CHAPTER NINE: GENERAL IN CHIEF

The epigraph is Lincoln’s comment to his secretary, John Hay, during the battle of the Wilderness. Lincoln and the Civil War in the Diaries and Letters of John Hay 180, Tyler Dennett, ed. (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1939).

1. New York Herald, December 8, 1863.

2. Washington held the rank of lieutenant general for eight months during the naval war with France in 1798. Winfield Scott was brevetted to rank on a temporary basis in 1855.

3. Shelby Foote, 2 The Civil War 918–19 (New York: Random House, 1963).

4. Editorials in the New York Herald, December 15, 18, 1863.

5. Barnabus Burns to Grant, December 7, 1863, 9 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 542 note, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1979).

6. Grant to Burns, December 17, 1863, ibid. 541.

7. Grant to Rear Admiral Daniel Ammen, February 16, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 132–33; Grant to Brigadier General Frank Blair, February 28, 1864, ibid. 166–67; Grant to Rear Admiral Daniel Porter, ibid. note.

8. Grant to Jesse Root Grant, February 20, 1864, ibid. 148–149.

9. Grant to I. N. Morris, January 20, 1864, ibid. 52–53.

10. Quoted in Bruce Catton, Grant Takes Command 110 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968).

11. Albert Deane Richardson, A Personal History of Ulysses S. Grant 380–81 (Hartford, Conn.: American Publishing, 1868).

12. Ida M. Tarbell, interview with J. Russell Jones, 2 The Life of President Lincoln 188 (New York: McClure, 1900). Also see 9 Grant Papers 543 note.

13. Jones interview, Life of President Lincoln, 186–88.

14. Catton, Grant Takes Command 112.

15. Opposition to the bill was led by radical Republican Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania and former brigadier general James A. Garfield of Ohio. Stevens, who suspected Grant’s views on slavery, argued that “Saints are not canonized until after death,” suggesting that the promotion should be held until the war was won. Garfield, who had been Rosecrans’s chief of staff, took the same line in addition to being deeply resentful of Grant’s decision to relieve Rosecrans. (Never an admirer of Grant, Garfield would eventually wrest the Republican presidential nomination from him in 1880.)

16. Halleck to Grant, March 3, 1864, 32 Offical Records of the War of the Rebellion (Part 3) 13.

17. Halleck to Grant, March 6, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 189 note.

18. Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War 164.

19. Halleck to Sherman, December 14, 1863, 32 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 408.

20. Halleck to Francis Lieber, March 7, 1864, Lieber Collection, Huntington Library.

21. Grant to Sherman, March 4, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 189 note. Also see Ulysses S. Grant, 2 Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant 116 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1886).

22. Grant to Sherman, March 4, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 186–87.

23. Sherman to Grant, March 10, 1864, quoted in Adam Badeau, 1 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 373–74 (New York: D. Appleton, 1881).

24. Shelby Foote, 3 The Civil War 5 (New York: Random House, 1974).

25. Horace Porter, Campaigning with Grant 19 (New York: Da Capo, 1986). Reprint.

26. Ibid. 20–21.

27. Foote, 3 Civil War 6.

28. 10 Grant Papers 195.

29. Grant, 2 Memoirs 122.

30. Hamlin Garland, Ulysses S. Grant: His Life and Character 266 (New York: Doubleday, 1920).

31. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 16.

32. Dana to Grant, December 21, 1863, 9 Grant Papers 502 note.

33. Meade to Mrs. Meade, March 8, 1864, in George Meade, 2 The Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 176 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913).

34. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 83.

35. John Russell Young, 2 Around the World with General Grant 181 (New York: American News, 1879).

36. 2 Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 189.

37. Grant, 2 Memoirs 117.

38. Catton, Grant Moves South 129.

39. 2 Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 191.

40. Grant, 2 Memoirs 117–18

41. 32 War of the Rebellion (Part 3) 58.

42. Foote, 3 Civil War 12.

43. Garland, Grant 260–61.

44. Foote, 3 Civil War 13.

45. Meade to Mrs. Meade, April 24, 1864, 2 Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 191.

46. Garland, Grant 262.

47. Catton, Grant Takes Command 137.

48. Richardson, Grant 386.

49. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 21.

50. Speech of General Grenville Dodge before the Society of the Army of the Potomac in 1898, reprinted in the Society’s report of its twenty-ninth reunion.

51. William Tecumseh Sherman, 1 Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman 430 (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1990). Reprint. For the text of Grant’s speech, see 10 Grant Papers 214.

52. Dodge speech. See note 50.

53. Foote, 3 Civil War 13.

54. Catton, Grant Takes Command 139.

55. Grant to Halleck, March 30, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 240.

56. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 29–32.

57. William Conant Church, Ulysses S. Grant and the Period of National Preservation and Reconstruction 248–49 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1897).

58. Grant, 2 Memoirs 127, 129–30.

59. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 34.

60. Grant, 2 Memoirs 128.

61. Grant to Meade, April 9, 1864, ibid. 134–35 note.

62. Grant to Sherman, April 4, 1864, ibid. 130–32 note.

63. J. F. C. Fuller, The Generalship of Ulysses S. Grant 214 (London: John Murray, 1929).

64. Grant to Sherman, April 4, 1864, Grant 2 Memoirs 130.

65. Grant to Meade, April 9, 1864, ibid. 135.

66. Grant to Sherman, April 4, 1864, ibid. 132.

67. Foote, 3 Civil War 19. At the 1860 Democratic convention, Butler had voted to nominate Jefferson Davis as president of the United States on fifty-seven consecutive ballots.

68. Grant, 2 Memoirs 133–34; 10 Grant Papers 217 note; Philip H. Sheridan, 1 Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan 339 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1895).

69. Foote, 3 Civil War 136.

70. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 26.

71. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 9–10.

72. Grant, 2 Memoirs 142–43.

73. Grant to Sherman, April 4, 1864, ibid. 130–32 note.

74. Hay, Lincoln and the Civil War 178.

75. Letters of Richard Henry Dana, April 21, May 4, 1864, Dana Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society; Foote, 3 Civil War 4–5; James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 221 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); G. T. Strong, The Diary of George Templeton Strong: The Civil War, 1860–1865 416, Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds. (New York: Macmillan, 1952).

76. Foote, 3 Civil War 123.

77. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 46–47.

78. The army’s total strength on May 1, 1864, was 662,345, but the operative figure is “present for duty, equipped.” Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 32.

79. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 45–46.

80. John Keegan, The Mask of Command 204 (New York: Viking, 1987).

81. Bruce Catton, A Stillness at Appomattox 38 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1956).

82. Frederick Dent Grant, quoted in “War Horses,” 4 Photographic History of the Civil War 292–98, Francis Trevelyan Miller, ed. (New York: Review of Reviews, 1911).

83. Ibid.

84. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 34.

85. John Russell Young interview with Grant, New York Herald, July 24, 1878.

86. Ibid.

87. Foote, 3 Civil War 134–35.

88. Grant to Meade, April 9, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 273–75.

89. Grant to Sherman, April 19, 1864, ibid. 331–32.

90. Grant to Smith, April 26, 1864, ibid. 356–57.

91. Foote, 3 Civil War 132.

92. Letter of Selden Connor, April 16, 1864, Brown University Library.

93. Morris Schaff, The Battle of the Wilderness (Boston: Little, Brown, 1910).

94. Stanton P. Allen, Down in Dixie: Life in a Cavalry Regiment in the War Days 187–88 (Boston: D. Lothrop, 1892).

95. Foote, 3 Civil War 132.

96. Ibid.

97. Statement of Sergeant John D. Reed, in John L. Parker and Robert G. Carter, History of the Twenty-second Massachusetts Infantry 81 (Boston: Rand Avery, 1887).

98. William O. Stoddard, Jr., William O. Stoddard: Lincoln’s Third Secretary 197–98 (New York: Exposition Press, 1955).

99. For Grant’s instructions, see Grant to Hunter, April 17, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 305–7. Hunter’s reports are dated April 28 and May 2, 1864, ibid. 308 note.

100. Grant to Halleck, April 25, April 28, 1864, ibid. 351, 363–64.

101. Grant to Halleck, April 19, 1864, ibid. 369–70. For Halleck’s reply see Halleck to Grant, May 2, 1864, ibid. 375 note. A fine summary of the Red River fiasco is contained in Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 82ff.

102. Lee to Davis, April 5, 1864, 33 War of the Rebellion 1273.

103. Lee to Davis, April 8, 1864, ibid. 1267–69, 1290–91.

104. Lee to Davis, April 15, 1864, ibid. 1144, 1282–83.

105. Lee to Davis, April 30, 1864, ibid. 1320–21.

106. Grant to Meade, April 27, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 344 note.

107. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 88–89.

108. Foote, 3 Civil War 136.

109. Grant to Sherman, April 28, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 354 note.

110. Grant to Butler, April 28, 1864, ibid. 364.

111. Grant to Sigel, April 24, April 28, 1864, ibid. 313–14 note.

112. Grant to Halleck, April 29, 1864, ibid. 370–71.

113. Lincoln to Grant, April 30, 1864, Abraham Lincoln 7 The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, Roy P. Basler, ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1953).

114. Grant to Lincoln, May 1, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 380.

115. Grant to Sherman, May 2, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 355 note.

116. Grant to Butler, May 2, 1964, ibid. 366 note.

117. Grant to Burnside, May 2, 1864, ibid. 388–89.

118. Grant to Halleck, May 3, 1864, ibid. 395. On the eve of battle, Grant cleared the deck. He told Halleck to handle affairs in the trans-Mississippi in the best way he could, “but I do think it is a waste of struggle to trust General Banks with a large command or an important mission.”

119. Douglas Southall Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee: A Biography 273 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935).

120. Ibid. 269–70; 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 1081.

121. Grant, 2 Memoirs 183.

122. Grant to Halleck, May 4, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 397.

CHAPTER TEN: THE WILDERNESS

The epigraph is from Herman Melville’s “The Armies of the Wilderness,” in Battle-Pieces and Aspects of the War 99, Sidney Kaplan, ed. (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1960).

1. Horace Porter, Campaigning with Grant 41–41 (New York: Da Capo, 1986). Reprint.

2. Adam Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 109 (New York: D. Appleton, 1881).

3. Theodore Lyman, Meade’s Headquarters, 1863–1865: Letters of Colonel Theodore Lyman from the Wilderness to Appomattox 87, George R. Agassiz, ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1922).

4. Sylvanus Cadwallader, Three Years with Grant 174–75 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996). Reprint.

5. Charles A. Page, Letters of a War Correspondent 48 (Boston: L. C. Page, 1899).

6. Brig. Gen. Rufus Ingalls, Report, 36 War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records (Part 1) 276–78 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1884).

7. Cadwallader, Three Years with Grant 43.

8. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 44.

9. Grant to Burnside, May 4, 1864, 10 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 397 note, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982).

10. For the Army of the Potomac’s march plan, drafted by Meade’s chief of staff, Major General A. A. Humphreys, see 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 331–34.

11. Gordon L. Rhea, The Battle of the Wilderness: May 5–6, 1864 57 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994).

12. 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 948.

13. William G. Bean, The Liberty Hall Volunteers: Stonewall’s College Boys 185 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1964).

14. William M. Dame, From the Rapidan to Richmond and the Spotsylvania Campaign 71–72 (Baltimore: Green-Lucas, 1920).

15. Grant 2 Memoirs 192; Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 102–3.

16. Andrew A. Humphreys, The Virginia Campaign of ’64 and ’65 56 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1883).

17. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 45.

18. Richard S. Ewell’s report, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1), 1070.

19. Warren to Humphreys, May 5, 1864, ibid. (Part 2) 413.

20. Meade to Warren, May 5, 1864, ibid. (Part 1) 189. Also see Page, Letters of a War Correspondent 47.

21. Meade to Grant, May 5, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 399 note.

22. Grant to Meade, May 5, 1864, ibid., 399.

23. Grant, 2 Memoirs 193.

24. Meade to Grant, May 5, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 399 note.

25. Joseph Ward Keifer, 2 Slavery and Four Years of War 78 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1900).

26. Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 132.

27. Thomas W. Hyde, Following the Greek Cross; or, Memories of the Sixth Army Corps 183 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1894).

28. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 50.

29. Robert G. Scott, Into the Wilderness with the Army of the Potomac 41 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992).

30. Brig. Gen. Hazard Stevens, Getty’s chief of staff, said that he did not know of “a single emergency where he [Getty] failed to act precisely as he should have acted.” Hazard Stevens, “The Sixth Corps in the Wilderness,” 4 Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts 180 (1918).

31. Ibid. 189–190; Getty’s report, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 676.

32. Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 137–41; Bruce Catton, Grant Takes Command 187–88 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968).

33. The statement was attributed to Meade by Warren in a letter written ten years later. Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 141.

34. Ibid. 129.

35. Catton, Grant Takes Command 189.

36. Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 246.

37. Morris Schaff, The Battle of the Wilderness 201 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1910).

38. Henry Heth, The Memoirs of Henry Heth 182–83, James L. Morrison, ed. (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1974).

39. Grant, 2 Memoirs 539–40.

40. 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 219.

41. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 52–53.

42. Survivors’ Association, 121st Regiment Pennsylvania Volunteers 403 (Philadelphia: Catholic Standard and Times, 1906).

43. Henry E. Wing, When Lincoln Kissed Me 10 (New York: Abingdon, 1913). Meade was the victim of a bad press. When he learned of the false report, he protested to Grant, who denounced the rumor. See Porter, Campaigning with Grant 190–91.

44. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 53.

45. Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 271.

46. Humphreys, Virginia Campaign 30–31.

47. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 53–54.

48. Schaff, Battle of the Wilderness 225–27.

49. “After conversing with my corps commanders,” wrote Meade, “I am led to believe that it will be difficult, owing to the dense thicket in which their commands are located, the fatigued condition of the men rendering it difficult to rouse them early enough, and the necessity of some daylight, to properly put in reinforcements.” Meade to Grant, May 5, 1864, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 404–5.

50. Grant to Meade, May 5, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 400.

51. John Daniel McDowell, “Recollections of the War,” quoted in Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 297.

52. J. F. J. Caldwell, The History of a Brigade of South Carolinians 132–33 (Philadelphia: King and Baird, 1866).

53. Charles D. Page, History of the Fourteenth Regiment, Connecticut 242 (Meridan, Conn.: Horton, 1906); Thomas Chamberlin, History of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Regiment Pennsylvania Volunteers 215 (Philadelphia: F. McManus, Jr., 1905); George R. Agassiz, ed., Meade’s Headquarters, 1863–1865 93–94 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1913).

54. Agassiz, Meade’s Headquarters 94.

55. Joseph B. Polley, Hood’s Texas Brigade: Its Marches, Its Battles, Its Achievements 230 (New York: Neale, 1910).

56. Samuel Finley Harper, quoted in Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 295.

57. Jennings C. Wise, 2 The Long Arm of Lee; or, The History of the Artillery of the Army of Northern Virginia 767 (Lynchburg, Va.: J. P. Bell, 1915).

58. Dame, From the Rapidan to Richmond 85.

59. Evander M. Law, “From the Wilderness to Cold Harbor,” 4 Battles and Leaders of the Civil War 124.

60. R.C., “Texans Always Move Them,” 5 The Land We Love 482.

61. Foote, 3 The Civil War 170.

62. Moxley Sorrel to Longstreet, July 21, 1879, quoted in Jeffry D. Wert, General James Longstreet: The Confederacy’s Most Controversial Soldier 384 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993).

63. Foote, 3 Civil War 171.

64. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 63.

65. Ibid. 59.

66. Charles S. Venable, quoted in Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 298–99.

67. G. Moxley Sorrel, Recollections of a Southern Staff Officer 241–42 (New York: Neale, 1905).

68. Foote, 3 Civil War 176–77.

69. Wyman diary, May 6, 1864; Henry T. Waltz diary, May 6, 1864, quoted in Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 325.

70. James Longstreet, From Manassas to Appomattox 568 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1960). Reprint.

71. Foote, 3 Civil War 179.

72. Francis W. Dawson, Reminiscences of Confederate Service 116, Bell Wiley, ed. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980).

73. Warren Cudworth, History of the First Regiment Massachusetts Infantry 462–63 (Boston: Walker, Fuller, 1886); Page, Letters of a War Correspondent 55.

74. Hancock to Meade, May 6, 1864, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 445–46.

75. Edward Porter Alexander, Military Memoirs of a Confederate 363 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962). Reprint.

76. John B. Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War 258. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1902). Whether Lee visited the Confederate army’s left flank on May 6 is a subject of controversy. For a splendid reconstruction of the argument, see Rhea, Battle of the Wilderness 412–16.

77. Rhea, ibid.

78. George W. Nichols, A Soldier’s Story of His Regiment 148–49 (Jessup, Ga.: Continental Book, 1898).

79. Agassiz, Meade’s Headquarters 98; Page, Letters of a War Correspondent 57.

80. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 69–70.

81. Ibid. 63.

82. Ibid. 67.

83. Ibid. 70.

84. “Return of Casualties in the Union Forces,” 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1), 119–37.

85. Grant to Halleck, May 7, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 405.

86. Wing, When Lincoln Kissed Me 12–13.

87. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 65–66, 76.

88. Cadwallader, Three Years with Grant 181–182.

89. Douglas Southall Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 298 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949).

90. Benjamin Justice to his family, May 7, 1864, Justice Papers, Emory University.

91. William Pendleton to his wife, May 7, 1864, William Pendleton Collection, University of North Carolina.

92. Foote, 3 Civil War 187–88.

93. Schaff, Battle of the Wilderness 326.

94. Foote, 3 Civil War 190–91.

95. Grant to Meade, May 7, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 408–9.

96. Quoted in Foote, 3 Civil War 191.

97. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 79.

98. William T. Sherman, 4 Battles and Leaders of the Civil War 248.

99. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 85.

CHAPTER ELEVEN: GRANT AND LEE

1. Douglas Southall Freeman, 1 R. E. Lee: A Biography 24–28 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934).

2. Ibid. 38–44.

3. Ibid. 360.

4. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 281 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

5. Lee to Reverdy Johnson, February 25, 1868, in Freeman, 1 Lee 437.

6. In April 1861, a friend gave Lee two bottles of whiskey, which he carried in his headquarters wagon for medicinal use. At the end of the war they had still not been opened. Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 377 note.

7. Ibid. 450–53.

8. Shelby Foote, 1 The Civil War 130–31 (New York: Random House, 1958).

9. Stephen W. Sears, George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon 180 (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1988).

10. Gordon C. Rhea, The Battle of the Wilderness: May 5–6, 1864 403 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994).

11. See, in particular, Alan T. Nolan, Lee Considered: Robert E. Lee and the Civil War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991); Thomas Z. Connelly, The Marble Man: Robert E. Lee and His Image in American Society (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997); and John D. McKenzie, Uncertain Glory: Lee’s Generalship Re-Examined (New York: Hippocrene, 1997). Cf., James M. McPherson, “How Noble Was Robert E. Lee?,” New York Review of Books 10–14 (November 7, 1991).

