Make sure the soap or detergent is effective in cool water. Hot or warm water with detergent can cause astonishing shrinkage: your size 38 sweater can emerge toddler-sized. Washable white wool may be bleached, if you are careful about it, with hydrogen peroxide but not chlorine bleach. (See pages 70-71.) Do not dry wool in the sunlight, especially white wool, as this can render it yellow or dull.
Store wool clothes, blankets, and carpets out of light and dampness, and make sure they are perfectly clean when they are put away; moths and other insects will be attracted to soils. On protecting wools from moths, see “Mothproofing Wool,” pages 351-52.
Do not iron wool; press it, using a damp press cloth. (See chapter 6, “Ironing,” page 104.) Ironing wool dry will make its fibers brittle and damage them.
Silk
Sumptuary laws in sixteenth-century England forbade the wives of poor men to wear silk gowns or French velvet bonnets. Such finery was considered suitable only for the wives of men who had at least a horse to ride in the king’s service. For centuries, silk has been regarded as the most desirable, elegant, and luxurious of all fabrics, and it continues to hold that status despite keen competition from synthetics and blends.
Hand-washing. Before washing a sweater or other garment, draw its out-line on a piece of sturdy paper or cardboard. To control shrinking, use cool water (but not ice-cold water) with a mild, neutral soap or detergent suitable for wool and for cool-water laundering.* You might try lukewarm water if the item is heavily soiled. Soak for three to five minutes. Then lift from beneath the article and gently squeeze suds through the material. Leave the garment in the water for as short a period as possible; the longer it is in, the more its fibers swell and weaken. Since wood loses strength when wet, wool fabrics should never be pulled, twisted, or wrung while wet. Rinse the article thoroughly in clear, cool water. To dry, roll it in a towel and squeeze gently. Then, using your drawing as a guide, block the garment to its original shape. If you need to, pin it to shape. Let it dry flat on a towel or other clean surface away from direct heat or sunlight.
Machine-washing. Most wool blankets require dry cleaning. Some wool blankets, afghans, and certain wool sweaters and other garments can be machine-washed. Be sure to check the care label before proceeding. Before machine-washing a sweater or other garment that might lose its shape, draw an outline of it on a piece of paper or cardboard. Test for colorfastness before laundering any colored wools, especially prints. On machine-washable wool blankets, see chapter 8, pages 124-25.
“Superwash,” “Easy Care,” and similar labels on wool garments indicate a wool fabric that can be machine-washed and, sometimes, machine-dried because it has undergone chemical and resin treatments that eliminate felting and shrinkage. Such treatments are usually permanent.
To reduce pilling from abrasion during laundering, use plenty of water. Set the machine on “gentle” or “delicate” to reduce abrasion and pilling, but use as a medium or fast spin so as to get the wool as dry as possible. Use cool wash water (lukewarm if the item is heavily soiled) and a mild detergent safe for wool and suitable for cool water and machine-washing. Dissolve the detergent before adding the wool item. Fabric softeners are unnecessary. Wash each item briefly. Never leave wool to soak for more than a few minutes; keep the wash as brief as possible. Rinse with cool water.
Dry flat, blocking as for hand-washing, unless the care label instructions permit machine-drying, in which case you will probably be instructed to use a low temperature. Superwash wools can be tumbled dry; be careful not to overdry. When you have air-dried blankets, sweaters, and other soft wools, you may then wish to put them in the dryer for a few minutes on the air-fluff cycle, which uses cool air to fluff them up.
* One acquaintance recommends using shampoo on wool. This course is a bit risky, however, as some shampoo are alkaline and some contain medicines, colorants, conditioners, and extras that could harm or discolor your wools. However, it is true that a neutral or slightly acidic, gentle shampoo that contains no colorants or additives might clean wool nicely. Be sure to test first, and avoid products that look milky rather than clear, that contain conditioners or other additives, or that have bright unusual colors.
Silk is made of the filament secreted by the silkworm, the larva of a moth, to form its cocoon—the only natural fiber that comes in filament form. It is smooth, soft, lightweight, lustrous, strong, and resilient, with excellent drapability. Because it has only moderate resistance to abrasion, it is not an ideal choice for upholstery fabrics that are to take hard wear, but it may be quite durable in other uses. Silk takes dye—and, alas, stains—more readily than any other natural fiber, and today, as in the past, much of the appeal of silks lies in the gorgeous colors and patterns applied to them.
