abduction. The action of moving one part of the body farther away from another part. When the vocal folds are separated, as in breathing, they are abducted.
adduction. The action of moving one part of the body closer to another part. When the vocal folds are close together, as in phonation, they are adducted.
agonist. A muscle that contracts to produce a specific movement.
antagonist. A muscle that contracts in opposition to an agonist muscle to counter or decelerate a specific movement.
anterior. Located in the front, either of the entire body or of a specific anatomical structure.
approximation. The action of two objects moving close together. The vocal folds must approximate along their entire length in order to phonate clearly.
arytenoid cartilage. A major cartilage of the larynx. The two arytenoid cartilages are shaped like pointed horns and are attached to the top of the posterior surface of the cricoid cartilage. The arytenoids provide the posterior attachment points for the vocal folds; they are also the connecting point for the muscles that open and close the glottis. See figure 3.1.
basal metabolic rate. A formula for expressing human energy expenditure as the output of calories per square meter of body surface per hour.
Bernoulli principle. A law of physics named for Swiss mathematician and physicist Daniel Bernoulli. The Bernoulli principle is often referenced in vocal pedagogy to explain how air in constant motion produces an air pressure differential below and above the glottis to create the suction that produces periodic vocal fold vibration.
biomechanics. The scientific application of mechanical principles to the human movement system.
bodywork. Any therapeutic modality based on movement, massage, and/or manipulation of the body for the purpose of promoting physical and psychological wellness.
buccinator. A muscle of expression that controls lip movement. The buccinator is located in the wall of the cheek. It draws the cheeks in toward the teeth, assisting with such movements as sucking, whistling, and smiling. See figure 4.11.
cartilage. The firm, flexible connective tissue that comprises the stable structures of the larynx. The laryngeal cartilages gradually ossify (become increasingly more like bone) as the body matures.
cervical. Relating to or located near the seven vertebrae of the spinal column comprising the neck. See figure 1.1.
cilia. Fine, hair-like structures located in the lungs that remove microbes and other debris from the airways.
coccyx. The small triangular bone that forms the very bottom of the spine. The coccyx is commonly called the tailbone. See figure 1.1.
cricoarytenoid. An intrinsic muscle of the larynx. The cricoarytenoid muscles connect the cricoid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilage. The lateral cricoarytenoid muscles adduct the vocal folds; the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles abduct the vocal folds. See figures 3.1 and 3.2.
cricoid cartilage. The cricoid cartilage is one of the principal cartilages that compose the larynx. It is shaped like a signet ring and is located below the thyroid cartilage. See figure 3.5.
cricothyroid muscle. A major muscle of the larynx. The cricothyroid muscles connect the cricoid cartilage to the thyroid cartilage. When engaged, the cricothyroid muscles elongate the vocal folds, modulating pitch and registration. See figure 3.5.
deltoids. A group of muscles located at the top of the shoulder. The deltoids facilitate a variety of movements that lift the arm away from the body. The anterior deltoid flexes and internally rotates the arm; the lateral deltoid abducts the arm, raising it to the side; the posterior deltoid lifts and extends the arm to the back.
depression. A muscular action that moves an anatomical structure into a lower position.
diaphragm. A major muscle of respiration. The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is the primary muscle of inspiration. The diaphragm is the second-largest muscle of the human body, exceeded only by the gluteus maximus. It is at its greatest point of contraction after a full inhalation. During expiration, the diaphragm returns to a relaxed position. See figure 2.1.
digastric. A muscle that elevates the larynx. The digastric comprises two muscular bellies connected by a tendon that attaches to the hyoid bone; the anterior belly connects to the jaw and the posterior belly to the temporal bone of the skull. See figure 3.7.
elevation. A muscular action that raises an anatomical structure into a higher position.
erector spinae. A group of deep muscles connecting the vertebrae of the spine to one another as well as to the rib cage. They work together to extend the spine. See figure 1.8.
extension. Movement at a joint that increases the angle between the bones intersecting at that joint.
flexion. Movement at a joint that decreases the angle between the bones intersecting at that joint.
gastrocnemius. The largest muscle of the calf. The gastrocnemius facilitates knee flexion and ankle plantar flexion (as in pointing the toe). See figures 1.8 and 1.10.