12. John Keegan, The Mask of Command 200 (New York: Viking, 1987).

13. Ulysses S. Grant, 2 Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant 218 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885).

14. A. A. Humphreys, The Virginia Campaign of ’64 and ’65 75–76 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1883).

15. Freeman, 3 Lee 308–9.

16. Foote, 3 Civil War 202.

17. Theodore Lyman journal, May 8, 1864, quoted in Gordon C. Rhea, The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern 68 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997).

18. Horace Porter, Campaigning with Grant 84 (New York: Century, 1897).

19. Bruce Catton, Grant Takes Command 216 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968).

20. Philip H. Sheridan, 1 Personal Memoirs 386–87 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1888).

21. Hancock to Humphreys, May 10, 1864, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 599.

22. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 90.

23. Grant to Halleck, May 9, 1864, 10 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982).

24. Grant to Halleck, May 10, 1864, ibid. 418–19.

25. Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 181.

26. Ibid. 163.

27. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 96–97.

28. Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 176–77.

29. Grant, 2 Memoirs 550.

30. Grant to Meade, May 11, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 427.

31. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 97.

32. Ibid. 98.

33. Grant to Halleck, May 11, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 422–23. Also see Grant to Stanton, May 11, 1864, ibid. 422.

34. Foote, 3 Civil War 214–15.

35. George A. Bruce, The Twentieth Regiment of Massachusetts Infantry, 1861–1865 374 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906).

36. William G. Mitchell, quoted in Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 225.

37. Ibid. 229.

38. Samuel Dunham, “Spotsylvania: A 63rd Pennsylvania Comrade Tells About the Fight,” National Tribune, June 10, 1886.

39. St. Claire Augustine Mulholland, The Story of the 116th Regiment Pennsylvania Volunteers in the War of the Rebellion 197 (Philadelphia: F. McManus, 1899).

40. Albert Marsh, 64th New York Infantry, quoted in Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 235.

41. William J. Seymour, The Civil War Memoirs of Captain William J. Seymour: Reminiscences of a Louisiana Tiger 123–24 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1991).

42. McHenry Howard, Recollections of a Maryland Confederate Staff Soldier and Officer Under Johnston, Jackson, and Lee 294–95 (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1914).

43. Hancock to Meade, May 12, 1864, 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 657.

44. Hancock to Humphreys, May 12, 1864, ibid.

45. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 102.

46. Grant to Burnside, May 12, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 431 note.

47. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 103–5.

48. Grant to Burnside, May 12, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 431 note.

49. Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 246.

50. M. S. Stringfellow, “Letter to the Richmond Times,” February 20, 1893, in 21 Southern Historical Society Papers 244–51.

51. Foote, 3 Civil War 218.

52. John B. Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War 280 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1903).

53. Eugene M. Ott, Jr., “The Civil War Diary of James J. Kirkpatrick, Sixteenth Mississippi Infantry, C.S.A.” M.A. thesis, Texas A&M University, 1984.

54. Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania 273.

55. Joseph P. Cullen, Where a Hundred Thousand Fell: The Battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, the Wilderness, and Spotsylvania Court House 52–53 (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1966).

56. Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Grant, quoted in “Bloody Angle” (Washington, D.C.: National Park Service, 1998).

57. Catton, Grant Takes Command 228.

58. G. Norton Galloway, “Hand to Hand Fighting at Spotsylvania,” 4 Battles and Leaders of the Civil War 174.

59. Foote, 3 Civil War 223.

60. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 732.

61. Grant to Halleck, May 12, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 428.

62. Grant to Julia, May 13, 1864, ibid. 443–44.

63. Grant to Stanton, May 13, 1864, ibid. 434. Grant also recommended the promotion of Hancock to be a brigadier general in the regular army. The following day Stanton assured Grant that the promotion would be made. Also see Halleck to Grant, May 16, 1864: “After your splendid victories almost anything you ask for will be granted. The case may be different if you meet with reverses. I therefore ask that you urge them now.” Ibid. 436 note.

64. Humphreys, Virginia Campaign 83 note.

65. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 114–15.

66. Ibid.

67. George Gordon Meade, 2 The Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 197–98, George Meade, ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913).

68. Rhea, Battles for Spotsylvania, 302–3, 317.

69. Adam Badeau, 2 Military History of General Ulysses S. Grant 184 (New York: D. Appleton, 1881).

70. Journal of Theodore Lyman, May 8, 1864, Massachusetts Historical Society.

71. Grant, 2 Memoirs 445.

72. Grant to Meade, May 12, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 433.

73. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Touched with Fire: Civil War Letters and Diary of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. 116, Mark DeWolfe Howe, ed. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1946).

74. Peter S. Michie, The Life and Letters of Emory Upton 108–9 (New York: D. Appleton, 1885).

75. Grant to Halleck, May 14, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 445.

76. Meade to Mrs. Meade, May 19, 1864, 2 Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 197.

77. Halleck to Grant, May 17, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 460 note.

78. 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 20. Grant borrowed the expression from his chief engineer, General John Bernard, who said the Confederates had Butler bottled up. In Bernard’s words, the enemy had corked the bottle and with a small force could hold it in place.

79. Grant to Halleck, May 22, May 25, 1864, 10 Grant Papers 477, 487–88. As Grant continued to move to his left, Smith was ordered to debark at White House on the Pamunkey and join the army at Cold Harbor. Grant to Smith, May 30, 1864, ibid. 498.

80. Grant, 2 Memoirs 243.

81. Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 359.

82. Grant to Halleck, May 26, 1864, Grant Papers 490–91.

83. Grant to Halleck, May 30, 1864, ibid. 495–96.

84. 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 3) 820.

85. Foote, 3 Civil War 282.

86. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 733.

87. Holmes, Touched with Fire 149–50.

88. Foote, 3 Civil War 288.

89. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 281–82.

90. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 174–75.

91. Foote, 3 Civil War 290.

92. Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 391.

93. Foote, 3 Civil War 292–93.

94. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 176.

95. Ibid. 179. Also see Grant, 2 Memoirs 276–78.

96. Meade, 2 Life and Letters of General George Gordon Meade 200–201.

97. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 318.

98. Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 389.

99. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 317–18.

100. Horace Porter to Mrs. Porter, June 4, 1864, Porter Papers, Library of Congress.

101. Adams to R. H. Davis, Jr., June 5, 1864, Davis Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.

102. Letter of James Keleher, 3rd New York, June 8, 1864, Huntington Library.

103. Letter of George Murray, 11th Infantry, Chicago, Ill.

104. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln 515 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

105. Grant to Halleck, June 5, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 19–20.

CHAPTER TWELVE: APPOMATTOX

1. Of Patton’s maneuver, R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy wrote: “This shift from an offensive across the Saar on a west–east axis to a general attack on a north–south axis in southern Luxembourg was no simple ‘squads left’ evolution. It meant new road nets, filled with moving troops, cutting across the old at right angles. . . . This was a brilliant military accomplishment, involving corps and army staff work of the highest order.” Military Heritage of America 551 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956).

2. When the movement of pontoons was initially reported, Lee assumed it was preparatory to crossing the Chickahominy and an assault on Richmond from the same direction from which McClellan came in 1862. Douglas Southall Freeman, 3 R. E. Lee 399–400 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935).

3. Ibid. 398.

4. 11 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 45, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1984).

5. Several times Halleck warned Grant against crossing the James, but his views are most crisply stated in an “I told you so” personal letter to Sherman, written on July 16 after the initial Union assault on Petersburg had failed. Halleck wrote: “Entre nous, I fear Grant has made a fatal mistake in putting himself south of James river. He cannot now reach Richmond without taking Petersburg, which is strongly fortified, crossing the Appomattox and recrossing the James. Moreover, by placing his army south of Richmond he opens the capital and the whole North to rebel raids. Lee can at any time detach 30,000 or 40,000 men without our knowing it till we are actually threatened. I hope we may yet have full success, but I find that many of Grant’s general officers think the campaign already a failure.” 38 War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records (Part 5) 151 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1884).

6. 7 The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln 393, Roy P. Basler, et al., eds. (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1955).

7. Grant interview, Chicago Tribune, April 22, 1880.

8. Brig. Gen. Edward Porter Alexander, chief of artillery of the Confederate 1st Corps, wrote afterward that when the Army of Northern Virginia failed to pursue Grant during his withdrawal from Cold Harbor, “the last, and perhaps the best, chances of Confederate success, were not lost in the repulse of Gettysburg, nor in any combat of arms. They were lost during the three days of lying in camp, believing that Grant was hemmed in by the broad part of the James below City Point, and had no where to go but to come and attack us. The entire credit for this strategy belongs, I believe, to Grant.” Military Memoirs of a Confederate 547 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1962). Reprint.

9. Ulysses S. Grant, 2 Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant 293 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885).

10. Adam Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 359 (New York: D. Appleton, 1881); 36 War of the Rebellion (Part 1) 25.

11. P. G. T. Beauregard, “Four Days of Battle at Petersburg,” 4 Battles and Leaders of the Civil War 541, Clarence C. Buel and Robert U. Johnson, eds. (New York: Century, 1888).

12. Badeau, 2 Military History of Ulysses S. Grant 361.

13. Grant, 2 Memoirs 293–94.

14. Beauregard to Cadmus Wilcox, 5 Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts 121.

15. Grant to Meade, June 18, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 78.

16. Shelby Foote, 3 Civil War 441 (New York: Random House, 1974).

17. Bruce Catton, Grant Takes Command 292 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968).

18. J. F. C. Fuller, The Generalship of Ulysses S. Grant 293 (London: John Murray, 1929).

19. James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 743 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988).

20. Lincoln, 7 Collected Works 394–95.

21. Horace Porter to Mrs. Porter, June 24, 1864, Horace Porter Papers, Library of Congress. Cf., Horace Porter, Campaigning with Grant 216–24 (New York: Century, 1897).

22. Foote, 3 Civil War 443.

23. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 223.

24. Gideon Welles, 2 Diary of Gideon Welles 58, Howard K. Beale, ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1960).

25. Lincoln to Grant, July 10, 1864, Lincoln, 7 Collected Works 437.

26. Grant to Lincoln, July 10, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 203.

27. Lincoln to Grant, July 11, 1864, 7 Collected Works 438.

28. Dana to Grant, July 11, 1864, 37 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 192–94.

29. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 757.

30. London Times, quoted in Foote, 3 Civil War 461.

31. George Templeton Strong, Diary 467, 474.

32. Grant to Halleck, August 1, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 358–59.

33. Lincoln to Grant, August 3, 1864, 7 Collected Works 476.

34. Catton, Grant Takes Command 343. Also see note 5, above.

35. Grant’s colorful phraseology was in a letter to Halleck, July 14, 1864, but as he had a way of repeating himself it is likely he used the same metaphor speaking to Sheridan. His written instruction to Sheridan stated: “Take [from the valley] all provisions, forage and stock wanted for the use of your command. Such as cannot be consumed, destroy.” Grant to Halleck, July 14, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 242–43; Grant to [Sheridan] August 5, 1864, ibid. 377–78.

36. Philip H. Sheridan, 1 Personal Memoirs of P.H. Sheridan 465 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1888); Theodore S. Bowers to William R. Rowley, August 9, 1864, Rowley Papers, Illinois State Historical Society.

37. Grant to Sheridan, August 7, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 381.

38. Catton, Grant Takes Command 348.

39. Bowers to Rawlins, August 10, 1864, in James H. Wilson, The Life of John A. Rawlins 257 (New York: Neale, 1916).

40. Grant to Sherman, August 7, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 381.

41. Grant to Julia, August 5 and August 8, 1864, ibid. 372, 384. Grant’s aide Colonel Horace Porter attended Princeton prior to West Point and undertook to find a house there for Julia.

42. Catton, Grant Takes Command 322.

43. Grant to Halleck, August 1, 1864, 11 Grant Papers 361–62.

44. Halleck to Grant, August 11, 1864, ibid. 424–25 note.

45. Grant to Halleck, August 15, 1864, ibid. 424.

46. Lincoln to Grant, August 17, 1864, Lincoln, 7 Collected Works 499.

47. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 279.

48. Grant to Washburne, August 16, 1864, 12 Grant Papers, 16–17.

49. Grant to Ammen, August 18, 1864, ibid. 35–36.

50. In his acceptance letter McClellan backed away from the platform pledge. Nevertheless, the election of 1864 came as close to being a referendum on the war as the 1844 contest between Polk and Clay offered a choice concerning the annexation of Texas.

51. Slocum to War Department, September 2, 1864, 38 War of the Rebellion (Part 5) 763; Sherman to War Department, September 3, 1864, quoted in McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 774.

52. Grant to Sherman, 12 Grant Papers, 154–55.

53. St. Paul Dispatch, September 4, 1864.

54. Lee to Seddon, August 23, 1864, quoted in Catton, Grant Takes Command 353.

55. Lee to Jefferson Davis, September 2, 1864, Wartime Papers of R. E. Lee 847–48, Clifford Dowdey, ed. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1961).

56. Lee to Seddon, August 23, 1864, quoted in Catton, Grant Takes Command 353.

57. Grant to Sheridan, August 26, 1864, 12 Grant Papers 96–97.

58. Lincoln to Grant, September 12, 1864, Lincoln, 7 Collected Works 548.

59. Grant to Lincoln, September 13, 1864, 12 Grant Papers 163 note.

60. Catton, Grant Takes Command 363.

61. Grant, 2 Memoirs 328.

62. Grant to Stanton, September 20, 1864; Stanton to Grant, September 20, 1864; Grant to Sheridan, September 20, 1864, 12 Grant Papers 175 note, 177.

63. Grant to Sheridan, September 22, 1864, ibid. 191.

64. Sheridan to Grant, October 1, 1864, ibid. 268–69 note.

65. Sheridan to Grant, October 7, 1864, ibid. 269–70 note.

66. Bruce Catton, A Stillness at Appomattox 314 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1956).

67. Lincoln, 7 Collected Works page 586; Meade, 2 Life and Letters 235–36.

68. Lee to Davis, November 2, 1864, Wartime Papers of R. E. Lee 818.

69. Lee to Grant, October 1, 1864; Grant to Lee, October 2, 1864; Lee to Grant, October 3, 1864; Grant to Lee, October 3, 1864. 12 Grant Papers 258, 263.

70. Grant to Stanton, November 10, 1864, 12 Grant Papers 398.

71. Grant to Jones, November 13, 1864, ibid. 415–16.

72. Grant to Julia, November 9, 1864, ibid. 397–98.

73. Jefferson Davis, 6 Jefferson Davis, Constitutionalist: His Letters, Papers, and Speeches 341–42, Dunbar Rowland, ed. (Jackson: Mississippi Department of Archives and History, 1923); Porter, Campaigning with Grant 313.

74. 12 Grant Papers 157 note.

75. Ibid. 290–91 note.

76. Grant to Sherman, October 12, 1864, ibid. 298.

77. Lincoln wrote that he was “anxious, if not fearful” of Sherman’s plan, and in the draft of his annual message to Congress included the observation that “our cause could, if need be, survive the loss of the whole detached force.” Lincoln deleted the phrase before transmitting the message, believing it too pessimistic. Lincoln, 8 Collected Works 181.

78. Grant to Stanton, October 13, 1864, ibid. 302–3. Stanton’s reservations were partially fueled by Grant’s adjutant, John Rawlins, who went out of channels to urge the secretary of war to quash Sherman’s scheme. Grant did not discover Rawlins’s intervention until years later, and was bitter at what he considered a betrayal by his chief of staff. Grant, 8 Memoirs 326.

79. 44 War of the Rebellion 783. Lincoln received the message on Christmas Eve.

80. Grant to Halleck, December 8, 1864, 13 Grant Papers 83.

81. Thomas to Grant, December 8, 1864, ibid. 88 note.

82. Grant to Thomas, December 9, 1864, ibid. 97.

83. Grant to Thomas, December 11, 1864; Thomas to Grant, December 11, 1864, ibid. 107.

84. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 815.

85. Mary Chesnut’s Civil War 694, C. Vann Woodward, ed. (New Haven: Yale Univeristy Press, 1981).

86. 46 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 1258.

87. Sherman to Grant, January 21, 1865. 13 Grant Papers 350–51 note.

88. Grant to Sherman, February 1, 1865, ibid. 349–51.

89. Lee to Grant, March 2, 1865, 46 War of the Rebellion (Part 2) 824. Lee told Jefferson Davis he was not sanguine about the prospects because Grant would undoubtedly demand a return to the Union. “Whether this will be acceptable to our people yet awhile I cannot say,” Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 6. Emphasis added.

90. Lincoln, 8 Collected Works 330–31.

91. Grant to Sheridan, February 20, 1865, 13 Grant Papers 457–58.

92. Grant, 2 Memoirs 424–25.

93. Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 7.

94. Porter, Campaigning with Grant 402–3.

95. Foote, 3 Civil War 845.

96. David Herbert Donald, Lincoln 572 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).

97. Admiral David D. Porter, Incidents and Anecdotes of the Civil War 313–17 (New York: D. Appleton, 1885); Donald, Lincoln 574.

98. Foote, 3 Civil War 857.

99. William Tecumseh Sherman, 2 Memoirs of General W.T. Sherman 327 (New York: Century, 1893).

100. Catton, Grant Takes Command 440.

101. Grant to Sheridan, March 29, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 253–54.

102. Grant, 2 Memoirs 440.

103. Lee to John C. Breckenridge, April 2, 1865, Wartime Papers of Lee 924–25.

104. Foote, 3 Civil War 913–14.

105. Ibid. 914.

106. Ibid. 909.

107. Sheridan to Grant, April 5, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 345 note.

108. Foote, 3 Civil War 915.

109. Sheridan to Grant, April 6, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 358 note.

110. Lincoln to Grant, April 7, 1865, Lincoln, 8 Collected Works 388.

111. Catton, Grant Takes Command 456.

112. Grant to Lee, April 7, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 361.

113. Lee to Grant, April 7, 1865, Wartime Papers of Lee 931–32.

114. Grant to Lee, April 8, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 367.

115. Lee to Grant, April 8, 1865, Wartime Papers of Lee 932.

116. Catton, Grant Takes Command 439–60; Foote, 3 Civil War 936.

117. Sheridan to Grant, April 8, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 369 note.

118. Grant to Lee, April 9, 1865, ibid. 371.

119. Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 123.

120. Ibid. 126.

121. Lee to Grant, April 9, 1865, Wartime Papers of Lee 932.

122. Lee to Grant, April 9, 1865, ibid. 933.

123. Grant, 2 Memoirs 485.

124. Grant to Lee, April 9, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 372–73; Catton, Grant Takes Command 462.

125. Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 131.

126. Colonel Charles Marshall, An Aide-de-Camp of Lee 268–69 (Boston: Little Brown, 1927).

127. Catton, Grant Takes Command 464.

128. Grant, 2 Memoirs 489.

129. Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 135.