Production; Types of Silk. After silk cocoons are sorted and softened, several silk filaments unwound from a cocoon are combined and wound onto a reel, forming a long, raw silk strand called reeled silk. Reeled silk is then “thrown.” Throwing is a kind of twisting of the reeled-silk filaments into threads. Thrown silk is used to make fine and sheer fabrics, such as georgette, taffeta, voile, crêpe de chine, organza, and grenadine.
Spun silk is produced when short lengths of silk filament are carded, combed, and spun into threads just as wool, cotton, and linen are. Because of the short staple of spun-silk yarn, spun-silk fabric tends to become fuzzy with wear (the short fibers rub up). Spun-silk fabrics have less strength and elasticity than thrown-silk fabrics but otherwise have the same characteristics. Spun-silk fabrics are usually less expensive than filament (thrown) silk fabrics. Spun-silk fibers are used in blends and in pile fabrics such as velvet.
The gum that covers the natural silk fibers is boiled off, ultimately resulting in fabric that weighs less and has less body. Manufacturers may “weight” silk by adding metallic salts that make up for the lost weight and give the silk more body and better drape. But heavily weighted silk is less elastic and more vulnerable to damage by sunlight, perspiration, and dry cleaning. It may crack or split. Because heavily weighted silks were once a problem, federal regulations require that heavy weighting be disclosed on the label.
Raw silk is silk that has not been processed to remove the gum. Fabric woven of raw silk is bumpy and irregular, and is less expensive.
Pure dye silk is silk that contains no metallic weighting, although it may contain limited amounts of water-soluble substances such as starch or gelatin used in dyeing and finishing processes. Good pure dye silk is superior to and more durable than weighted silks; not only does it retain its natural elasticity, but it usually has a greater amount of silk yarn woven into it, rendering it stronger than weighted silk.
Duppioni silk fabric is made of fibers from the double or interlocking cocoons that can occur when two silkworms spin the same cocoon or spin cocoons side by side. Since these fibers are irregular, the fabric made from them has a thick-and-thin look.
Most silk fabric is made from cultivated silk fiber—silk fiber from the cocoons of silkworms raised especially for the production of silk filaments. Wild silk or tussah comes from a wild species of moth, usually the tussah silkworm. Wild silk is not the same as raw silk, and may or may not be raw. It is less lustrous and coarser than cultivated silk. Wild silk fabrics—such as pongee or shantung—are both more durable and less expensive than pure dye silks.
Properties of Silk. Silk fabrics are generally considered summery. Filament silk can be woven into sheer cloth that air readily penetrates, which makes it comfortable on all but the hottest and most humid days. But spun silks can be made into fairly warm garments. Silk is also highly absorbent and, like wool, can take in much perspiration and atmospheric moisture and not feel damp. This makes it a more sensible choice for undergarments and lingerie than silk-like but inabsorbent synthetics. Silk is naturally somewhat wrinkle-resistant.
Because it is somewhat elastic, silk has a comfortable give when worn and does not readily stretch out of shape. Silk does not pill and has moderate abrasion resistance. It has a very slight tendency to build up static, especially in a dry environment. Carpet beetles will attack silk. It has poor resistance to the effects of ultraviolet radiation. It does not readily mildew but may do so if left damp for a long time. Silk, like cotton and wool, is woven into a great variety of fabrics and blends.
Caring for Silk. Silk does not attract or hold particles of dirt readily because it is so smooth. But it is perhaps the most readily stainable of all fibers. Most care labels for silk recommend dry cleaning. Silk is significantly weaker when wet and, because it is a protein fiber like wool, is vulnerable to alkalies, even mild ones.