genioglossus. An extrinsic muscle of the tongue. The genioglossus attaches the tongue to the jaw. It is the muscle that protrudes, or sticks out, the tongue. See figure 4.8.
geniohyoid. A muscle that elevates the larynx. The geniohyoid connects the hyoid bone to the jaw; when it contracts, it moves the hyoid bone forward and up. See figure 3.7.
glottis. The glottis is the space between the unapproximated vocal folds.
gluteal muscles. The muscles that comprise the butt. The gluteus maximus extends the hip to pull the leg back; the gluteus medius and gluteus minimus abduct the hip. See figure 1.8.
hamstrings. A group of muscles located in the posterior thigh. The hamstrings work together to facilitate hip extension, knee flexion and extension, and rotation of the lower leg.
hyoglossus. An extrinsic muscle of the tongue. The hyoglossus attaches the tongue to the hyoid bone. It is the muscle that retracts and depresses the tongue. See figure 4.9.
hyoid bone. The structure from which the larynx is suspended in the throat. The hyoid is a horseshoe-shaped bone that lies between the chin and the thyroid cartilage. The larynx is suspended from the hyoid bone via the thyrohyoid membrane.
intercostal muscles. The muscles that connect the ribs to one another and comprise the body of the chest wall. The intercostals are significant muscles of respiration, contributing to both inhalation and exhalation. See figure 2.1.
kinematics. The mechanics of movement, viewed independently from the force production that creates movement.
kinesthetic. Relating to the ability to feel and interpret sensations and muscular effort related to movement.
larynx. A complex structure located in the throat that is responsible for vocal vibration. The larynx is often referred to as the voice box. It comprises the cricoid, thyroid, and arytenoid cartilages and houses the vocal folds.
lateral. Located on the side, either of the entire body or of a specific anatomical structure.
latissimus dorsi. The largest muscle of the back. The latissimus dorsi adducts, extends, and internally rotates the arm. It also helps to extend and flex the trunk and assists with both deep inhalation and exhalation. See figure 1.8.
levator scapulae. A muscle that connects the scapula to the cervical vertebrae. It elevates the scapula. See figure 1.6.
levator veli palatini. A muscle that connects the soft palate to the temporal bone. It elevates the soft palate. See figure 4.14.
lumbar. Relating to or located near the five lowest vertebrae of the spinal column. See figure 1.1.
mandible. The bone of the lower jaw.
masseter. The major muscle of the jaw. The masseter muscles raise the lower jaw for chewing and articulation. They connect the mandible to the skull. See figure 4.2.
maxilla. The bones that form the upper jaw. The maxilla are fused to the skull and do not move.
mitochondria. Numerous organelles present in most cells of the human body that are responsible for both cellular respiration and energy production.
mylohyoid. A muscle that elevates the larynx. The mylohyoid attaches the hyoid bone to the jaw; when it contracts, it raises the hyoid bone, tongue, and the floor of the oral cavity. See figure 3.7.
obliques. Major muscles of the abdomen. The internal and external obliques work together to rotate the trunk. See figure 2.8.
omohyoid. A muscle that depresses the larynx. The omohyoid muscles attach the hyoid bone to the scapulae. They depress the larynx and hyoid bone. See figure 3.8.
orbicularis oris. A muscle of expression that controls lip movement. The orbicularis oris encircles the lips and rounds them forward as in puckering. See figure 4.11.
palatoglossus. A muscle that connects the soft palate to the tongue. It elevates the back of the tongue. See figure 4.14.
palatopharyngeus. A muscle that connects the soft palate to the thyroid cartilage. It elevates the larynx. See figure 4.14.
passaggio. A term used by voice teachers to describe pivotal pitch ranges in vocal registration that singers must learn to navigate in order to produce consistent tone quality throughout their vocal range. It is generally agreed that both men and women have two passaggio points, one located between the low and middle range and the other between the middle and high range.
pectoral muscles. Major muscles of the chest. The pectoralis major flexes and adducts the arm; the pectoralis minor stabilizes the scapula and assists with inhalation by raising the ribs. See figure 1.6.
pharynx. The portion of the vocal tract that connects the larynx to the oral and nasal cavities.
phoneme. The smallest phonetic unit of sound in a language.