130. The details of the surrender at Appomattox, including the texts of the documents, are drawn primarily from Grant’s memoirs and Douglas Southall Freeman’s biography of Lee. Grant, 2 Memoirs 483–95; Freeman, R. E. Lee 134–143.

131. Catton, Grant Takes Command 468.

132. Grant to Stanton, April 9, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 375 note.

133. Joshua L. Chamberlain, The Passing of the Armies 260–66 (Dayton, Ohio: Morningside Bookshop, 1991), reprint; McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 850.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN: RECONSTRUCTION

1. Edward Porter Alexander, Fighting for the Confederacy 540 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989). Reprint.

2. John B. Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War 231 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1904).

3. Longstreet interview, New York Times, July 25, 1885. In a fitting tribute to his old friend, Longstreet said that Grant’s renown as a fighter was unsurpassed, “but the biggest part of him was his heart.” Horace Porter, Campaigning with Grant 515–16 (New York: Century, 1897).

4. Abraham Lincoln, 8 The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln 393 Roy P. Basler, ed. (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1967).

5. Julia Dent Grant, The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 153, John Y. Simon, ed. (New York: Putnam, 1975).

6. Edward Pollard, The Lost Cause 712 (New York: Treat, Morrow, 1867).

7. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace 21 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

8. John Russell Young, 2 Around the World with General Grant 356 (New York: American News, 1879). Historians have assumed that Julia did not wish to spend the evening in Mrs. Lincoln’s company.

9. 14 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 390 note, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989).

10. Young, 2 Around the World 354.

11. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 156.

12. Shelby Foote, 3 The Civil War: A Narrative 977 (New York: Random House, 1974); Young, 2 Around the World 355; Brooks D. Simpson, Let Us Have Peace 92 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).

13. Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S. Grant: Soldier and President 362 (New York: Random House, 1997).

14. Grant to Ord, April 15, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 391.

15. Ord to Grant, April 15, 1865, ibid., 391–92 note.

16. Grant to Ord, April 15, 1865, ibid.

17. Grant to Julia, April 16, 1865, ibid. 396–97.

18. Ewell to Grant, 46 War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records (Part 3) 787 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1884).

19. Noah Brooks, Washington in Lincoln’s Time 233–34 (New York: Century, 1896).

20. Young, 2 Around the World 354, 357.

21. Sherman to Grant, April 17, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 419 note.

22. Sherman to Grant, April 15, 1865, ibid. 418 note; also see Sherman to Grant, April 12, 1865, ibid. 375 note.

23. Grant, 2 Memoirs 754–55.

24. Sherman to Grant, April 18, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 419–20 note. Sherman went on to say that the surrender document “is an absolute submission of the Enemy to the lawful authority of the United States, and disperses his Armies absolutely.”

25. For the text of the Sherman-Johnston accord, see 47 War of the Rebellion (Part 3) 243–44.

26. Grant to Stanton, April 21, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 423.

27. The cabinet meeting on April 21, 1865, is best described by Navy Secretary Gideon Welles. 2 Diary of Gideon Welles 294–95, Howard K. Beale, ed. (New York: Norton, Alfred A. Knopf, 1960). Also see Benjamin T. Thomas and Harold Hyman, Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln’s Secretary of War 405–7 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962); Porter, Campaigning with Grant 503–4.

28. Grant to Julia, April 21, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 428–29.

29. Grant to Stanton, April 24, 1865, ibid. 431–32.

30. For text, see 47 War of the Rebellion (Part 3) 313.

31. Grant to Julia, April 25, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 433.

32. Badeau, Grant in Peace 120.

33. Sherman to Grant, April 28, 1865, reprinted in William Tecumseh Sherman, Memoirs of General William T. Sherman 856 (New York: Library of America, 1990). Reprint.

34. Badeau, Grant in Peace 90; Philip H. Sheridan, The Personal Memoirs of P. H. Sheridan 402 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1888).

35. Grant to Sheridan, May 3, 1865, 14 Grant Papers 439 note; Grant to Sheridan, May 17, 1865, 15 ibid. 43–44; Sheridan, Memoirs 399–411.

36. In total, there were twelve excluded categories. Simpson, Let Us Have Peace 101.

37. The text of President Johnson’s proclamation is in 8 War of the Rebellion, 2nd Series, 578–80.

38. Grant to Halleck, May 6, 1865, 15 Grant Papers 11.

39. Lee to Beauregard, October 3, 1865, quoted in Douglas Southall Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 202 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1935).

40. New York Times, April 19, 26, June 4, 17, 1865; Butler to Johnson, April 25, 1865, 7 The Papers of Andrew Johnson 234–37, Paul H. Bergeron, ed. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1992).

41. Freeman, 4 R. E. Lee 202–3.

42. Badeau, Grant in Peace 25.

43. Lee to Grant, June 13, 1865, 15 Grant Papers 150 note.

44. Grant to Stanton, June 16, 1865, ibid. 149.

45. Ibid., 150 note.

46. Quoted in Hamlin Garland, Ulysses S. Grant: His Life and Character 332–333 (New York: Doubleday & McClure, 1898). Emphasis added. Also see 2 The Diary of Orville Browning 32, James G. Randall and Theodore C. Pease, eds. (Springfield: Illinois Historical Library, 1933); and Young, 2 Around the World 460–61.

In 1867, the House Judiciary Committee, holding hearings pertaining to the possible impeachment of President Johnson, interrogated Grant extensively about General Lee’s petition for pardon and Grant’s discussion with the president. Grant’s replies do not differ from the account I have reported. See 17 Grant Papers 213–32.

47. Grant to Lee, June 20, 1865, 15 ibid. 210–11.

48. Garland, Grant 338.

49. Grant to Washburne, May 21, 1865, 15 Grant Papers 88.

50. Grant to William Coffin, November 3, 1865, ibid. 388, 389 note; Grant to J. Russell Jones, March 27, 1866, 16 ibid. 136–37.

51. Grant to Charles W. Ford, October 28, 1865, 15 ibid. 372.

52. Both Grant and Julia were aware of Butterfield’s efforts. Butterfield to Washburne, December 8, 1865, 16 Grant Papers 75 note. General Butterfield had a distinguished war record, winning the Medal of Honor for his actions at Gaines Mill in 1862. He served briefly as chief of staff of the Army of the Potomac under Hooker and then followed Hooker to Chattanooga. Butterfield spent his spare time composing bugle calls and is the author of “Taps.”

53. When discharged, the mortgage on 205 I Street amounted to $30,437.50. Grant put $54,725 in bonds and took $19,837.50 in cash. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 167 note 12. Also see Grant to J. Russell Jones, March 17, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 136–37.

54. Grant to Butterfield, February 17, 1866, ibid. 74.

55. For an example of Corbin’s duplicity, see his letter to Andrew Johnson, June 25, 1866, urging the president to bypass Grant’s supporters when making appointments. “If we treat Grant well, without recognizing distinctive ‘Grant men,’ he will not be a candidate [for president in 1868]; he is too poor and can’t afford so soon to give up his present valuable position.” 10 Johnson Papers 622–24.

56. Grant to Johnson, December 18, 1865, 15 Grant Papers 434–37. Also see William S. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: General O. O. Howard and the Freedmen 25ff. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970).

57. Cincinnati Enquirer, September 30, 1865, quoted in Eric L. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 184 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). Also see Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 180 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988).

58. Under Article I of the Constitution, slaves were counted as three fifths of a person in calculating congressional representation. Emancipation counted as a legislative windfall for the South, since African-Americans would now be counted as whole persons. The intent of Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment was to give Southerners a choice. They could let blacks vote and have them counted in congressional apportionment, or they could disenfranchise them and suffer a reduction in their numbers in Congress.

59. New York Times, April 7, 1866.

60. Badeau, Grant in Peace 37.

61. Rutherford B. Hayes, 3 Diary and Letters of Rutherford B. Hayes 22, Charles R. Williams, ed. (Columbus: Ohio Historical Society, 1922).

62. William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography 246 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

63. For background, see Bobby L. Lovett, “Memphis Riots: White Reaction to Blacks in Memphis, May 1865–July 1866,” 38 Tennessee Historical Quarterly 9–33 (1979).

64. Grant to Stanton, July 7, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 233–34. Grant wrote Stanton after receiving the official report of the riot from General Thomas. His earlier correspondence with military officials in Memphis, beginning immediately after the riot, is reprinted in the notes, 16 Grant Papers 234–36.

65. Speed to Johnson, July 13, 1866, ibid. 234–35 note.

66. New York Times, May 24, 1866.

67. Grant to Thomas, July 6, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 230–31.

68. Ibid. 228.

69. Sheridan to Grant, August 2, 1866, 16 ibid. 289 note.

70. Grant to Sheridan, August 12, 1866, ibid. 292. Grant was concerned that Sheridan’s telegram be published in full because the White House, in releasing the message, omitted the paragraph quoted above. The failure of the White House to print Sheridan’s message in full figured prominently in the House of Representatives’ impeachment investigation of President Johnson. House Reports, 40th Cong., 1st sess., No. 7, “Impeachment Investigation” 535–40, 635–43. For comments of the Times reporter who was given the censored version of Sheridan’s message by the White House, see McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 426–27 note.

71. Horace Porter reported that “General Grant, at first regarding [Johnson’s request] merely as an invitation, endeavored to decline it as politely as possible, but it was put in the form of an order, and he had to obey.” Chicago Inter-Ocean, October 24, 1885. Also see Badeau, Grant in Peace 38–39.

72. New York Times, August 31, 1866.

73. New York Herald, August 31, 1866. When Julia read of the race she wrote to rebuke Grant. His reply was Clintonesque: “The race you saw reported is almost without foundation.” 16 Grant Papers 307.

74. Johnson’s speech is reprinted in 11 Johnson Papers 192–201. For the swing around the circle, see McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 428–38. For the itinerary, see 11 Johnson Papers, Appendix III.

75. Grant to Julia, September 9, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 308. Also see New York Herald, September 6, 1866; McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 248–49 note.

76. Badeau, Grant in Peace 39; Louis A. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 239 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917).

77. Grant to William S. Hillyer, September 19, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 310. Grant sent a copy of the letter to the Republican opposition in Indiana and authorized them to use it as they saw fit. Ibid. note.

78. Sherman to Ellen Ewing Sherman, October 26, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 339–40 note.

79. For Johnson’s inquiry, see Welles, 2 Diary 625–26. Also see the Baltimore American and Commercial Advertiser, October 10, 11, 1866.

80. Ulysses S. Grant III, Ulysses S. Grant: Warrior and Statesman 279, 292 (New York: William Morrow, 1969).

81. Grant to Brig. Gen. Alexander B. Dyer, chief of ordnance, September 22, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 331–32 note. Grant also opposed providing weapons for newly organized militia in the Southern states. Grant to Johnson, August 22 and November 9, 1866. Ibid. 302–4, 376.

82. Grant to Sheridan, October 12, 1866, ibid. 330–31. Emphasis in original.

83. Grant to Washburne, October 23, 1866, ibid. 349.

84. On October 21 Grant had written to Johnson asking to be excused from the mission. “It is a diplomatic service for which I am not fitted, either by education or taste. It has necessarily to be conducted under the State Department with which my duties do not connect me. Again then I most urgently but respectfully repeat my request to be excused, from the performance of a duty entirely out of my sphere, and one which can be so much better performed by others.” 16 Grant Papers 346–47.

85. Badeau, Grant in Peace 53.

86. Sherman immediately accepted the assignment. “My mission is already ended,” he told Captain Alden as his ship, the Susquehanna, departed New York harbor. “By substituting myself I have prevented a serious quarrel between the Administration and Grant.” Badeau, Grant in Peace 54–55. Also see Grant to Stanton, October 27, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 357–58.

87. Johnson to Stanton, October 25, 1866, 11 Johnson Papers 386. For background, see Jean H. Baker, The Politics of Continuity: Maryland Political Parties From 1858 to 1870 143–64 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973).

88. Grant to Johnson, October 24, 1866, 16 Grant Papers 352–53 note. Emphasis in original. Also see Grant to Stanton, October 27, 1866, ibid.

89. Baltimore Sun, November 3, 4, 5, 6, 1866; Johnson to Swann, November 6, 1866, 11 Johnson Papers 424–25; Simpson, Let Us Have Peace 160–61.

90. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 447.

91. See Grant to Ord, December 6, 1866, urging Arkansas to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. 16 Grant Papers 405–6.

92. Grant to Richard Taylor, November 15, 1868. With Joseph E. Johnston and James Longstreet, Taylor was one of the early advocates of Southern compliance with Reconstruction legislation. Ibid. 394–95.

93. Baltimore, American and Commercial Advertiser, November 2, 1866.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN: LET US HAVE PEACE

The first three stanzas of O’Reilly’s verse were run by the New York Tribune on its front page every morning for the two months preceding the 1868 election.

1. For Johnson’s formal protest concerning the rider, see his message to the House of Representatives, March 2, 1867, 12 The Papers of Andrew Johnson 77–78, Paul H. Bergeron, ed. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995). Also see The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning 134, James G. Randall and Theodore C. Pease, eds. (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1933).

2. Johnson’s veto message is reprinted, 11 Johnson Papers 577–88.

3. Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography 276 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989).

4. Johnson’s veto message, drafted by Seward, is a tightly written constitutional brief that is difficult to fault. The position Johnson argued was later affirmed by Chief Justice Taft, speaking for the Court in Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52 (1926). For Johnson’s message, see 12 Johnson Papers 95–101.

5. Eric Foner, A Short History of Reconstruction 122 (New York: Harper and Row, 1990).

6. George S. Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public Affairs 107–8 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1902); Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 277.

7. Grant to Stanton, January 29, 1867, The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 38, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1985).

8. At Grant’s suggestion, the House version, which authorized him to appoint the district commanders, was changed to allow the president to make that choice. Louis A. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 249 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917). Also see Brooks D. Simpson, Let Us Have Peace 173–74 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).

9. New York Independent, March 7, 1867.

10. Cyrus B. Comstock Papers, Library of Congress.

11. Henry Latham, Black and White: A Journal of a Three Months’ Tour of the United States 63 (London: Macmillan, 1867).

12. Grant to Washburne, March 4, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 76–77.

13. Grant to Sherman, January 13, 1867, ibid. 13–14.

14. Sherman to Grant, January 17, 1867, ibid. 14 note.

15. Colonel Ely S. Parker, Grant’s longtime aide, was a full-blooded Seneca Indian from Galena, Illinois. He conducted an unofficial, on-site investigation of the incident for the general in chief in March 1867. Parker concluded that Fetterman, contrary to orders, had strayed into hostile Indian territory; that his troops were poorly disciplined; and that the garrison at Fort Kearny was remiss in not rushing to his aid. Parker’s report convinced Grant that army authorities at Fort Phil Kearny were negligent. He ordered an immediate change in command, but otherwise took no further action. Ibid. 57–60 note.

16. Grant to Stanton, January 15, 1867, ibid. 21–22.

17. Grant to Sherman, January 15, 1867, ibid. 23–24.

18. Grant to Stanton, February 1, 1867, ibid. 40–41.

19. Grant to Stanton, March 9, 1867, ibid. 78.

20. Grant to Ford, March 24, 1867, ibid. 90.

21. Grant to Morris, March 27, 1867, ibid. 91.

22. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace 75–76 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

23. Grant to Washburne, April 5, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 98.

24. Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, “The ‘Pig-Iron’ Kelley Riot in Mobile” 23 Alabama Review 1 (1970). Pope’s correspondence with Grant concerning the incident is at 17 Grant Papers 442–45.

25. For a survey of actions by the five district commanders, see James E. Sefton, The United States Army and Reconstruction, 1865–1877 118–27 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967).

26. Grant to Pope, April 21, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 117–18.

27. Grant to Sheridan, March 29, 1876, ibid. 91–92. Emphasis in original. Longstreet was one of the few former Confederate commanders to provide public support for Reconstruction. On March 19 and April 7, Old Pete published open letters in the New Orleans Times calling upon his fellow Southerners for compliance. “No one has worked more for the South than I, nor lost more. I think the time has come for peace and I am not willing to lose more blood. . . . If there are any in the country inclined to fight the question, I hope not to be included in that number.” Grant appreciated Longstreet’s support. “These ideas freely expressed by one who occupies a position like yours, have to exercise a beneficial influence.” Grant to Longstreet, April 16, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 115–16. Also see, Jeffry D. Wert, General James Longstreet 410–13 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993).

28. Grant to Sheridan, April 5, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 95–96. Two weeks later Grant advised Sheridan that the attorney general had not reported, and that in the interim any civil officer who obstructed the law should be suspended and tried by a military commission. “This right certainly does exist on the part of District Commanders, and I have no doubt of their power to remove arbitrarily.” April 21, 1867, ibid. 122–23.

29. For the text of Stanbery’s opinion, see 12 Johnson Papers 320–32. For a preliminary opinion, issued May 24, 1867, see ibid. 289–90.

30. Sheridan to Grant, June 22, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 198 note.

31. To have issued the attorney general’s opinion as an executive order would have given it the force of law. Gideon Welles, 3 Diary of Gideon Welles, John T. Morse, ed. 109–14. (June 14, 1867); Martin E. Mantell, Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction 32–33 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1923).

32. Grant to Ord, June 23, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 192.

33. Grant to Pope, June 28, 1867, ibid. 204.

34. Grant to Sheridan, June 24, 1867, ibid. 195–96.

35. Badeau, Grant in Peace 71.

36. For Johnson’s veto message, see 12 Johnson Papers 415–23.

37. New York Times, July 24, 1867.

38. Badeau, Grant in Peace 88; Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 293–94.

39. Grant to Johnson, August 1, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 250–52.

40. A useful summary of the Grant-Stanton relationship is provided by Badeau, Grant in Peace 77–83. Also see, John M. Schofield, Forty-six Years in the Army 412–13 (New York: Century, 1897); Fletcher Pratt, Stanton: Lincoln’s Secretary of War 340–43, 352–53 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1953).

41. Welles, 3 Diary 140; Mantell, Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction 36.

42. Johnson to Stanton, August 5, 1867, 12 Johnson Papers 461.

43. Stanton to Johnson, August 5, 1867, ibid.

44. Badeau, Grant in Peace 90; Pratt, Stanton 450.

45. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 295. Grant told Julia that he accepted the position because he thought it “most important that someone should be there who cannot be used.” The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 165, John Y. Simon, ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1975).

46. Johnson to Stanton, 12 Johnson Papers 476–77.

47. Stanton to Johnson, ibid. 477.

48. Grant to Stanton, August 12, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 268. “I have no alternative but to submit, under protest, to the superior force of the President,” Stanton replied. “You will please accept my acknowledgment of the kind terms in which you have notified me of your acceptance of the president’s appointment, and my cordial reciprocation of the sentiments expressed.” Stanton to Grant, August 12, 1867, ibid. 269 note.