On the other hand, some silks that have had chemical treatments to render them washable cannot be dry-cleaned. Read care labels carefully. Such silks do not appear lustrous and smooth in the manner of classic silk, and according to one text that I consulted, their proper laundering is a matter of debate. Some say that machine-washing will permanently alter them (presumably for the worse) and recommend only hand-washing in cool water with gentle soap or detergent. Others say you can machine-wash them. Both groups caution that these articles must be washed separately because their dyes bleed. As for drying, tumble them on a cool setting in the dryer, or hang the garments to dry. Iron them while still damp.
Some silk fabric that has not been chemically treated to render it washable can nonetheless be laundered, but this must usually be done with special care. Never wash glossy, dressy silks; if you do, it is all too likely that they will never look that way again. Some of us at times successfully wash silk despite care labels saying not to, but we do this at our own risk. If the silk is not a pure dye silk, the weighting may wash out, leaving you with an irremediably limp garment. Or the colors may run—always test for colorfastness in an inconspicuous area before attempting to launder silk. Silk crêpes must always be dry-cleaned, as they shrink disastrously when wet. Skill is required in both the washing and ironing of silks at home.
Washable silks that have not been chemically treated to render them washable should be washed gently by hand in lukewarm water and mild soap or detergent. Regular laundry detergents are alkaline; the hotter and more concentrated the alkaline solution, the more damage will be done to silk. Chlorine bleach will cause silk to disintegrate. Hydrogen peroxide or sodium perborate bleaches may be used on white silks with caution. Do not leave silk soaking for long periods. Because silk weakens a little when wet, it might be harmed by wringing or rough tumbling.
Water often leaves spots on silk (as a result of sizings and other finishes applied by manufacturers), but the spots generally come out upon laundering. Iron silk on the reverse side when it is still damp, or use steam and a press cloth on a medium setting. Wrinkles that develop in wear will often come out as the garment hangs.
Perspiration weakens and discolors silk, and the aluminum chloride in some antiperspirants and deodorants also harms it. The use of dress shields is therefore advisable. Wash out perspiration as soon as possible, before it has a chance to do damage. If yellow areas develop in the underarm area of white silks, try an oxygen bleach. (See chapter 9, “Common Laundry Mishaps and Problems,” “Perspiration,” pages 138-39, and “Yellowing,” pages 142-44.)
Bast Fibers
Bast fibers are strong fibers obtained from the inner bark of a variety of plants. Linen is a bast fiber. There are three others that may show up at home in clothes, furnishings, or utilitarian objects of various sorts: jute, ramie, and hemp.
All the bast fibers are cellulosic, like cotton and linen, and thus have similar physical and chemical properties. For example, they are absorbent, they are vulnerable to acids but not to mild alkalies, and they can usually be bleached, if care is taken (but jute, being one of the weakest cellulosic fibers, can be damaged by bleaching). If washable, they can be laundered, usually, as linens and cotton are.
Jute. Jute is derived from the jute plant, grown in Bangladesh, India, Thailand, and China. It is the stiff, inelastic fiber from which burlap, bags, rope, and similar comparatively inexpensive, rough goods are made. It also finds some uses in carpentry, as a backing fabric, and as a binding thread. It must be kept dry—it rots if left damp.
Ramie. Ramie, also called China grass, is grown in the Philippines, China, Brazil, and many other places. Its fiber is white or cream-colored, very strong, and lustrous. Ramie fabric is similar to linen but more brittle, which limits its use for apparel and furnishings. Increasingly, however, it is being included in blends used for such products. Unlike linen and cotton, ramie resists mildew, although it will eventually mildew if left damp for a long time. In blends with cotton, rayon, nylon, and polyester, it contributes strength and benefits from the flexibility of the other fibers. It is used for clothing (especially in blends), for twine, and for upholstery fabrics.
Hemp. Italy has traditionally grown the best hemp, which is a stiff, rough, and durable fiber taken from the inner bark of the hemp plant. Hemp is used to make cords, twine, and ropes (especially for use on ships because hemp is strongly resistant to rotting or weakening in water), and canvases and tarpaulins. It is also used in carpet manufacture and some furnishings. Lately it has been used more and more for clothes too. Environmentalists and environmentally alert designers have forwarded its use because hemp, compared to cotton, can be grown with little water and few chemicals. (See page 289.)