posterior. Located in the back, either of the entire body or of a specific anatomical structure.
pronation. A foot position or movement causing the weight of the body to be disproportionately placed on the inner edge of the foot, flattening the arches.
quadriceps. A group of muscles located in the anterior thigh. The quadriceps work together to facilitate hip flexion and knee extension.
rectus abdominis. A major muscle of the abdomen, commonly referred to as the “six-pack.” The rectus abdominis attaches the pelvis to the rib cage. It flexes the lumbar spine. See figure 2.8.
retraction. A muscular action that draws or pulls an anatomical structure into a farther back position.
rhomboid muscle. A major muscle of the shoulders. The rhomboids connect the scapulae with the thoracic and cervical vertebrae. They retract and rotate the scapulae. See figure 2.9.
sacrum. A large triangular bone at the base of the spine, just above the coccyx. See figure 1.1.
scapulae. The shoulder blades. See figure 2.9.
soleus. A muscle of the calf. The soleus facilitates ankle stability and plantar flexion (as in pointing the toe). See figures 1.8 and 1.10.
sternocleidomastoid. The sternocleidomastoid muscles are the large, strap-like muscles often visible on the sides of the neck. They connect the sternum and clavicle to the mastoid process, which is part of the jaw. See figure 1.6.
sternohyoid. A muscle that depresses the larynx. The sternohyoid attaches the sternum to the hyoid bone. It depresses the hyoid bone. See figure 3.8.
sternothyroid. A muscle that depresses the larynx. The sternohyoid attaches the sternum to the larynx. It depresses the larynx. See figure 3.8.
sternum. The flat bone located in the center of the chest. It provides attachment points for the ribs and is considered part of the rib cage.
stylohyoid. A muscle that elevates the larynx. The stylohyoid connects the hyoid bone to the skull. It elevates the hyoid bone. See figure 3.7.
subglottal. Below the glottis, or vocal folds.
supraglottal. Above the glottis, or vocal folds.
synergist. A muscle that provides secondary assistance for the movement of another.
temporalis. A muscle of the jaw. It connects the jaw to the skull and elevates and retracts the jaw in chewing and articulation. See figure 4.2.
tensor veli palatini. A muscle that connects the soft palate to the skull. It tenses the soft palate. See figure 4.14.
thoracic. Relating to or located near the twelve vertebrae of the spinal column that support the rib cage and thorax. See figure 1.1.
thyroarytenoid muscles. A pair of muscles that form the main body of the vocal folds. The thyroarytenoids stretch from the thyroid cartilage to the arytenoid cartilages. They partner with the cricothyroid muscles to modulate pitch and registration. See figure 3.3.
thyrohyoid. An extrinsic muscle of the larynx. The thyrohyoid connects the hyoid bone to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. While it is capable of both depressing the hyoid bone and elevating the thyroid cartilage, in singing it functions as a laryngeal depressor. See figure 3.8.
thyroid cartilage. The largest of the laryngeal cartilages. The thyroid cartilage is shaped like a shield and is located in the front of the larynx. See figure 3.5.
tibialis. Muscles connected to the shin, located in the lower leg. The anterior tibialis facilitates dorsiflexion of the ankle (pulling the toe up toward the knee) and inversion of the foot; the posterior tibialis facilitates plantar flexion of the ankle (as in pointing the toe) and inversion of the foot. See figure 1.10.
trachea. The tube that connects the pharynx and larynx to the lungs. The trachea is commonly called the windpipe.
transversus abdominis. A major muscle of the abdomen. The muscle fibers of the transversus abdominis are arranged horizontally across the viscera; its action is to compress the contents of the abdomen in order to stabilize the spine. See figure 2.8.
trapezius. A muscle of the shoulders and back that moves the scapulae and arms. The upper portion of the trapezius elevates the shoulders; the middle and lower portions of the trapezius work in tandem with the rhomboids to retract and depress the scapulae. See figure 2.9.
viscera. The organs and other anatomical structures located within the abdominal cavity.
vocal folds. A paired system of tissue layers in the larynx that vibrate to produce phonation. The vocal folds are often referred to as the vocal cords. See figure 3.2.
zygomaticus major. A muscle of expression that controls lip movement. The zygomaticus major draws the lips up and to the sides, as in smiling. See figure 4.11.