49. New York Independent, August 29, 1867.

50. Schurz to his wife, August 20, 1867, Intimate Letters of Carl Schurz 388, Joseph Schafer, ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1928).

51. Henry D. Cooke to John Sherman, August 19, 1867, John Sherman Papers, Library of Congress. Emphasis in original.

52. For the text of Johnson’s orders, see 17 Grant Papers 279 note.

53. Grant to Johnson, ibid. 277–78.

54. Johnson to Grant, August 19, 1867, 12 Grant Papers 493–96. Also see Mantell, Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction 36; Edward McPherson, The Political History of the United States During the Period of Reconstruction 307 (Washington: Philip and Solomons, 1871).

55. Thomas to Grant, August 22, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 282–83 note.

56. Lt. Col. Alexander B. Hasson to Grant, August 21, 1867, ibid. 282 note.

57. Johnson to Grant, August 24, 1867, ibid. 296 note. Also see Grant to Sickles, August 24, 1867, ibid. 294–94; Sefton, United States Army and Reconstruction 158–64; Max L. Heyman, Jr., Prudent Soldier: A Biography of Major General E. R. S. Canby, 1817–1873 303–10 (Glendale, Calif.: A. H. Clark, 1959).

58. Grant to Johnson, August 26, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 301–2.

59. For text, see ibid. 304 note.

60. Army and Navy Journal, Philadelphia North American, Hartford Courant, August 31, 1867.

61. Badeau, Grant in Peace 107–8.

62. Grant to Ord, September 22, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 354.

63. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 299.

64. Andrew Johnson, Third Annual Message to Congress, December 3, 1867, 13 Johnson Papers 280–306. The quotation is at page 289.

65. Ibid. 137 note. Also see Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 298; Robert G. Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman and the Settlement of the West 183 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956).

66. Sherman to Grant, October 3, 1867, 17 Grant Papers 347 note. On October 2, 1867, Johnson wired Sherman to come to Washington. “The President desires to confer with you upon matters of public interest, and requests you to report to him in person for that purpose.” Sherman attempted to decline (“I prefer to confine myself to matters purely Military”) but said that if the president insisted, “I will start for Washington on your repeating your order.” After another exchange of telegrams, Sherman left St. Louis for Washington by train on October 4.13 Johnson Papers 131, 136–37.

67. Washington Evening Star, October 7, 9, 10, 11, 1867.

68. Sherman to Ellen Ewing Sherman, October 7, 1867, Home Letters of General Sherman 361, Mark A. DeWolfe Howe, ed. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909).

69. Welles, 3 Diary 234–35 (October 19, 23, 1867). One week after calling on Grant, Johnson formally raised at a cabinet meeting the issue of his possible suspension during an impeachment trial. The cabinet agreed unanimously that such action would be unconstitutional. Cabinet minutes, November 30, 1867, 13 Johnson Papers 269–71.

70. Act of March 2, 1867, 14 U. S. Statutes at Large 430.

71. Message to the Senate, December 12, 1867, 13 Johnson Papers 313–19.

72. Special Orders No. 40, March 19, 1867. For text, see American Annual Cyclopedia (1867) 463.

73. Grant authorized Hancock to revoke or sustain orders issued after Sheridan’s departure (November 10, 1867), but none before that date. Grant to Hancock, November 29, 1867, 18 Grant Papers 39. Johnson’s message to Congress, December 18, 1867, is at 13 Johnson Papers 349–50.

74. 40 Cong., 2nd sess. Congressional Globe 264, 322. Washington Daily Chronicle, December 21, 1867. Johnson’s proposal was tabled by the House; the Senate ignored it.

75. General Orders, December 28, 1867, 18 Grant Papers 87–88. Meade, a Pennsylvanian like Hancock, was thought by the press and many in Congress to be hostile to Reconstruction. But as a soldier, Meade did not let his personal views intrude. He enforced the law just as Pope did, and when in doubt he instinctively turned to Grant for advice. Gillem was more of a problem, but his appointment was only temporary awaiting the arrival of Irvin McDowell from California. McDowell proved to be indistinguishable from Ord when it came to enforcing the Reconstruction Acts. Mantell, Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction 75–79.

76. William Hall to Garfield, January 4, 1868, Garfield Papers, Library of Congress. Early in 1868, Johnson removed Brigadier Generals Wager Swayne and Joseph Mower, the heads of the Freedmen’s Bureau in Alabama and Louisiana. Richard H. Abbott, The Republican Party in the South 104 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986).

77. James L. Dunning to Charles Sumner, December 17, 1867, Sumner Papers, Harvard University; Foster Blodgett to William Pitt Fessenden, December 30, 1867, Fessenden Papers, Library of Congress; Frank Bird to Sumner, January 1, 1868, Sumner Papers.

78. Johnson had already told his private secretary that Grant had “served the purpose for which he had been selected” and that it would be desirable to replace him. “Notes of Colonel W. G. Moore: Private Secretary to President Johnson, 1866–68” 115, St. George L. Sioussat, ed., 19 American Historical Review 98–132 (1913).

79. Eric L. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 500–501 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960); Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 306.

80. Sherman’s account of the January 11 meeting in Grant’s office is contained in a letter Sherman wrote to the general in chief, January 27, 1868. 17 Grant Papers 106 note. Also see Sherman’s recollection (which does not differ) in his Memoirs at pp. 910–11 (American Library reprint edition).

81. Grant to Johnson, January 28, 1868, 17 Grant Papers 116–18.

82. Johnson to Grant, January 31, 1868, 17 Johnson Papers 508–12. Also see McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 501.

83. Eric McKitrick, in his exhaustive work on Johnson and Reconstruction, gives Grant the benefit of the doubt. Grant’s case, he writes, “rests mainly on the emphasis with which he expressed his desire to Johnson, in their interview of January 11, to leave the War Office. Johnson’s side depends on the clarity with which it was understood that Grant would remain pending further developments. Badeau, who saw Grant before and after this interview, says that the General was adamant and that Johnson, who ‘pleaded and argued,’ was the indecisive one. This is ‘indirect’ evidence, but then so is everything that followed.” McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 503 note. Also see William B. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant: Politician 104. (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1935).

84. Sherman to Grant, January 27, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 107 note.

85. Ibid.

86. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 307; “Notes of Colonel Moore” 114–15.

87. Adam Badeau believed the president was simply indecisive. “Johnson was indeed always slow in arriving at a decision. He did not positively decline to nominate Cox; he delayed on Sunday, and on Monday; but the Senate acted, and then Grant did exactly what he said he would do. He gave up the office, and Stanton at once took possession.” Grant in Peace 112.

88. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 166.

89. Badeau, Grant in Peace 111–12.

90. Grant to Johnson, January 14, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 102–3.

91. Sherman to Grant, January 27, 1864, ibid 108 note.

92. Simpson, Let Us Have Peace 229.

93. Badeau, Grant in Peace 112. Also see Grant to Johnson, January 28, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 116–18.

94. Grant to U.S. Representative John A. Bingham of Ohio, February 12, 1868, ibid. 149 note.

95. Trefousse, Johnson 307.

96. Sherman to Grant, January 27, 1868, Grant Papers 108 note.

97. Ibid. Also see Sherman, Memoirs 912–13 (reprint edition). After the meeting Johnson had his secretary clip the article in the Intelligencer and paste it in his scrapbook. The president read it approvingly to his cabinet at its next meeting, and insisted that Grant “had not been true to his understanding.” After listening to Johnson’s version, all but Seward agreed. 13 Johnson Papers 512.

98. New York Tribune, January 17, 1868.

99. New York World, January 16, 1868; New York Tribune, January 20, 1868; New York Times, January 21, 1868.

100. Grant to Johnson, January 24, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 121–22 note.

101. Sherman to Johnson, January 27, 1868, 13 Johnson Papers 497.

102. Grant to Johnson, January 28, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 116–18.

103. Sherman to Johnson, January 31, 1868, 13 Johnson Papers 512–13.

104. Johnson to Grant, January 31, 1868, ibid. 508–12.

105. Grant to Johnson, February 3, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 124–26.

106. New York Independent, January 13, 1868; New York Times, January 21, 1868.

107. Philadelphia Ledger, February 10, 1868.

108. Samuel Galloway to Washburne, February 6, 1868, Washburne Papers; National Anti-Slavery Standard, February 8, 1868; New York Times, February 6, 1868.

109. Badeau, Grant in Peace 114.

110. Sherman to Grant, February 14, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 139–40 note.

111. Sherman to Johnson, February 14, 1868, 13 Johnson Papers 559–60. Senator John Sherman followed through and introduced a resolution holding that the Senate should not consider additional brevet nominations. New York Tribune, February 17, 1868.

112. George Thomas to Johnson, February 22, 1868, 13 Johnson Papers 586.

113. Johnson to Stanton, February 21, 1868; Johnson to Lorenzo Thomas, February 21, 1868, 13 Johnson Papers 577.

114. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 312.

115. For the text of the Senate resolution and Johnson’s reply, 13 Johnson Papers 579–86.

116. The Articles of Impeachment are reprinted, ibid. 619–28; the president’s response, March 23, 1868, is at pages 664–89.

117. For Grant’s testimony, see 18 Grant Papers 185–89.

118. Grant to Sheridan, March 31, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 212. Earlier Grant told Sherman, “This constant jarring is getting very tedious to us who can be nothing other than victims.” March 18, 1868, ibid. 204.

119. Grant to Ford, March 18, 1868, ibid. 205.

120. New York Tribune, April 3, 1868. Also see New York Times, April 4, 1868.

121. John B. Henderson, “Reflections on Public Life,” Century Magazine 202–14 (December 1912).

122. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson 323. Just prior to the vote, Senator Ross suggested that it would have a salutary effect if the president would transmit to Congress the radical constitutions of South Carolina and Arkansas without delay. Johnson promptly complied. George P. Brockway, Political Deals That Saved Andrew Johnson 12–15 (New York: Coalition of Publishers for Employment, 1977).

123. See Schofield to Grant, April 18, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 221–24 note.

124. At the last minute Grant had a change of heart and wired Schofield not to accept the position. “I regret exceedingly that your advice comes too late,” Schofield replied. “You are aware that I do not want that office; yet, under existing circumstances, if the Senate should wish me to serve I could not decline.” Grant to Schofield, April 25, 1868; Schofield to Grant, April 25, 1868, ibid. 235. Also see Schofield, Forty-six Years 413–18. Following Johnson’s acquittal, Schofield was confirmed (May 29, 1868).

125. Badeau, Grant in Peace 142–43.

126. Ibid. 144.

127. John Sherman to Grant, June 28, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 294–95.

128. Badeau copied down Grant’s words as he spoke. The quoted passage constituted the entirety of the general’s remarks. Grant in Peace 144.

129. Grant to Hawley, May 29, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 263–64.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN: GRANT IN THE WHITE HOUSE

The epigraph is from The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 182, John Y. Simon, ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1975).

1. John Hope Franklin, “Election of 1868,” in 2 History of American Presidential Elections 1279, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed. (New York: Chelsea House, 1971).

2. As Secretary of State Seward noted, the Democrats “could have nominated no candidate who would have taken away fewer Republican votes.” Quoted in Eric Foner, A Short History of Reconstruction 145 (New York: Harper and Row, 1990).

3. Grant to Julia, July 17, 1868. Also see his letter to Julia from Denver, July 21, 1868, 19 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 9–10, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1995).

4. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace 145–46 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

5. Grant to Badeau, August 18, 1868, 19 Grant Papers 24.

6. For a sampling of Badeau’s correspondence with the Jewish community, see Badeau to Simon Wolf, April 22, 1868, ibid. 17–18 note; Simon Wolf, The Presidents I Have Known from 1860–1918 66 (Washington, D.C.: B. S. Adams, 1918).

7. Grant to Morris, September 14, 1868, 19 Grant Papers 37.

8. Badeau, Grant in Peace 148.

9. Grant to Washburne, September 23, 1868, 19 Grant Papers 42.

10. Grant to Schofield, September 25, 1868, ibid. 43–44.

11. “To all who apply to me,” Sherman wrote, “I say you will be elected, and ought to be elected, and that I would rather trust to your being just &fair, yea even moderate to the South, than Seymour and Blair [Democratic vice presidential nominee Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri]. . . . To talk of such men and principle, is like trusting convicts with property.” Sherman to Grant, September 28, 1868, ibid. 46 note.

12. Badeau, Grant in Peace 148.

13. Galena Gazette, November 5, 1868.

14. Badeau, Grant in Peace 149.

15. New York Tribune, November 12, 1868; Sherman to Grant, November 18, 1868, 19 Grant Papers 82 note.

16. Badeau, Grant in Peace 150–51.

17. Personal Memoirs of W. T. Sherman, 930 (New York: D. Appleton, 1875).

18. Grant to Sherman, January 5, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 103. Also see Grant to Ellen Sherman, February 2, 1869; Grant to Sherman, February 12, 1869; Sherman to Grant, February 21, 1869; Sherman to Senator John Sherman, February 21, 1869; Grant to William H. Aspinwall, February 25, 1869, ibid. 122–23, 128–29, 133.

19. The figure $65,000 included most of the furnishings. For Ellen Sherman’s caustic appraisal of the furniture the Grants left, see her letter to WTS, June 21, 1876, quoted in Stanley P. Hirshson, The White Tecumseh 360 (New York: Wiley, 1997). Also see Sherman to Senator John Sherman, January 15, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 103 note. The donors, in addition to Stewart, included Hamilton Fish, William H. Aspinwall, and Daniel Butterfield. Three of the four were subsequently appointed by Grant to significant positions. Ibid. 123 note.

20. Badeau to Matías Romero, September 13, 1868, 19 Grant Papers 282.

21. Matías Romero to Grant, November 9, 1868, ibid. 69 note. Grant replaced Rosecrans with Thomas H. Nelson of Indiana, former United States minister to Chile, April 12, 1869.

22. For a general view of the Alabama claims, see Maureen M. Robson, “The Alabama Claims and the Anglo-American Reconciliation, 1865–1871,” 43 Canadian Historical Review 11ff. (March 1961).

23. Badeau, Grant in Peace 153–54.

24. Samuel Flagg Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States 406 (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955).

25. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams: An Autobiography 260 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1918).

26. 1 Letters of James Russell Lowell 7, Charles Elliot Norton, ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1894).

27. Quoted in Allan Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration 107–8 (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1936).

28. New York Times, July 11, 1868, in Paxton Hibben, Henry Ward Beecher: An American Portrait 221 (New York: Doran, 1927).

29. E. L. Godkin, “The Men Inside Politics,” The Nation, March 4, 1869.

30. Badeau, Grant in Peace 156, 410.

31. Ibid. 156–57.

32. For the text of Grant’s inaugural address, along with his initial draft, see 19 Grant Papers 136–42.

33. New York Times, March 5, 1869.

34. The Nation, March 11, 1869.

35. Harper’s Weekly, April 3, 1869.

36. For a sampling of a Southern comment, see Hamlin Garland, Ulysses S. Grant: His Life and Character 389 (New York: Doubleday and McClure, 1898).

37. New York Times, March 5, 1869.

38. Grant to Thomas L. Tullock, January 20, 1869. “If any choice is left to me,” wrote Grant, “I would be pleased to see it dispensed with. I do not wish to disarrange any plans . . . but it will be agreeable to me if your committee should agree that the ball is unnecessary.” 19 Grant Papers 111.

39. New York Times, March 5, 1869.

40. Garland, Grant 388–89.

41. New York Times, New York Tribune, New York Herald, March 6, 1869.

42. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 110.

43. Robert V. Friendenberg, “John A. J. Creswell of Maryland: Reformer in the Post Office,” 64 Maryland Historical Magazine 133–43 (1969). Also see Hesseltine, Grant 160; William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography 302 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

44. Hoar was the center of his circle of friends in Concord. James Russell Lowell related in the Bigelow Papers how he would spend a long morning in conversation

Along the Jedge, who covers with his hat

More wit, an’ gumption, an’ shrewd Yankee sense,

Than there is mosses on an ole stone fence.

45. Emory Washburn to Elihu Washburne, March 8, 1969, Washburne Papers, Library of Congress.

46. New York Times, March 8, 1869.

47. New York Tribune, March 6, 1869.

48. Harper’s Weekly, April 3, 1869.

49. 15 U.S. Statutes at Large 644 (September 2, 1869).

50. Message to the Senate, March 6, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 147–48.

51. David M. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling of New York: Voice in the Senate 120 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971). Grant withdrew his request for congressional dispensation, March 9, 1869. 19 Grant Papers 148 note.

52. A sampling of letters to Grant, is ibid. 148–49 note.

53. Badeau, Grant in Peace 161–62. Also see Gaillard Hunt, Israel, Elihu, and Cadwallader Washburn: A Chapter in American Biography 243–45 (New York: Macmillan, 1925).

54. Washburne to Grant, March 10, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 151 note. George Boutwell believed that Washburne was removed to make way for Fish after Stewart resigned, but he cites no evidence. 2 Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public Affairs 213 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1902).

55. James H. Wilson, The Life of John A. Rawlins 351–52 (New York: Neale, 1916). Rawlins died September 6, 1869, less than six months after his confirmation as secretary of war.

56. Badeau, Grant in Peace 167.

57. Grant to Fish, March 11, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 151–52.

58. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 114; New York Times, March 12, 1869.

59. New York Tribune, March 12, 1869.

60. Ibid.

61. New York Times, March 15, 1869.

62. New York Herald, March 12, 1869.

63. On February 15, 1869, Parker wrote to the secretary of the Society of Friends, “General Grant, the President elect, desirous of inaugurating some policy to protect the Indians in their just rights and enforce integrity in the administration of their affairs, as well as to improve their general condition . . . directs me to request that you will send him a list of names, members of your society, whom your society will endorse, as suitable persons for Indian agents.” 19 Grant Papers 193 note.

64. “Indian wars have grown out of mismanagement of the bureau,” Grant wrote Sheridan, and he said he intended to correct that. Grant to Sheridan, December 24, 1868, ibid. 99–100.

65. Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S. Grant 401 (New York: Random House, 1997).

66. Badeau, Grant in Peace, 243.

67. Daniel Ammen, The Old Navy and the New 503 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1891).

68. Jesse R. Grant, In the Days of My Father: General Grant 57, 153 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1925).

69. Ibid. 76–77; Ben Perley Poore and O. H. Tiffany, Life of Grant 49–50 (Philadelphia: Hubbard Brothers, 1895).

70. William H. Crook, Through Five Administrations 154–56 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1910).

71. The first volume of Badeau’s three-volume work, Military History of Ulysses S. Grant, April, 1861, to April, 1865 was published in 1869 by D. Appleton and Company.

72. Adams, Education of Henry Adams 265–66.

73. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore 160–61 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962). Worthington Chauncey Ford, 2 Cycle of Adams Letters, 1861–1865 243 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1920).

74. Sherman, Memoirs 931; Hirshson, White Tecumseh 389; John F. Marszalek, Sherman: A Soldier’s Passion for Order 383–85 (New York: Free Press, 1993).