Miscellaneous Issues in Caring for Natural Fibers
Permanent-Press (Durable-Press, Wash-and-Wear, or Wrinkle-Resistant): Resin-Treated Cottons, Rayons, Linens, and Their Blends. For several reasons, laundering can be problematic for permanent-press or durable-press cottons, rayons, linens, and blends containing these and other natural or man-made fibers. First, cotton, rayon, and linen fabrics, including cotton, rayon, or linen blends, that have been subjected to resin treatments to create wrinkle-resistance or permanent creases or pleats are significantly weaker than those that have not; hence harsh washing procedures may significantly shorten the fabric’s life. Second, permanent-press fabrics tend to take up and hold soil that gets deposited in the wash water and emerge from the laundry gray or dingy. Third, such resin-treated fabrics are particularly prone to oil-staining and, in some cases, to retaining body odors.
Despite such problems, home laundering is the cleaning procedure of choice for permanent-press clothes. Commercial laundering is usually too harsh. You should wash all new clothes and linens before using, but it is especially important to wash those that have been subjected to a resin treatment, so as to remove any remaining formaldehyde. (However, not all permanent-press garments have the problem today.) Permanent-press washing and drying cycles should always be used. Use plenty of water and make smaller loads, as overcrowding in the washer will also tend to cause wrinkling. The permanent-press cycle cools off the washed clothes with cool water so that when they spin they do not take a wrinkled imprint; it also spins them more slowly for the same reason. The permanent-press dryer setting includes a cool-down period at the cycle’s end so that clothes do not wrinkle from sitting, heated, when the dryer stops tumbling.
Before washing, examine the usual wear areas: collars and cuffs, pleats and darts, creases, the seat of pants. If necessary, make repairs before washing. If wear is apparent, you may prolong the life of the garment by using the gentle washing cycle with a warm or cool wash, cool rinse, and slow spin. Because the fold and crease lines on permanent-press articles tend to be even weaker than the rest of the fabric, it is often a good idea to wash and dry permanent-press articles turned inside out.
Frequent washing is the key to keeping permanent-press clothes clean and fresh-smelling. Use pretreatments on pillowcases and cuffs, collars, and other areas that take up body oils and odors; the use of pretreatment products that contain solvents is a good idea. Also use plenty of detergent and warm or even hot wash water (when it is safe for the fabric), not cold, to keep permanent-press clothes clean.
Tumbling dry, followed by prompt removal from the dryer, is necessary to get the full benefit of wrinkle-resistance treatments on permanent-press articles. But drip-dry clothes should usually have no spinning in the washing machine, no wringing, and no machine-drying; their care labels will prescribe hanging to dry or drying flat. In some cases, mild soap should be used; check the care labels. Hang clothes carefully, “finger ironing” them—smoothing and straightening them with your hands—especially at seams. Sometimes a quick touch with an iron will be necessary to reduce a bit of puckering.
Chlorine bleach may not be recommended for permanent-press cloth because the cloth has been weakened. In addition, some permanent-press clothes will yellow if exposed to chlorine, although this problem appears to be unusual nowadays. In any event, use chlorine bleach with caution. In my experience, though, an occasional light bleaching does no harm.
Washable Antiques, Heirlooms, and Other Fragile or Valuable Linen. Extremely delicate and aged fabrics cannot be washed at all. You can at times vacuum these by using a protective screen and the low setting, with open vents, on your vacuum cleaner. (See chapter 16, “Textile Furnishings,” pages 228-29.)
Sometimes washable antiques and heirlooms will be sufficiently cleaned by merely soaking for half an hour or so in plain, soft, lukewarm water. To avoid potentially damaging handling, you can lay the piece on a nylon screen or in a plastic colander and gently immerse it in the plain-water bath. This will dissolve dust and acids that may have collected on the fibers and thus extend the life of the fabric. After the soak, pour off the water and gently add another bath of pure, soft, cool water for rinsing. Then raise the screen or colander out of the water and let the piece drain and dry while still resting on it.