75. War Department General Orders No. 11, March 5, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 143 note. Also see Schofield, Forty-six Years in the Army 421.

76. Wilson, Life of John A. Rawlins 366.

77. Ibid. 365–67.

78. Sherman to Schofield, March 29, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 144 note; Sherman, Memoirs 932–33; Manning F. Force, General Sherman 325–26 (New York: D. Appleton, 1899).

79. Sherman to Grant, March 26, 1969, 19 Grant Papers 144 note. Sherman reminded Grant that the order had been long contemplated and was working well. “There has not been a particle of confusion or difficulty with its execution. . . . If you want to define more clearly what class of business the Secretary should have exclusive control of, it is easily done. . . . I am perfectly willing Genl Rawlins should pick out his own business, only leaving me a clear field of command.”

80. War Department General Orders No. 28, March 26, 1869, ibid.

81. “General Sherman’s Opinion of General Grant,” Century Magazine 31 (March 1879).

82. Congressional Globe, 40th Cong., 3rd sess. 1415.

83. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 124–25.

84. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 166.

85. 19 Grant Papers 140. Emphasis in original. The term specie is the ablative form of the Latin word specie, meaning solid. The frequent phrase, “to be paid in specie,” meant to be paid in solid currency, i.e., gold or silver.

86. New York Times, March 19, 1869.

87. New York Tribune, March 19, 1869; New York Commercial and Financial Chronicle, March 27, 1869. The value $130 was per $100 gold coin, each of which weighed one ounce.

88. New York Tribune, September 2, 1869; New York Times, July 14, 1869.

89. Grant to Badeau, July 14, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 212–13.

90. Kenneth D. Ackerman, The Gold Ring: Jim Fisk, Jay Gould, and Black Friday, 1869 93 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1988).

91. Allan Nevins, The Emergence of Modern America 194–99 (New York: Macmillan, 1927); Hasseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 169–70.

92. Ackerman, Gold Ring 58–59. Gold Panic Investigation 243, House of Representatives, Report No. 31, 44th Cong., 2nd sess. (1870).

93. 93. Ackerman, Gold Ring 76–77.

94. Porter’s unrebutted sworn testimony before the House committee investigating the debacle quotes Gould as saying that he knew when gold was going up or down on the market. “You had better let me get you some gold; gold is going to rise before long, and suppose I purchase some for you.” Porter was appalled. “I have neither the inclination nor the means of purchasing gold; and if I had, I am an officer of the Government, and cannot enter into anything that looks like speculation. It may be perfectly proper for you to do it, but it would be manifestly improper for me.” House Report 31 at 447.

95. Ibid. 445–46. “I have not authorized any purchase of gold, and request that none be made on my account,” Porter wired Gould. “I am unable to enter into any speculation whatever.” 19 Grant Papers 245 note.

96. Corbin testimony, House Report 31, at 270–71.

97. William Marcy “Boss” Tweed (and the judges beholden to him) played a crucial role in Gould’s takeover of the Erie Railway. “Tweed’s a man I can do business with,” Fisk told Gould after the Erie deal had been struck. When Tweed was arrested on 204 counts of fraud in 1871, Gould posted Tweed’s unprecedented $1 million bail bond. For Tweed generally, including his relationship with Gould, see Leo Hershkowitz, Tweed’s New York: Another Look (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1977); Denis Tilden Lynch, “Boss” Tweed: The Story of a Grim Generation (New York: Boni and Liverwright, 1927).

98. Bank examiner testimony, House Report 31 at 84–85, 88, 410–11.

99. Grant interview, New York Sun, October 4, 1969.

100. Ackerman, Gold Ring 74ff.

101. House Report 31 at 163.

102. Grant to Boutwell, September 12, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 242–43. Boutwell received the message on September 15, 1869.

103. The text of Corbin’s letter has been lost. For Gould’s recollection see House Report 31 at 155.

104. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 176–77; Ackerman, Gold Ring 136–46. The testimony of Gould’s messenger, William O. Chapin, is at House Report 31, 230–31.

105. Ackerman, Gold Ring 144.

106. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 182, John Y. Simon, ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1975). Mrs. Grant omitted the names of Gould and Fisk in her memoirs. They are supplied by Dr. Simon, 198 note 11.

107. House Report 31 at 8, 211.

108. Ackerman, Gold Ring 151.

109. Corbin testimony, House Report 31 at 251–56; Ackerman, Gold Ring 155–57.

110. New York Tribune, September 24, 1869.

111. New York Times, September 24, 1869.

112. Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences 174.

113. Boutwell testimony, House Report 31 at 344–46. In testimony before the House committee investigating Black Friday, as the next day’s trading came to be known, Gould and Fisk endeavored to implicate Grant in their scheme and to suggest that he had instructed Boutwell in early September to slow or even halt gold sales. Some historians and biographers have accepted Gould’s testimony as true and have rendered their accounts accordingly. Secretary Boutwell explicitly refuted Gould’s assertion, but his statement has often been overlooked. In Boutwell’s words: “As far as I know, the effort [of Gould and Fisk] had been directed chiefly to the support of a false theory that the President was opposed to the sale of gold. . . . They even went so far as to allege that the President had ordered the Secretary of the Treasury to suspend the sale of gold during the month of September, for which there is no foundation whatever. Indeed, up to the 22nd of September, when I introduced the subject of the price of gold to the President, he had neither said nor done anything, except to write a letter from New York City under date of September 12, 1869.” (Boutwell then quotes Grant’s letter in full. That letter instructs the secretary to continue his existing policy. [See above.]) Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences 169. Emphasis added.

114. New York Times, September 25, 1869.

115. New York Sun, September 25, 1869.

116. Benedict testimony, House Report 31 at 56–57.

117. Fahnestock to Boutwell with copy to Jay Cooke, September 24, 1869. Cooke Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania.

118. Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences 177.

119. Ibid. 175.

120. House Report 31 at 330, 346.

121. Corbin testimony, ibid. at 266.

122. David Dudley Field was the brother of United States Supreme Court Justice Stephen J. Field; Albert Cardozo was the father of United States Supreme Court Justice Benjamin Cardozo.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN: DIPLOMACY

The epigraph is from Grant’s first annual message to Congress, December 4, 1869, 20 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 30–31, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992).

1. John Jay to Fish, March 12, 1869, Fish Papers, Library of Congress. Jay (grandson of the founding father) was soon appointed by Grant to be United States minister to Vienna.

2. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace 232–33 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

3. Allan Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration 182 (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1937).

4. Fish diary, April 6, 1869. For Hoar’s views see Moorfield Storey and Edward W. Emerson, Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar: A Memoir 179–80 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911).

5. Badeau, Grant In Peace 233; New York Tribune, April 30, 1869; Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 183–84.

6. In 1869 the Cuban exile committee distributed bonds lavishly among senators, congressmen, editors, and lobbyists. Spanish intelligence services compiled a list of the recipients, and Madrid’s minister in Washington, López Roberts, showed the list to Secretary of State Fish. Fish, it appears, was skeptical and made no further inquiry. But in 1875 Grant told Fish and Secretary of the Navy George M. Robeson the story of Rawlins’s bonds, how he had ordered them destroyed, and how they were still in existence. As Fish recorded in his diary, “The President seemed in doubt as to what should be done with the bonds. Robeson suggested they be sold. I thought it would not do for the President, even as executor, to be selling such bonds, in which opinion he agreed. I then informed him that prior to Rawlins’s death I had been told of the bonds. I further stated that Mr. Roberts had, more than once, produced a list of persons holding Cuban bonds . . . I said that I had been shown names in the list, but had never been shown the whole list.” Fish diary, November 5, 1875.

After Rawlins’s death the Cuban exile committee contributed $20,000 in bonds to the Rawlins family fund. This gift was open and aboveboard, and was not the gift to which Grant referred. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 921; New York Tribune, September 16, October 11, 1869.

7. Commander E. B. Lansing, New York Department, G.A.R., to Bancroft Davis, November 12, 1869. Davis Papers, Library of Congress.

8. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 191–92.

9. Fish’s original memorandum is among his papers in the Library of Congress. It is reprinted, ibid. 193.

10. Sickles to Fish, August 1, 1869, Fish Papers.

11. Grant to Fish, August 14, 1869, 19 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 234–36, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1995).

12. Sickles to Fish, August 15, 16, 1869, Fish Papers.

13. Porter to Fish, August 20, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 236 note.

14. New York Sun, August 30, 1869.

15. Nevins, 1 Fish 244.

16. 19 Grant Papers 238.

17. On his deathbed, Rawlins cried out to Postmaster General Creswell, “There is Cuba, poor, struggling Cuba. I want you to stand by the Cubans. Cuba must be free. Her tyrannical enemy must be crushed. Cuba must not only be free, but all her sister-islands.” Nevins, 1 Fish 247. Contrary to traditional interpretations of the Grant administration, Professor Nevins is highly critical of Rawlins’s role as secretary of war. “Actually, he was the most dangerous member of the original Cabinet, and his death, so frequently described as a disaster to Grant, was rather a blessing. He had often said that he hoped to see ‘the aegis of our power spread over this continent’ . . . and had talked of freeing the Western Hemisphere from ‘the influence and dangers of monarchism.’ While he stayed at Grant’s right hand the peril of war with England and Spain would remain great.” Ibid.

18. Annual Message, December 6, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 20, 25.

19. John Bassett Moore, the dean of American international law scholars, called Grant’s speech the “classic exposition of the juridical conception of belligerency.” Digest of International Law 194–96 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906). Also see Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People 380 (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964); Samuel Flagg Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States 435 note (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963); Alexander DeConde, A History of American Foreign Policy 287 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963).

20. James D. Richardson, ed., 7 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897 64–69 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1897).

21. New York Herald, New York Tribune, June 15, 1869.

22. Fish diary, June 17, 1869.

23. Grant to Fish, July 10, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 169 note.

24. Bemis, A Diplomatic History 400.

25. On March 28, 1867, the House of Representatives served notice that it would not appropriate money for the Danish purchase, even if the Senate gave its advice and consent to the treaty. By a vote of 93–43, the House resolved “That in the present financial condition of the country, any further purchases of territory are inexpedient, and this House will hold itself under no obligation to vote money to pay for such purchases unless there is greater present necessity for the same than now exists.”

American interest in Samaná Bay first developed in 1846 when Secretary of State John C. Calhoun dispatched a young naval officer, Lieutenant David D. Porter, to inspect the bay as a possible base. In 1854 Secretary of State William L. Marcy attempted to acquire the bay, but was foiled by British and French intervention. See Charles Callan Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo, 1798–1873 182–204 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1938); William Javier Nelson, Almost A Territory: America’s Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic 48 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990).

26. “I am satisfied that the time has arrived,” said Johnson, “when even so direct a proceeding as a proposition for an annexation of the two Republics on the island of Santo Domingo would not only receive the consent of the people interested, but would also give satisfaction to all other foreign nations.” Emphasis added. Unlike the Dominicans, the Haitians had made no overture to the United States. Johnson to Congress, December 9, 1868, 13 The Papers of Andrew Johnson 213–14, Paul H. Bergeron, ed. (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996).

27. Fish diary, April 5, 1869.

28. Ibid. April 6, 1869.

29. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 263.

30. In late May 1869, Grant expressed his views to E. D. Bassett, the new minister to the United States from Haiti. According to Bassett, “The President was very emphatic, and at the same time very cautious in expressing himself about the policy of annexation. He said his own views were in favor of such a policy, but that he thought in all cases the people of a country to be annexed should first show themselves anxious for union with us.” New York Herald, June 1, 1869.

31. Fish to Hunt, June 2, 1869, 2 Special Missions, MS, Department of State.

32. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 264. Also see J. D. Cox, “How Judge Hoar Ceased to Be Attorney-General,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1895.

33. It was Babcock whom Grant sent in 1864 to appraise how Sherman was doing in Georgia, and who frequently carried Grant’s confidential messages to Stanton.

34. Grant to Báez, July 13, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 209.

35. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 269–72. Writing twenty-five years afterward, Interior Secretary Cox, who had broken with Grant, wrote a jaundiced account of the cabinet session in the Atlantic (“How Judge Hoar Ceased to Be Attorney General”). Historians Allan Nevins and Charles Tansill both dismiss Cox’s often quoted version as prejudiced and full of errors. Ibid. 272; Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo 366–70.

36. Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo 463–64. Also see Professor Tansill’s “War Powers of the President of the United States with Special Reference to the Beginning of Hostilities,” 45 Political Science Quarterly 41ff. (1930), which is critical of Grant’s decision.

37. George S. Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public Affairs 215 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1902).

38. 2 Letters of Charles Eliot Norton 43, Sara Norton and M. A. DeWolfe Howe, eds. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1931).

39. 2 Letters of James Russell Lowell 233, Charles Eliot Norton, ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1894).

40. David Herbert Donald, 2 Charles Sumner 338–339, 368–373 (New York: Knopf, 1970).

41. Bancroft Davis to George Bancroft (in Berlin), July 11, 1870, Bancroft Collection, Massachusetts Historical Society.

42. Donald, 2 Charles Sumner 435.

43. Letter of Ben: Perley Poore to the Boston Journal, October 21, 1877 (published October 24, 1877).

44. Donald, 2 Charles Sumner 437.

45. Fish to George Bancroft, February 9, 1870, in Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 313.

46. Carl Schurz, 6 Speeches, Correspondence, and Political Papers of Carl Schurz 282 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913). There is peripheral evidence to suggest that Sumner held his fire, hoping that Grant would retain the Massachusetts senator’s friend James M. Ashley as governor of the Montana Territory. When Grant replaced Ashley, Sumner went into opposition. See the correspondence between Wisconsin Senator Timothy O. Howe and Fish, November 8, 1877, reprinted in Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 322.

47. Because the Senate was in closed session, Sumner’s speech was not recorded. The reconstructed summary of his remarks is drawn from reports in the New York Times, New York Herald, and New York Tribune, March 25, 1870, and the Boston Advertiser, March 26, 1870.

48. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 317.

49. Tansill, The United States and Santo Domingo 414–15.

50. U.S. Grant, Second Annual Message, December 5, 1870, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 101.

51. Congressional Globe, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., 271 (December 22, 1870); 416 (January 9, 1871). The Senate vote was 32–9. The House, before final passage, attached a rider introduced by Representative Jacob A. Ambler stating that the resolution “shall not be held, understood, or construed as committing Congress to the policy of annexing the territory of said republic of Dominica.” The final vote in the House was 123–63. The Senate concurred with the amended resolution, 57–0.

52. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 497–98.

53. “Report of the Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo,” Senate Executive Document No. 9, 42nd Cong., 1st sess. (1871).

54. Presidential message, April 5, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 292–95.

55. 12 Statutes at Large 794 (March 3, 1868). The ostensible reason for increasing the size of the Court during the war was to provide a new 10th Circuit comprising California and the West Coast. Stephen J. Field of California was appointed to the new seat on March 8, 1863, and was confirmed by the Senate on March 16.

56. Act of July 23, 1866.

57. Passage of the 1866 act followed immediately upon the 5–4 decision of the Court in Ex Parte Milligan, 4 Wallace 2 (1866), holding that the president had no power to institute trial by military tribunal in localities where the civil courts were open. Congressional Republicans saw the decision as a threat to the use of the military in carrying out Reconstruction. The problem would be especially severe if Johnson were able to make additional appointments to the Court. There was already one vacancy (caused by the death of Justice John Catron) and the president had nominated Attorney General Henry Stanbery to fill it. Rather than vote on Stanbery’s nomination, Congress chose to decrease the size of the Court.

58. Justice James M. Wayne of Georgia died July 5, 1867. Like Catron, he was not replaced.

59. Act of April 10, 1869.

60. New York Times, December 16, 1869.

61. Washington Chronicle, December 22, 1869; The Nation, December 23, 1869; Chicago Republican, December 22, 1896; New York World, December 21, 1869.

62. Charles Warren, 2 The Supreme Court in United States History 501–7 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1926); 20 Grant Papers 52–55; Storey and Emerson, Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar 189–98; Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 303–5.

63. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 305.

64. Storey and Emerson, Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar 198–202; Warren, 2 Supreme Court 516–19. Also see Charles Fairman, “Mr. Justice Bradley’s Appointment to the Supreme Court and the Legal Tender Cases,” 54 Harvard Law Review 998 (1940); Sidney Ratner, “Was the Supreme Court Packed by President Grant?,” 50 Political Science Quarterly 343–58 (1935).

65. Sumner, 13 Works 76–88; Donald, Charles Sumner 375–76.

66. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 156–73.

67. 20 Grant Papers 30–31.

68. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 459–63.

69. Gladstone to Granville, October 14, 1870, Gladstone Papers. In 1869 Fish had made a similar suggestion to Sir Edward Thornton, the British minister in Washington, but the Foreign Office was uninterested. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 423–425.

70. Ibid. 436.

71. 21 Grant Papers 175–76. At the time the commission met, Hoar had resigned as attorney general and was replaced by Senator Williams.

72. Nevins, 1 Hamilton Fish 447.

73. Newspapers quoted in 2 Ibid. 470–74.

74. Fish diary, May 8, 1871, reprinted ibid. 490–91.

75. Second Hague Conference, Convention Number XIII, Articles VI, VII, and VIII. Also see John Bassett Moore, 1 International Arbitrations 666–70 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1898).

76. Treaty of Washington, Article VI. The United States and Great Britain further agreed “to observe these rules between themselves in the future and to bring the knowledge of other maritime Powers, and to invite them to accede to them.”

77. Many historians and most analysts of the Treaty of Washington believe that to achieve an accord with Washington, Great Britain was prepared to sell Canada short, even to the point of abandonment.

78. Northcote to Macdonald, May 15, 1871, quoted in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 479.

79. George Bancroft, one of America’s premier historians, was on close terms with Bismarck and the emperor, and his scholarship was widely respected in Berlin. Unlike the British, who submitted their arbitration brief in English, Bancroft wrote the American submission in flawless German, as well as the United States rejoinder to the British argument. Bancroft to Fish, February 16, 1872, in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 536.

80. Republicans voting no were William Sprague of Rhode Island, Morgan G. Hamilton of Texas, and Francis P. Blair of Missouri. Democrats Thomas F. Bayard of Delaware and William T. Hamilton of Maryland voted yes.

81. Edward L. Pierce, ed., 4 Memoir and the Letters of Charles Sumner 489 (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1894).

82. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 564. The cashed check for $15.5 million has been framed and hangs in 10 Downing Street as a lesson to future British governments.

83. Draft Message to Congress, December 4, 1871, 22 Grant Papers 254–55.

84. John Bassett Moore, quoted in Robert H. Ferrell, American Diplomacy 291 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1975).

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: GREAT WHITE FATHER

The first epigraph quotation was apparently made by Sheridan in January 1869 at Fort Cobb in Indian Territory. Captain Charles Nordstrom, 10th Cavalry, who was present, claimed Sheridan made the famous statement after the Comanche leader, Toch-a-way, striking his chest, declared, “Me, Toch-a-way; me good Injun.” To which Sheridan replied, “The only good Indians I ever saw were dead Indians.” Sheridan repeatedly denied making the statement. The second quotation is from Sheridan’s annual report in 1878. See Paul Hutton, Phil Sheridan and His Army 180 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973); Annual Report of the Secretary of War for the Year 1878 36 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1878).

1. In a remarkably candid conversation, Grant expressed his empathy to his friend George Stuart. The president said that “as a young lieutenant he had been much thrown among the Indians, and had seen the unjust treatment they had received at the hands of white men.” George H. Stuart, The Life of George H. Stuart 239, Robert E. Thompson, ed. (Philadelphia: J. M. Stoddart, 1890).

2. Robert M. Utley, “The Celebrated Peace Policy of General Grant,” 20 North Dakota History 122 (1953).

3. Max Farrand, “The Indian Boundary Line,” 10 American Historical Review 782–91 (1905).

4. British Royal Proclamations Relating to America: 1603–1783 212, 215–16, Clarence Saunders Brigham, ed. (Worcester, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 1911).

5. 8 Works of Thomas Jefferson 241–49, Paul Leicester Ford, ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1905); Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans 222–26 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999); Robert Wooster, The Military and United States Indian Policy 6–11 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988).

6. 2 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 261, James D. Richardson, ed. (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908).

7. 4 United States Statutes at Large 409 (1830).

8. The rationale for Indian removal was stated by Jackson in his farewell address, March 3, 1837: “The States which had so long been retarded in their improvement by the Indian tribes residing in the midst of them are at length relieved of the evil, and this unhappy race—the original dwellers in our land—are now placed in a situation where we may well hope that they will share in the blessings of civilization.” 2 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 418.

9. Elsie M. Rushmore, The Indian Policy During Grant’s Administration 12 (Jamaica, N.Y.: Marion Press, 1914).

10. In 1859 Indian agent William Bent estimated the number of settlers crossing the Plains at 60,000 each season. “The trains of vehicles and cattle are frequent. . . . Post lines and private expresses are in constant motion. The explorations of this season have established the existence of precious metals in absolutely infinite abundance. . . . A concourse of whites is, therefore, constantly swelling an incapability of control or restraint by the government.” Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for the Year 1859 137–38, Sen. Exec. Doc. No. 1, 36th Cong., 1st sess.

11. For an objective narrative, see Kenneth Carley, The Sioux Uprising of 1862 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1961). Also see the fine study by Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Policy in Crisis: Christian Reformers and the Indian, 1865–1900 7–14 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), as well as William Watts Folwell, 2 A History of Minnesota 109–301 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1921).

12. William H. Leckie, The Military Conquest of the Southern Plains 19–24 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963). Also see Stan Hoig, The Sand Creek Massacre (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1961); Donald J. Berthrong, The Southern Cheyennes (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963); Raymond G. Carey, “The Puzzle of Sand Creek,” 41 Colorado Magazine 279–98 (1964).

13. Chivington to Evans, 41 War of the Rebellion (Part 4) 797. Chivington’s estimate of casualties is open to question. See Leckie, Military Conquest 23–24.

14. The most critical report was that issued by the congressional Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War. It spoke of the “fiendish malignity of the officers who had plotted the massacre” and said the Colorado soldiers “indulged in acts of barbarity of the most revolting character, such as never before disgraced the acts of men claiming to be civilized.” A second congressional inquiry led by Senator James Doolittle reached similar conclusions, as did the official military investigation presided over by Samuel F. Tappan. “Massacre of the Cheyenne Indians,” Report of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, Senate Report No. 142, 38th Cong., 2nd sess. (1865); “The Chivington Massacre,” in Condition of the Indian Tribes: Report of the Joint Special Committee, Senate Report No. 156, 39th Cong., 2nd sess. (1867); “Proceedings of a Military Commission in the Case of Colonel J. M. Chivington, First Colorado Cavalry,” Senate Executive Document No. 26, 39th Cong., 2nd sess. (1867).

15. “Conditions of the Indian Tribes: Report of the Joint Special Committee” 3–10, Senate Report No. 156, 39th Cong., 2nd sess. (1867).

16. Ibid.

17. Chaired by Nathaniel G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the commission included Senator John B. Henderson of Missouri, Samuel F. Tappan, John B. Sanborn, Sherman, Brigadier General Alfred H. Terry, and Brigadier General William S. Harney.

18. “Report of the Indian Peace Commissioners,” House Exec. Doc. No. 97 17–18, 40th Cong., 3rd sess. (1868).

19. Leckie, Military Conquest 63–87.

20. Sherman to Sheridan, November 1, 1868, Sheridan Papers, Library of Congress.

21. Sherman to John Sherman, September 23, 1868, Sherman Papers, Library of Congress. Quoted in Robert G. Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman and the Conquest of the West 223 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1956). Sherman’s attitude toward the Indians was not unlike his all-or-nothing view of war in the South. “Either the Indians must give way,” he wrote Samuel F. Tappan, “or we must abandon all west of the Missouri River and confess . . . forty millions of whites are cowed by a few thousand savages.” September 24, 1868, Sherman Papers, Library of Congress.

22. “Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs” 5–11, House Exec. Doc. No. 240, 41st Cong., 2nd. sess. (1868). Samuel F. Tappan, a member of the Peace Commission, added his voice to the protest and urged an “immediate and unconditional abandonment of the present war policy.” Reverend Henry B. Whipple, the Episcopal bishop of Minnesota, said, “This shameless disregard for justice has been the most foolhardy course we could have pursued.” Ibid.

23. Ibid. 166. Also see Paul Andrew Hutton, Phil Sheridan and His Army 69, 97 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1973).

24. Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier of the American West, 1846–1890 129 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1984).

25. In 1868 Texas had not been readmitted to the Union and consequently did not vote. Overall, Grant’s percentage of the popular vote was 52.7. But he carried the frontier states of Kansas with 62 percent, Nebraska by 64 percent, and Minnesota by 61 percent. Congressional Quarterly Guide of U.S. Elections 337, 2nd ed. (Washington; D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1985).

26. Grant to Julia, March 19, 1853, 1 Grant Papers 294–96. At the same time, to a brother officer in San Francisco, Grant wrote that “this poor remnant of a once powerful tribe is fast wasting away before those blessings of ‘civilization,’ whiskey and small pox.” Lloyd Lewis, Captain Sam Grant 313 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1950).

27. Grant to Sherman, May 19, 1868, 18 Grant Papers 257–58.

28. Grant to Sheridan, December 24, 1868, 19 ibid. 99–100.

29. Inaugural Address, March 4, 1869, ibid. 139–42. Reformers such as Wendell Phillips responded enthusiastically to Grant’s citizenship suggestion. “Let [Grant] cover the Indian with this shield and give him . . . a Department in the Cabinet which shall watch his rights,” Phillips told the New York Times. Phillips suggested revising the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, which did not include Indians, to provide for equal rights for all human beings. New York Times, March 11, 1869.

30. Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman 249–50; Philip Weeks, Farewell My Nation: The American Indian and the United States, 1820–1890 154 (Arlington Heights, I11.: Harlan Davidson, 1990).

31. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Peters 1 (1831).

32. Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U.S. 94, 99 (1884); United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U.S. 649, 680–82 (1898). Also see the Report of Senate Judiciary Committee, “The Effect of the Fourteenth Amendment on the Indian Tribes,” 41st Cong., 3rd sess. (1870–1871).

33. Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution gives Congress the authority “To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization.” That authority is exclusive.

34. Jacob D. Cox, “The Civil Service Reform,” 112 North American Review 81–113 (1871).

35. Cox to Oberlin College, “Reconstruction and the Relations of the Races in the United States,” July 25, 1865, Jacob Delson Cox Papers, Oberlin University. Cox’s letter was printed by the Ohio State Journal Steam Press (1865).

36. William H. Armstrong, Warrior in Two Camps: Ely S. Parker, Union General and Seneca Chief 7–8 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978).

37. Lewis Henry Morgan, League of the HO-DE-NO-SAU-NEE, Iroquois (Rochester, N.Y.: Dodd, Mead, 1851).

38. Grant, who was well aware of the deficiencies of his staff, intervened directly with the adjutant general to secure Parker’s appointment. “I am personally acquainted with Mr. Parker and I think him eminently qualified for the position. He is a full blooded Indian but highly educated and very accomplished. He is a Civil Engineer of considerable eminence and served the Government some years in supervising the building of Marine Hospitals and Customs Houses on the upper Mississippi river.” Grant to Lorenzo Thomas, June 25, 1863. 8 Grant Papers 434–35.

39. First Annual Message to Congress, December 6, 1869, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers 38.

40. Boston Daily Advertiser, January 2, 1869.

41. Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers 38.

42. Second Inaugural, March 4, 1873, ibid. 222.

43. Grant to George H. Stuart, October 26, 1872, 23 Grant Papers 270.

44. Rushmore, Indian Policy 20.

45. After the meeting Welsh wrote Bishop Henry B. Whipple, “I told the Secretary [Cox] that altho’ the community had perfect confidence in him that unless there was a commission to free him from the thraldom of party politics, philanthropists would not rally to his support, for his department had always been prey of the most thievist party politicians and what had always been, might be again.” Welsh to Whipple, March 26, 1869, Whipple Papers, quoted in Prucha, American Indian Policy 35. Also see Rushmore, Indian Policy 19; Weeks, Farewell, My Nation 156; Henry E. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Assimilation, 1860–1890 74–75 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1963).

46. New York Herald, March 25, 1869; 19 Grant Papers 193 note; Robert H. Keller, Jr. American Protestantism and United States Indian Policy, 1869–82 25 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983); 72–89; Fritz, Movement for Indian Assimilation 75.

47. Utley, Indian Frontier 132; Rushmore, Indian Policy 20; Fritz, Movement for Indian Assimilation 75–83. Originally authorized for one year only, the board continued until 1934.

48. “It was in every way a representative body of men,” wrote one biographer, “being carefully chosen from different Christian denominations and from different political parties.” Charles Lewis Slattery, Felix Reville Brunot 143 (New York: Longmans, Green, 1901). In addition to William Welsh, who was elected chairman, and Felix R. Brunot and William E. Dodge, the board included George H. Stuart, John V. Farwell, Edward S. Tobey, Henry S. Lane, Vincent Colyer, and Nathan Bishop.

49. William E. Dodge to Felix R. Brunot, June 25, 1869, quoted in Robert Winston Mardock, Reformers and the American Indian 59 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1971).

50. Minutes, May 27, 1869, Records of the Board of Indian Commissioners, National Archives.

51. Executive Order, June 3, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 191–93.

52. 13 The Nation 100–101 (August 17, 1871).

53. Report of the Board of Indian Commissioners, 1869 9–11.

54. Rushmore, Indian Policy 26.

55. Slattery, Felix Reville Brunot 145.

56. Report of the Secretary of the Interior, 1869 x.

57. First Message to Congress, December 6, 1869, 19 Grant Papers 39.

58. New York Times, March 11, 1869.

59. Mardock, Reformers and the American Indian 54–55.

60. New York Times, September 30, 1869.

61. Boston Evening Transcript, March 20, 1869.

62. Report of Vincent Colyer, secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners, to the House of Representatives, February 25, 1870, Congressional Globe, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., Part 2, 1576.

63. New York Times, February 24, 1870; New York Tribune, March 15, 1870; Lydia Maria Child, “The Indians,” 1 The Standard 1 (May 1870); National Anti-Slavery Standard April 16, 1870.

64. Congressional Globe, 41st Cong., 2nd. sess., Part 6, 5402.

65. 2 Memoirs of General William T. Sherman 436, 2nd ed. (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1891).

66. Second Message to Congress, December 5, 1870, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers 109–10. Of the seventy-four agencies assigned, the Quakers were awarded seventeen (24,322 Indians); Methodists fourteen (54,473 Indians); Presbyterians nine (38,069); Espicopalians eight (26,929); Catholics seven (17,856); Baptists five (40,800); Reformed Dutch five (8,118); Congregationalists three (14,476); Christians two (8,287); Unitarians two (3,800); Lutherans one (273); Board of Foreign Missions one (1,496). For a breakdown by tribe, see Keller, American Protestantism and Indian Policy 226–28; Fritz, Movement for Indian Assimilation 76–79.

67. New York Times, March 30, 1870. “I yield to no one in my admiration of Thomas,” Grant told John Russell Young. “As a commander, he was slow. We used to say laughingly, ‘Thomas is too slow to move, and too brave to run away.’ The success of his campaign [in front of Nashville] will be his vindication even against my criticisms. That success, and all the fame that came with it belong to Thomas.” John Russell Young, 2 Around the World with General Grant 295 (New York: American News, 1879).

68. No member of Thomas’s Virginia family was present. Freeman Cleaves, Rock of Chickamauga 306–7 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1974).

69. “I do not think it worthwhile to bring these Indians here,” Sherman wrote a Western subordinate. “[It is] a mere concession to the popular sympathy felt in the East for the oppressed Indian.” Sherman to Brig. Gen. Christopher C. Augur, June 9, 1870, quoted in Athearn, William Tecumseh Sherman 286–87. Also see James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem 93–95 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1965).

70. New York Times, May 19, 1870.

71. Utley, Indian Frontier 148.

72. New York Herald, June 2, 1870.

73. The best accounts of Red Cloud’s visits are in the New York Times, June 4, 5, 8, 10, and 11, 1870.

74. Ibid. June 8, 1870.

75. Ibid. June 11, 1870.

76. For Grant’s special message to Congress, July 15, 1870, see Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers 79.

77. New York Times, June 17, 1870.

78. The Nation, June 23, 1870.

79. 16 United States Statues at Large 359.

80. St. Paul Press, December 6, 1870.

81. Grant to Congress, July 30, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 152–53.

82. See Allen G. Applen, “An Attempted Indian State Government: The Okmulgee Constitution in Indian Territory,” 3 Kansas Quarterly 89–99 (Fall 1971).

83. The Red Cloud Agency and the Spotted Tail Agency were located in the northwest corner of Nebraska, just outside the boundary of the Great Sioux Reservation in the Dakota Territory. See Utley, Indian Frontier 150–51.

84. In March 1871, Grant authorized Ely Parker to invite Cochise to Washington for talks similar to those held with Red Cloud. The invitation was dispatched on March 18, 1871, Cochise was located, and the invitation delivered in late June, but the chief declined, noting his distrust of military officers with whom he might come in contact. It is unquestionably a tribute to Howard that he won Cochise’s confidence. See 22 Grant Papers 66–67 notes. For Howard’s report of his foray, see My Life and Experience Among Our Hostile Indians 186–225 (Hartford, Conn.: A. D. Wothington, 1907); Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1872 175–78. Also see John Ford’s Rio Grande, the third of Ford’s cavalry trilogy, in which John Wayne, as Colonel Kirby Yorke, performs a similar feat.

85. See especially Richard N. Ellis, “The Humanitarian Generals,” 3 Western Historical Quarterly 169–78 (April 1972), as well as his earlier “The Humanitarian Soldiers,” 10 Journal of Arizona History 53–66 (Summer 1969).

86. Hutton, Phil Sheridan 230. Also see Wilbur S. Nye, Carbine and Lance: The Story of Old Fort Sill 111 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1937).

87. Richard N. Ellis, General Pope and U.S. Indian Policy (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970).

88. Crook to Herbert Welsh, July 3, 1885, quoted in Prucha, American Indian Policy 100. Also see James T. King, “George Crook: Indian Fighter and Humanitarian,” Arizona and the West 333–48 (Winter 1967).

89. Hutton, Phil Sheridan 129.

90. Grant to George H. Stuart, October 26, 1872, 23 Grant Papers 270.

91. Love to Grant, November 2, 1872, ibid. 271 note.

92. L. S. Williams to Grant, November 14, 1872, ibid.

93. Grant received 66.5 percent of the vote in Kansas, 70.7 percent in Nebraska, and 61.4 percent in Minnesota. In Nevada he received 57.4 percent, and 58.8 percent in Oregon. In Texas, 41.4 percent. Nationally, Grant won 55.6 percent of the popular vote to Horace Greeley’s 43.8 percent. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections 274 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1975).

94. Sherman to Canby, January 31, 1873, Official Modoc War Correspondence 65, House Exec. Doc. No. 122, 43rd Cong., 1st sess.

95. Sherman to Canby, March 13, 1873, ibid.

96. Alfred B. Meacham, Wigwam and Warpath (Boston: John P. Dale, 1875).

97. Sherman to Gillem, April 12, 1873, Modoc War Correspondence 77.

98. Ibid.

99. New York Times, April 15, 1873.

100. Ibid. In his Memoirs, Grant, who did not bestow praise promiscuously, called Canby an officer of great merit. “His character was as pure as his talent and learning were great.” 2 Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant 763 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885).

101. The Modocs lived quietly as productive farmers in the Indian Territory until 1909, when they were allowed to return to the Klamath Reservation in southern Oregon. Prucha, American Indian Policy 88.

102. New York Herald, New York World, April 13, 14, 1873; Boston Daily Globe, April 14, 1873.

103. Daily Colorado Miner, April 22, 1873.

104. New York Times, April 15, 1873.

105. Ibid. April 14, 1873.

106. Slattery, Felix Reville Brunot 212–13.

107. Annual Report of the Secretary of War, 1873 42, 43rd Cong., 1st sess., House Exec. Doc. No. 1.

108. Annual Report of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, 1873 3, 9 ibid.

109. James L. Harley, The Buffalo War: The History of the Red River Indian Uprising of 1874 101–2 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1976).

110. For the squabble between Sheridan and Pope, which quickly became public, see Hutton, Phil Sheridan 246–48; Ellis, General Pope 183–85.

111. Telephone coversation, JES–John Y. Simon, October 19, 1999.

112. Sheridan to Major General Alfred H. Terry, November 11, 1875; Sheridan to Sherman, November 13, 1875, Sheridan Papers, Box 39.

113. Hutton, Phil Sheridan 299.

114. Ibid. 308.

115. Sheridan to Sherman, July 7, 1876, ibid. 310.

116. New York Times, July 7, 1876.

117. Boston Daily Advertiser, July 8, 1876.

118. New York Times, July 12, 1876.

119. Boulder News, July 7, 1876.

120. The Nation, July 13, 1876.

121. Bishop Whipple to Grant, July 31, 1876, quoted in Mardock, Reformers and the American Indian 147–48.

122. Utley, Indian Frontier 154–55.

123. Reports of Inspection Made in the Summer of 1877 by Generals P. H. Sheridan and W. T. Sherman of Country North of the Union Pacific Railroad 5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1878).

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: RECONSTRUCTION REVISITED

The epigraph is from Grant’s message to Congress upon the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, March 30, 1870. 20 The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant 130–31, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992).