If more cleaning is necessary, add some very mild, neutral detergent to your water bath and let the article soak for a few minutes. Orvus WA Paste (manufactured by Procter & Gamble) is often recommended for this purpose by museums and conservators. (If you choose instead to use a mild soap, be sure that your water is soft and that you rinse thoroughly.) Then pat the piece gently to get water to pass through it. Or you may lay it on a nylon screen or colander, as described above, and gently raise and lower the screen to get the water to run through the cloth. If the piece does not come clean, repeat. Pour off the wash water. Then rinse gently with plain, cool water in the same manner until absolutely all soap or detergent residues, along with any dirt that has been removed, are rinsed away.
Use no bleach of any sort, including sun bleaching, on very fragile pieces. If you are determined to get spots or stains out of a fragile piece, you can try additional soaking in a solution of lukewarm water and mild detergent. If the piece is neither valuable nor very important and if its appearance is marred, you might escalate to sun bleaching, then to the more risky expedient of stronger detergent (one without optical brighteners or bluing).
As for chemical bleaching to remove stains or to lighten a dingy piece, try it only if you have nothing to lose or if the piece is not too important or valuable. Avoid commercial oxygen bleaches, as these contain laundry boosters, optical brighteners, and bluing. If you wish to try an oxygen bleach, consider using plain hydrogen peroxide. (See pages 70-71.)
To dry, blot or press with a towel and then let dry flat on the screen or colander if you are using one or, if you are not, on a clean white towel. Dry away from sunlight and heat.
Mothproofing Wool. The most important thing you can do to keep your clothes and carpets free of moth damage is to keep them clean. Moths will be attracted to grease and food stains on clothes. Frequent vacuuming and occasionally cleaning or shampooing will give carpets in use all the protection they need. Clothes that are frequently worn and laundered will also not be moth damaged. You should make sure that clothes and carpets in storage are perfectly clean, but they will also require additional protection.
Brushing wool articles frequently, and always after wearing, and cleaning them before they are stored will help remove any eggs that may have been deposited. Storage in an airtight compartment at or below 40°F will prevent eggs from developing and hatching. Ironing at temperatures greater than 130°F kills them.
Home chemical treatments work by either repelling or killing the insects. Repellants may prevent the deposit of eggs but will not destroy eggs already deposited, and they do not last long. The most popular repellant, cedar, is at best modestly effective, in my experience. It has been determined that cedar oil will kill young larvae (not older ones or eggs), but it is hard to see how cedar-lined closets or cedar chips, blocks, hangers, and chests are going to expose the young larvae to a lethal dose of cedar oil. The hope is that moths will not wish to lay their eggs in a cedar-scented environment, but I have seen moths flutter happily out of my cedar-laden closets and found moth holes in cedar-surrounded garments. So far as I have been able to determine, there is no scientific evidence—at least not yet—for the theory that moths will avoid cedar-laden areas.
Some people tout dried orange peel and various spice mixtures and pot-pourris as repellants. These have scents that will appeal to many people, but, again, I have found no scientific evidence that any of them really works as a moth repellant. (My Italian grandmother used both lavender and dried orange peel, but only for their scent, not to repel moths.) As for commercial moth repellants that may use secret or unnamed ingredients, their effectiveness is also a mystery. Of course, it does not hurt to try any nontoxic products that interest you.
Naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene, typical ingredients in mothballs and other antimoth devices today, will actually kill moths, larvae, and eggs, provided the storage is airtight and compact so that the atmosphere can be saturated; if it is not, the chemical released is not strong enough to do the job. The chemical-containing device should be hung above the clothes because the vapors, which are heavier than air, will flow downward. Unfortunately, both naphthalene and paradichlorobenzene are toxic to humans. Paradichlorobenzene is a carcinogen, and naphthalene is classified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other authorities as a possible carcinogen. The EPA recommends that you use devices containing paradichlorobenzene only in areas sealed off from your living space, such as garages or attics. I would follow the same advice when using naphthalene mothballs, crystals, or flakes. See also “Mothproofing,” page 319.
* “Shoddy” refers to wool that has been reused or reprocessed. Run-of-the-mill goods are goods before they have been inspected or sorted for defects or flaws. When sheets and pillowcases were sold as “run of the mill,” therefore, you were not guaranteed first quality. Applied to cloth, “sleazy” means flimsy, limp, or loosely constructed when it should not be. A loosely woven sheet, for example, would be sleazy.