1. William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography 365–66 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981). Also see James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 559, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

2. William S. McFeely, “Amos T. Akerman: The Lawyer for Racial Justice,” in J. Morgan Kousser and James M. McPherson, eds., Region, Race, and Reconstruction 395 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).

3. On April 1, 1870, two days after ratification, Grant told a Republican audience in Washington that “there has been no event since the close of the war in which I have felt so deep an interest as that of the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment. I have felt the greatest anxiety ever since I have been in this house to know that that was to be secured. It looked to me as the realization of the Declaration of Independence.” 20 Grant Papers 137.

4. Eric Foner, A Short History of Reconstruction 193 (New York: Harper and Row, 1990).

5. James M. McPherson, The Struggle for Equality 429 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964).

6. Foner, Short History of Reconstruction 184.

7. Act of May 31, 1870, 16 United States Statutes at Large 140–46. The act forbade state officials from discriminating among voters on the basis of race or color in the application of local election laws; outlawed force, bribery, threats, and intimidation of voters; and made it a misdemeanor to deprive a citizen of employment or occupation in order to control his vote. Most important, the law prohibited disguised groups from going “upon the public highways, or upon the premises of another” with intent to interfere with constitutional liberties.

8. Ross A. Webb, “Benjamin H. Bristow: Civil Rights Champion, 1866–1872,” 15 Civil War History 39 (1969).

9. Akerman to Foster Blodgett, November 8, 1871, quoted in Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 457 (New York: Macmillan, 1988).

10. On July 20, 1870, Governor William W. Holden of North Carolina wrote Grant urgently requesting federal troops to suppress the Klan. Grant instructed Belknap to dispatch six infantry companies immediately. To Holden, he wrote: “Your favor of the 20th inst. detailing the unsettled and threatening condition of North Carolina is just received, and I will telegraph the Sec. of War immediately, to send more troops to the State without delay. They will be used to suppress violence and to maintain the law if other means should fail.” Grant [in Long Branch, New Jersey] to Holden, July 22, 1870, 20 Grant Papers 210.

11. Stephen Cresswell, “Enforcing the Enforcement Acts: The Department of Justice in Northern Mississippi, 1870–1890” 53 Journal of Southern History 423 (1987). Cresswell takes care to point out that traditional histories of the 1870s, generally written in the “William A. Dunning School” of white redemption, woefully understate the federal conviction rate in north Mississippi. Ibid. 421 note. Also see Everette Swinney, “Enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment, 1870–1877” 28 Journal of Southern History 203–7 (1962). Professor Dunning’s principal work, Reconstruction: Political and Economic, 1865–1877 (New York: Harper, 1907), set the tone for the dominant stream of anti-black historiography.

12. Francis Butler Simkins and Robert Hilliard Woody, South Carolina During Reconstruction 446ff. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1934).

13. Holden to Grant, July 1, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 151 note.

14. Act of February 28, 1871, 16 United States Statutes at Large 433–40.

15. Grant to Blaine, March 9, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 218–19.

16. The Nation, March 23, 1871.

17. Congressional Globe 575–79, 42nd Cong., 1st sess.

18. See, for example, James A. Garfield to Jacob D. Cox, March 23, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 247–48 note.

19. Philadelphia Public Ledger, March 24, 1871.

20. Grant to Congress, March 23, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 246. Also see George F. Hoar, 1 Autobiography of Seventy Years 205–6 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1963); George S. Boutwell, 2 Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public Affairs 252 (New York: McClure, Phillips, 1907).

21. Act of April 20, 1871, 17 United States Statutes at Large 13–15. The final Senate vote on the conference report was 36–13, Republicans voting yes, Democrats no. Twenty-one senators did not vote, including Schurz, Trumbull, and Sumner, though Sumner was paired in favor. Congressional Globe 836, 42nd Cong., 2nd sess. (1872).

22. Presidential Proclamation, May 3, 1871, 21 Grant Papers 336–37.

23. Grant to Belknap, May 13, 1871, ibid. 355.

24. Presidential Proclamation, October 17, 1871, 22 ibid. 176–78.

25. Akerman to B. Silliman, March 9, 1871, Akerman Papers, University of Virginia.

26. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 560.

27. Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 458–59.

28. Akerman to Garnet Andrews, July 31, 1871, Akerman Papers.

29. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 560.

30. National Republican, January 19, 1872.

31. Letters to William Chandler, secretary of the Republican National committee, from E. L. Sullivan (California) March 16, 1872; A. J. Ransier (South Carolina), March 16, 1872; D. R. Anthony (Kansas), March 25, 1872; Russell Scott (Pennsylvania), March 26, 1872; George Foster (Indiana), April 3, 1872; S. E. Phillips (North Carolina), March 23, 1872; C. W. B. Allison (West Virginia), April 3, 1872; T. B. Van Buren (New Jersey), March 29, 1872. William E. Chandler Papers, Library of Congress.

32. New York Times, April 11, 1872; Douglass to Cassius M. Clay, July 26, 1871, Frederick Douglass Papers, Frederick Douglass Memorial Home, Washington, D.C.

33. See, for example, Irving Katz, August Belmont: A Political Biography 198 (New York: Random House, 1968).

34. 2 Speeches, Correspondence, and Political Papers of Carl Schurz 359, Frederic Bancroft, ed. (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913).

35. Greeley’s views are detailed in a lengthy chapter entitled “Sewage” in his book, What I Know of Farming (New York: Tribune Association, 1871). “The application of sewage is in its infancy, since the perfect and total conversion of all that a city excretes into the most available food for plants, requires not only immense mains and reservoirs, with a costly network of distributing dykes or ditches, but novel appliances in engineering, and a large investment of time as well as money. Years must yet elapse before all the excretions of a great city like London or New York can thus be transmuted into the means of fertilizing whole counties in their vicinity” (pages 268–69).

36. William B. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant: Politician 274 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1935). Cox to Garfield, May 10, 1872, Garfield Papers, Library of Congress. Charles A. Dana, editor of the New York Sun, called Greeley “a visionary without faith, a radical without root, an extremist without persistency, a strifemaker without courage.” Quoted in William Gillette, “Election of 1872,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., 2 History of American Presidential Elections 1314 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971).

37. Horace Greeley, Mr. Greeley’s Letters from Texas and the Lower Mississippi 48–53 (New York: Tribune Office, 1871).

38. Gillette, “Election of 1872” 1335–36.

39. George W. Childs, Recollections 75 (Philadelphia: Collins Printing House, 1890).

40. Grant to Roscoe Conkling, July 15, 1872, Conkling Papers, Library of Congress.

41. For Sumner’s letters, see 15 The Works of Charles Sumner 175–95. (Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1883). Child’s reply, July 28, 1872, is among the Sumner Papers in the Library of Congress.

42. Articles by Garrison in the Independent January 4, April 4, 1872, quoted in James M. McPherson, “Grant or Greeley: The Abolitionist Dilemma in the Election of 1872,” 71 American Historical Review 49 (1965).

43. Ibid. 50; Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 507.

44. Garfield diary, October 18, 1872, Garfield Papers.

45. Gillette, “Election of 1872” 1328.

46. Second Inaugural, March 4, 1873, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 223, James D. Richardson, ed. (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908).

47. For the reports of the investigation of the Crédit Mobilier affair, see the “Poland Report” (Representative Luke Poland of Vermont chaired the House investigation), and the “Wilson Report” (Senator J. M. Wilson of Iowa chaired the Senate inquiry), both 42nd Cong., 2nd sess.

48. Fifth Annual Message to Congress, December 1, 1873, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 242. Also see Louis A. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 435–37 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917).

49. For the details surrounding Richardson’s appointment, see Allan Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration 697–99 (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1957). Fish opposed Richardson’s appointment, and even Boutwell was skeptical. “I am at a loss to know who else can be named,” Fish quotes Boutwell as saying. Ibid. 698.

50. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace 406. (Harford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

51. Mrs. Archibald Dixon, True Story of the Missouri Compromise and Its Repeal 273–74 (Cincinnati: R. Clarke, 1903).

52. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 303.

53. John M. Berry, Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America 64 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997).

54. Ibid. 57.

55. For details of the meeting with Grant, see William Taussig, “Personal Recollections of General Grant,” 2 Missouri Historical Society Publications 1–13 (1903).

56. In November 1864 Hancock’s Gettysburg wounds were giving him such trouble that he could no longer actively command the 2nd Corps. By order of the secretary of war he was relieved and ordered to Washington to organize and command a corps of veterans. Grant ordered Humphreys to take the 2nd Corps in Hancock’s place. Ulysses S. Grant 2 Memoirs 631 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885).

57. Taussig, “Personal Recollections of General Grant.”

58. Berry, Rising Tide 65.

59. Lawrence Wodehouse, “General Grant Architecture in Jeopardy!,” 22 Historic Preservation 20–26 (1970). Also see Wodehouse, “Alfred B. Mullett and His French Style of Government Buildings,” 31 Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 22–37 (March 1972); S. Allen Chambers, John Poppeliers, and Nancy B. Schwartz, What Style Is It? 23 (Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press, 1979).

60. Telephone conversation, JES—Professor Douglas Richardson, University of Toronto, November 15, 1999.

61. Donald H. Lehman, Executive Office Building 36–37 (Washington, D.C.: General Services Administration, 1964). “That the building was designed and constructed in the French Second Empire style in deliberate contrast to the classical style of government buildings constructed before the Civil War implied that the government of the newly reunited nation perceived itself as different from the government that had represented the young republic. In style and size, the new State, War, and Navy Building equaled and rivaled its European counterparts and expressed the ambitious aspirations of the American republic that had endured and was expanding across the continent.” Elsa M. Santoyo, ed., Creating an American Masterpiece: Architectural Drawings of the Old Executive Office Building 5 (Washington, D.C.: Executive Office of the President, 1988).

62. Mullett resigned November 21, 1874, after a falling out with Treasury Secretary Benjamin H. Bristow concerning disbursement accounts. Mullett proved to be clean as a hound’s tooth. Wodehouse, “Alfred B. Mullett” 34–36.

63. For a compilation of Mullett’s works see “Alfred B. Mullett,” Macmillian Encyclopedia of Architects 251–52, Adolph H. Placzek, ed. (New York: Free Press, 1982).

64. Annual Report of the Supervising Architect, 1868, quoted in Bates Lowry, Building a National Image: Architectural Drawings for the American Democracy, 1789–1912 58 (Washington, D.C.: National Building Museum, 1985).

65. Congress considers the old State, War, and Navy Building a national monument, wrote former Secretary of State Dean Acheson. “Congress does not entertain the same sentiment about those who have inhabited it.” Present at the Creation 9 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1969). Also see Wodehouse, “General Grant Architecture in Jeopardy” 21.

66. 6 Wallace 50 (1868). Nelson also wrote the original majority opinion in Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 Howard 393 (1857), disposing of the case on narrow procedural grounds. Had Nelson’s opinion prevailed as the opinion of the Court, the Dred Scott case would be all but forgotten.

67. Grant to Conkling, November 8, 1873, quoted in David M. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling of New York: Voice in the Senate 199 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971).

68. Ibid.

69. Ibid. 145.

70. Thomas Collier Platt, The Autobiography of Thomas Collier Platt 67–68, Louis J. Lang, ed. (New York: B. W. Dodge, 1910).

71. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 661.

72. John Marshall, An Autobiographical Sketch 30, John Stokes Adams, ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1937); also see Jean Edward Smith, John Marshall: Definer of a Nation 14–15 (New York: Henry Holt, 1996).

73. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 661–62.

74. The Nation, December 11, 1873.

75. New York Tribune, December 6, 15, 1873.

76. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 662; Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 202.

77. C. H. Hill to Benjamin Bristow, December 13, 19, 1873, quoted in McFeely, Grant 390.

78. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 663.

79. Tom Murphy in The Nation, January 22, 1874.

80. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 664.

81. Cushing’s letter to Davis was found in the Confederate archives, which the government had purchased in 1872. New York Tribune January 10, 1874.

82. For Grant’s second approach to Conkling, see Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 203, and the sources cited therein.

83. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 665.

84. The Nation January 27, 1874, quoted in Charles Warren, 2 The Supreme Court in United States History 578 (Boston: Little Brown, 1922).

85. 2 Otto [92 U.S.] 214 (1876).

86. 2 Otto [92 U.S.] 542 (1876).

87. United States v. Reese, 2 Otto [92 U.S.] 214, 253 (1876). (Dissent).

88. Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 530.

89. For a concise account of the Colfax Massacre, see George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction 126–29 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1984).

90. William Gillette, Retreat from Reconstruction: 1869–1879 107 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979).

91. New Orleans Bulletin, September 16, 1874; Boyd to Sherman, September 16, 1874, Walter L. Fleming Collection, Louisiana State University.

92. Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 276.

93. New York Tribune, September 18, 1874.

94. Sixth Annual Message to Congress, December 7, 1874, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 299.

95. Senate Exec. Doc. No. 17, 43rd Cong., 2nd sess. 19–20, 65–66.

96. Sheridan to Belknap, January 2, 1875, Sheridan Papers, Library of Congress. (Emory was sixty-three.)

97. Ibid.

98. Rable, But There Was No Peace 141.

99. Sheridan to Belknap, January 4, 1875, Division of the Missouri, Letters Sent, R.G. 393, U.S. Army, National Archives.

100. Ibid. January 5, 1875.

101. Belknap to Sheridan, January 6, 1875, Sheridan Papers.

102. James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP, 40–41 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975).

103. Congressional Record 331, 367–71, 43rd Cong., 2nd sess; Richard O’Conner, Sheridan the Inevitable 330 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1953).

104. “Some of the Banditti made idle threats last night that they would assassinate me,” Sheridan wired Belknap on January 6. “I am not afraid and will not be stopped from informing the government that there are localities in this Department where the very air has been impregnated with assassination for some years.” Sheridan Papers.

105. Message to the Senate, January 13, 1875, Richardson 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 305–14.

106. Sheridan to Belknap, January 10, 1875, Sheridan Papers.

107. House Report 127, 43rd Cong., 2nd sess. (1875).

108. Hoar, Autobiography 208ff.

109. Sheridan to Belknap, February 24, 1875, Sheridan Papers. Sheridan and Irene Rucker were married in a private ceremony in Chicago, June 3, 1875.

110. Sheridan to Orville Babcock, January 24, 1875, Sheridan Papers.

111. Rable, But There Was No Peace 143.

112. James C. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 583.

113. T. Wilson [U.S. consul, Nuremberg] to Lucius C. Fairchild, January 17, 1875, Fairchild Papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin Library.

114. The tone of American historiography concerning Reconstruction was set by William A. Dunning, Francis Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy at Columbia University. Between 1886 and 1922, Dunning directed the research of two generations of graduate students, edited the influential Political Science Quarterly for ten years, and was the only person to have been elected president of both the American Historical Association and the American Political Science Association.

According to the 1930 Dictionary of National Biography, edited by Dumas Malone, “no one did more than Dunning to rewrite the history of the generation following the Civil War.” Dunning saw Reconstruction in starkly racial terms and believed that white graduate students from the South were best qualified to write about it because of their personal experience and “empathy.” Known as “the Dunning School,” their works, all of which were published by Columbia University Press, include J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton’s Reconstruction in North Carolina (1914), W. W. Davis’s The Civil War and Reconstruction in Florida (1913), Walter L. Fleming’s The Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama (1905), Thomas S. Staples’s Reconstruction in Arkansas (1923), and Charles W. Ramsdell’s Reconstruction in Texas (1910).

Lincoln biographer David Herbert Donald has described the work of the Dunning School as follows: “Researched from primary sources, factually accurate, and presented with an air of objectivity, these dissertations were acclaimed as triumphs of the application of the scientific method to historiography, and indeed they still provide our basic knowledge of the political history of the South during the postwar years. Yet, with every conscious desire to be fair, these students of Dunning shaped their monographs to accord with the white Southerner’s view that the Negro was innately inferior. . . . Consequently, the Dunning students generally condemned Negro participation in Southern Reconstruction governments, even while they condoned white terrorist organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan.” [Donald’s Introduction to Dunning’s Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction (Gloucester, Mass.: Peter Smith, 1969). Reprint.]

The 1999 American National Biography, published under the auspices of the American Council of Learned Societies, is more critical. “Rather than seeing the abolitionists and radical Republicans as brave idealists coming to the aid of African Americans oppressed by traitorous rebels, these largely southern-born historians depicted a helpless white population tyrannized by ignorant blacks manipulated by venal northern carpetbaggers and southern scalawags.”

Dunning’s principal work, Reconstruction: Political and Economic, 1865–1877 (New York: Harper, 1907), refers to “barbarous” freedmen committing “the hideous crime against white womanhood” and corrupt northern politicians willing to force opponents “of their own race . . . to permanent subjection to another race” (pp. 212–14). The widespread acceptance of the Dunning School’s interpretation of Reconstruction reflected the prejudices of the period and the desire of most Northerners to conciliate the white South.

115. For a general review of the School Question, see Steven K. Green, “The Blaine Amendment Reconsidered,” 36 American Journal of Legal History 38–69 (1992).

116. Sister Marie Carolyn Klinkhamer, “The Blaine Amendment of 1875: Private Motives for Political Action,” 42 Catholic Historical Review 17 (1956). Cf., Tyler Ambinder, “Ulysses S. Grant, Nativist,” 43 Civil War History 120 (1977).

117. The text of Grant’s speech to the Army of the Tennessee, Des Moines, Iowa, September 30, 1875, is reprinted in Harper’s Weekly, October 30, 1875.

118. New York Times, New York Tribune, Chicago Tribune, October 1875; The Index, November 4, 1875.

119. Robert H. Keller, American Protestantism and United States Indian Policy, 1869–82 168 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983).

120. Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 334.

121. Ibid. 334–35.

122. New York Times, December 8, 1875; Harper’s Weekly, January 1, 1876; Chicago Tribune, December 8, 1875; Catholic World 705, February 1876.

123. Catholic World 434–35 (January 1876).

124. Green, “Blaine Amendment” 67–68. The text of the Blaine Amendment provided:

No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools, or derived from any public fund therefor, nor any public lands devoted thereto, shall ever be under the control of any religious sect or denomination; nor shall any money so raised or lands so devoted be divided between religious sects or denominations. This article shall not vest, enlarge, or diminish legislative power in the Congress.

125. John Russell Young, 2 Around the World with General Grant 359–65 (New York: American News, 1879).

CHAPTER NINETEEN: THE GILDED AGE

The epigraph is from a letter Hoar sent to Hamilton Fish commending Grant for his handling of the Hayes-Tilden crisis. Quoted in Allan Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration 855 (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1937).

1. New York Herald, May 22, 1874.

2. William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography 400–401 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

3. Adam Badeau, Grant In Peace 411–12 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

4. McFeely, Grant 401; Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, Baron Redesdale, 2 Memoirs 516 (London: Hutchinson, 1915). Also see Catherine Clinton, Fanny Kemble’s Civil Wars 130–33 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000).

5. William B. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant: Politician 299 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1935).

6. New York World, September 5, 1885.

7. Henrietta Melia Larson, Jay Cooke: Private Banker 291–95 (New York: Greenwood, 1968); New York Times, September 19, 1873.

8. The Nation, October 2, 1873.

9. Quoted in the New York Tribune, September 24, 1873.

10. Fish to Richardson, September 26, 1873, in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 698.

11. Fifth Annual Message, December 1, 1873, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 245–46, James D. Richardson, ed. (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908).

12. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 332–33. Also see John Sherman, 1 Recollections of Forty Years in the House, Senate, and Cabinet 490 (New York: Werner, 1895).

13. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 707–8.

14. New York Tribune, April 14, 18, 1874; New York Times, April 21, 1874.

15. Veto Message, April 22, 1874, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 268–71.

16. Fish diary, April 21, 1874, in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 712–13.

17. David M. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling of New York 208–9 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971). For the inflationist view, see James Pickett Jones, John A. Logan: Stalwart Republican from Illinois 76–78 (Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida, 1982). During his eight years in office, Grant vetoed ninety-three pieces of legislation. This was five more than his seventeen predecessors combined. Of the ninety-three, forty-five were regular vetoes and forty-eight were pocket vetoes. Only four of Grant’s vetoes were overridden, and three of those involved private bills for the relief of particular individuals. By contrast, Andrew Johnson vetoed twenty-nine bills and was overridden fifteen times—virtually all on matters of public policy. Presidential Vetoes, 1789–1988 38–56, S. Pub. 102–12 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992).

18. The Diary of George Templeton Strong 523, Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds. (New York: Macmillan, 1952).

19. Pierrepont to Fish, April 23, 1874, quoted in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 713.

20. Garfield to A. B. Hinsdale, April 23, 1874, quoted in Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 336.

21. New York Tribune, New York Times, April 23, 1874; Harper’s Weekly, April 30, 1874; The Nation May 5, 1874.

22. Fish to General L. Schuyler, April 25, 1874, in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 714.

23. John Russell Young, 2 Around the World with General Grant 153 (New York: American News, 1879).

24. Sixth Annual Message to Congress, December 7, 1874. Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 285–88.

25. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 340.

26. Special Message to the Senate, January 14, 1875, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 314–16.

27. McFeely, Grant 390. Also see Edwards Pierrepont to Bristow, December 2, 1873, Bristow Papers, Library of Congress.

28. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 715–16.

29. Fish to Washburne, May 5, 1874; Washburne to Grant, May 7, 1874, ibid.

30. Jewell to Washburne, June 4, 1874, Washburne Papers, Library of Congress.

31. Levi P. Luckey to Washburne, July 3, 1874, ibid. Also see Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 720–21.

32. H. V. Boynton, “The Whiskey Ring,” 123 North American Review (1876); John McDonald, Secrets of the Great Whiskey Ring (St. Louis: W. S. Bryan, 1880).

33. Bluford Wilson testimony in Whiskey Frauds 355, House Misc. Doc. 186, 44th Cong., 1st sess. Wilson, Bristow’s assistant secretary, was present at the White House meeting with Grant. His version, given in sworn testimony, stands uncontradicted.

34. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 768–69.

35. Fish diary, March 12, 1875.

36. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 770–772.

37. The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 185–86, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1975).

38. Theodore Clark Smith, ed.,1 The Life and Letters of James Abram Garfield 583–84 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925).

39. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 185–86.

40. New York Times, May 30, 1875.

41. New York Tribune, April 24, 1875.

42. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 775.

43. Louis A. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 474 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917).

44. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 377.

45. Young, 2 Around the World 365.

46. Ibid. 263. Accusations of corruption that attach to the Grant administration are in some measure a result of careless semantics. Much of what the reformist school of historiography has called corruption was merely the dominant mode of choosing government officials through the patronage system. “Scholars have tended to accept the judgment of the anti-Grant reformers that this system was inherently corrupt, but that is a very questionable conclusion, and reformers had ulterior, political motives for making the charge.” Michael Les Benedict, “Ulysses S. Grant,” in 2 The American Presidents 376, Frank N. Magill, ed. (Pasadena: Salem Press, 1989).

Professor Ari Hoogenboom, a leading scholar of civil service reform, concurs: “The typical historian has been too loose in applying the term ‘corruption.’ Specifically, he labels a partisan civil service corrupt rather than inefficient; he equates the spoils system with corruption when honest spoilsmen far outnumber dishonest ones.” “Spoilsmen and Reformers: Civil Service Reform and Public Morality,” in The Gilded Age: A Reappraisal 71, H. Wayne Morgan, ed. (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1963).

47. Young, 2 Around the World 265.

48. Ari Hoogenboom, “Thomas A. Jenckes and Civil Service Reform” 47 Mississippi Valley Historical Review 636–42 (1966).

49. New York Times, January 18, 1866.

50. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 399; Bing to Jenckes, October 27, 1868, Jenckes Papers, Library of Congress The Nation, December 10, 31, 1868.

51. Congressional Globe 212–66, 40th Cong., 3rd sess. (January 8, 1869). During the previous session Logan had introduced a bill calling for the creation of a Civil Service Bureau to examine candidates for federal employment. Congressional Globe 366, 806, 40th Cong., 2nd sess. (January 8, 28, 1868).

52. Young, 2 Around the World 265.

53. Second Annual Message, December 5, 1870, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 109.

54. Congressional Globe 1935, 41st Cong., 3rd sess. (March 3, 1871).

55. “Rules for the Civil Service,” Grant to Congress, December 19, 1871, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 156–59.

56. Grant to Medill, February 1, 1872, 23 Grant Papers 3–4.

57. Sixth Annual Message, December 7, 1874, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 301.

58. Hoogenboom, “Thomas A. Jenckes and Civil Service Reform” 639, 658.

59. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 403–4.

60. Whiskey Frauds 186, 349, 357ff; Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 479; Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 788. Emphasis added.

61. Whiskey Frauds 11, 30, 485; Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 483.

62. The text of the two telegrams is reprinted in Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 788, and McFeely, Grant 409.

63. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 384–85; Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 480; Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 788–89; McFeely, Grant 410.

64. McFeely, Grant 416.

65. Jones, John A. Logan 87–88.

66. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 385; Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 797–98, 800–1; Geoffrey Perret, Ulysses S. Grant: Soldier and President 443–44 (New York: Random House, 1997).

67. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 790–93; McFeely, Grant 411–12.

68. Deposition of the President of the United States, February 12, 1876, reprinted in full in New York Times, February 18, 1876. I am indebted to Sam Mok of the University of Minnesota for locating this document.

69. John Russell Young, Men and Memories 369 (New York: F. Tennyson Neely, 1901).

70. New York Tribune, February 25, 1876. The New York Times, The Nation, and the Springfield Republican were equally effusive. The Times went on to report “a continuance of the hearty cooperation of the President in the Secretary [of the Treasury]’s fight with the whiskey thieves.” February 25, 1876.

71. Grant to Bristow, March 6, 1876, in Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 486. Inexplicably, Bristow continued his refusal to testify, despite being authorized by Grant to do so.

72. Malfeasance of W. W. Belknap, Late Secretary of War, 44th Cong., House Report 186, March 2, 1876. In sworn testimony before the House committee, Marsh stated, “The money was sent according to the instructions of the Secretary of War; sometimes in bank notes . . . I think on more than one occasion by certificates of deposit on the National Bank of America in New York. Sometimes I paid him in New York in person.” Ibid. 3–4.

73. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 805.

74. Ross A. Webb, Benjamin Helm Bristow: Border State Politician 223–25 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1969); Garfield 3 Diary 243–44, March 3, 1876.

75. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 190. Compare Perret, Ulysses S. Grant 437.

76. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 805.

77. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 191; Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 396.

78. Congressional Record, Impeachment Proceedings, 344, August 1, 1876. Also see Report of the House Managers on the Impeachment of W. W. Belknap, House Report 791, August 2, 1876, 44th Cong. In late May, when the issue of jurisdiction was first raised, the Senate voted 37–29 (all Democrats voting in favor) to assume jurisdiction. The impeachment vote was 37–25 to convict, twenty-three senators voting against because they believed the Senate lacked jurisdiction. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 224; cf. Nevins 2 Hamilton Fish 809–10.

79. James A. Garfield, 3 The Diary of James A. Garfield 243–44, Harry J. Brown and Frederick D. Williams, eds. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1973).

80. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 805; Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 190–92.

81. New York Times, New York Herald, New York Tribune, March 4, 1876; Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 829. Judge Taft was the father of William Howard Taft, twenty-seventh president of the United States, and tenth chief justice of the United States.

82. Young, 2 Around the World 273–75.

83. Webb, Benjamin Helm Bristow 248.

84. Grant to Hayes, June 16, 1876, Grant Papers, Carbondale, Illinois.

85. Webb, Bristow 251; McFeely, Grant 441.

86. Grant to Bristow, June 19, 1876, Grant Papers.

87. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 499.

88. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 840–41.

89. Grant to Chamberlain, July 26, 1876, Grant Papers.

90. Proclamation, October 17, 1876, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 396–97.

91. New York Times, Evening Post, October 18, 1876.

92. George W. Childs, Recollections of General Grant 10 (Philadelphia: Collins, 1885).

93. Grant to Sherman, November 8, 1876, Grant Papers.

94. Paul Leland Haworth, The Hayes-Tilden Disputed Election of 1876 68, 113–14 (Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill, 1927).

95. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 853.

96. Ibid. 844–45.

97. Garfield, 1 Diary 614; Grant to Garfield, November 15, 1868, Grant Papers.

98. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 506–7.

99. James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 589, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992).

100. John Sherman, 2 Recollections of Forty Years 558.

101. In 1865 Congress had adopted a joint rule (22) that required the concurrence of both Houses to count the electoral vote from a state. But the rule expired in 1875 and the House and Senate had not been able to agree on anything to take its place.

102. Fish diary, November 14, 1876, in Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 844.

103. Ibid. 848.

104. Hoar to Fish, January 25, 1877, Fish Papers, quoted ibid. 855.

105. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 418–19; Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, 3 A History of the United States Since the Civil War 292–94 (New York: Macmillan, 1916); Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Election 122–28.

106. The House members of the joint committee were Democrats Henry Payne (Ohio), Eppa Hunton (Va.), Abram Hewitt (N.Y.), and W. M. Springer (Ill.); Republicans George McCrary (Pa.), George F. Hoar (Mass.), and George Willard (Mich.). From the Senate, Republicans George Edmunds (Vt.), Oliver P. Morton (Ind.), Frederick Frelinghuysen (N.J.), and Roscoe Conkling (N.Y.), taking the place of John Logan, who declined to serve. The Senate Democrats were Allen G. Thurman (Ohio), Thomas Bayard (Del.), and M. W. Ransom (N.C.)

107. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 255, reflecting Grant’s conversation with George W. Childs of Philadelphia.

108. Ibid. 257. Conkling’s speech is in Congressional Record 825–31; 870–78, 44th Cong., 2nd sess. (1877).

109. In the House, 159 Democrats and thirty-two Republicans voted in favor; eighteen Democrats and sixty-eight Republicans voted against. In the Senate, twenty-six Democrats and twenty-one Republicans voted yes; sixteen Republicans and one Democrat voted no.

110. Message to Congress, January 29, 1877, Richardson, 7 Messages and Papers of the Presidents 422–24.

111. Young, 2 Around the World 271–72.

112. C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1877 and the End of Reconstruction 23, rev. ed. (New York: Doubleday, 1956); Harry Barnard, Rutherford B. Hayes and His America 343 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956).

113. A Southern Democrat told Garfield they would not follow their Northern colleagues who were “invincible in peace and invisible in war.” McPherson, Ordeal by Fire 591. Also see Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 516.

114. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 421. Also see Rhodes, 7 History of the United States 291–350; Haworth, Hayes-Tilden Disputed Election 162–65.

115. New York Herald, March 25, 1877.

116. Badeau, Grant in Peace 252. In 1821, March 4 also fell on a Sunday. This was the end of James Monroe’s first term and the beginning of his second. With little at stake, Chief Justice Marshall recommended postponing the oath until Monday, March 5, “unless some official duty should require its being taken on Sunday.” Marshall to Monroe, February 20, 1821, 9 The Papers of John Marshall. Charles F. Hobson, ed. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

117. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 196.

118. Chicago Tribune, September 1, 1885.

119. Young, 2 Around the World 272.

120. Garfield, 3 Diary 453–54, March 5, 1877.

CHAPTER TWENTY: TAPS

The epigraph is from a letter Sherman wrote to Badeau, June 27, 1877. Adam Badeau, Grant in Peace, 122–23 (Hartford, Conn.: Scranton, 1887).

1. Grant to Fish, March 22, 1877, quoted in Allan Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration 893, rev. ed. (New York: Frederick Ungar, 1957).

2. House of Representatives Resolution, April 3, 1876. For Grant’s hard-edged response, May 4, 1876, including an appendix providing details of travel by his predecessors, see Messages and Papers of the Presidents 361–66, James D. Richardson, ed. (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Literature and Art, 1908).

3. Badeau, Grant in Peace 297.

4. Lowell to Charles Eliot Norton, in Letters of James Russell Lowell 233, Charles Eliot Norton, ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1894).

5. Young’s accounts were collected and published by the American News Company in two volumes, Around the World with General Grant, which appeared in 1879.

6. 1 ibid. 468. Also see Grant to Fish, August 22, 1878. “When I called [at the Summer Palace] the Emperor approached me and taking me by the hand led me to a seat, after which we had a talk of twenty minutes or more. I tell you this because we both had serious apprehensions that the case would be quite different.” Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 895.

7. Young, 1 Around the World 416.

8. Ibid. 365–68.

9. Ibid. 416–17.

10. Most of the elder statemen attending the Congress were suffering badly from gout, and the menu of the dinner Bismarck gave for Grant suggests why:

Potage mulligatawny	Poulardes de Bruxelles
Pâtes à la financière	Salade
Turbot d’Ostende a l’Anglaise	Compotes
Quartier de boeuf a la Hosteinaise	Fonds d’artichauts a la Hollandaise
Canetons aux olives	Pain de fraises â la Chantilly
Ris de veau a la Milanaise	Glaces
Punch romain	Dessert
Young, 1 Around the World 420.

11. Julia Dent Grant, The Personal Memoirs of Julia Dent Grant 246, John Y. Simon, ed. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1975).

12. Ibid. The purpose of the Congress was to modify the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, concluded by Turkey (under duress) with Russia, March 23, 1878. With the Russian army at the gates of Constantinople, Turkey conceded several Asian provinces to Russia, recognized the autonomy of Bulgaria, and granted independence to Romania and Serbia. The great powers believed the terms excessive, and intervened on the sultan’s behalf.

13. Young, Around the World 219–20

14. Grant to Nellie Sartoris, August 10, 1879, Grant Papers, Carbondale, Illinois.

15. Grant to Badeau, July 16, 1879, reprinted in Badeau, Grant in Peace 516–17. Writing from Japan, Grant told Badeau that the Chinese “Liked Americans better, or rather perhaps hate them less, than any other foreigners. The reason is palpable. We are the only power that recognize their right to control their own internal affairs. My impression is that China is on the verge of a great revolution that will land her among the nations of progress.” June 22, 1879, ibid. 515–16.

16. Grant to Badeau, August 1, August 25, 1879, ibid. 517–19. Grant’s reference to “the last twelve years” pertains to the time from the date of the Meiji restoration in 1868.

17. The text of Grant’s remarks is ibid. 603–4.

18. Ibid. 629–30.

19. Harry Barnard, Rutherford B. Hayes and His America 487 (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1954).

20. St. Louis Globe Democrat; New York Tribune, July 22, 1878.

21. Babcock to Badeau, undated, Babcock Papers, Chicago Historical Society.

22. Badeau, Grant in Peace 318.

23. Ibid. 319–21.

24. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 321–22.

25. New York Times, February 26, 1880.

26. Logan carried the crucial procedural vote 309–304 at 2:00 A.M. on May 20. James Pickett Jones, John A. Logan: Stalwart Republican from Illinois 132–34 (Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida, 1982).

27. Badeau, Grant in Peace 320; Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 321.

28. New York Times, June 2, 1880, Logan quoted in David M. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling of New York 326 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1971).

29. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 321–22.

30. For a tabulation of the 1880 Republican convention votes, see National Party Conventions 1831–1972 137 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1976).

31. Jordan, Roscoe Conkling 340.

32. James, John A. Logan 137.

33. Thomas C. Platt, The Autobiography of Thomas C. Platt 120–23, Louis J. Lang, ed. (New York: B. W. Dodge, 1910). In late 1880 the stalwarts published a pamphlet called The Roll of Honor, which contained the names of the 306 as well as Roscoe Conkling’s nominating speech. The Grant medals were struck by Chauncey I. Filley and distributed to each of the 306 delegates.

34. Grant to Mary King, January 27, 1881, Grant Papers.

35. Nevins, 2 Hamilton Fish 897.

36. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 323–24; New York Herald Tribune, April 24, 1927.

37. Grant to Badeau, May 7, 1882, Badeau, Grant in Peace 533–34.

38. Ibid. 334–42.

39. Ibid. 395. Also see David M. Pletcher, Rails, Mines, and Progress: Seven American Promoters in Mexico, 1867–1911 150 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1958).

40. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 323.

41. Grant and Buck put down cash. Ward and Fish pledged securities. Hamlin Garland, Ulysses S. Grant: His Life and Character 490 note (New York: Macmillan, 1898).

42. Louis A. Coolidge, Ulysses S. Grant 555–60 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917); William B. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant: Politician 445–47 (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1935); Thomas M. Pitkin, The Captain Departs 206 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1973).

43. Badeau, Grant in Peace 418–19; William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography 489–92. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1981).

44. Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 446.

45. Garland, Ulysses S. Grant 492.

46. Ibid.

47. New York Times May 8–13, 15, 21, July 8, 1884; New York Tribune, June 23, 1886.

48. Pitkin, The Captain Departs 9–10.

49. Garland, Ulysses S. Grant 495–99.

50. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 328. Grant’s letter of appreciation to Charles Wood of Lansingburg was published in the New York Times, August 5, 1892.

51. Badeau, Grant in Peace 432.

52. Robert U. Johnson, Remembered Yesterdays 209 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1923).

53. Pitkin, The Captain Departs 10–15.

54. Samuel Clemens, 1 Mark Twain’s Autobiography 33–36 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1924).

55. Charles L. Webster, Clemens’s partner, was the husband of his niece. Huckleberry Finn was their first publishing venture, and was sold by subscription.

56. Clemens, 1 Mark Twain’s Autobiography 36.

57. Ibid. 40.

58. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 328–29.

59. Pitkin, The Captain Departs 24.

60. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 329.

61. New York Times, March 1, 1885; New York World, February 20, 28, 1885.

62. L. White Busbey, Uncle Joe Cannon 303–6 (New York: Henry Holt, 1927); U.S. Congress, Congressional Record, 48th Cong., 2nd sess. 2503.

63. 48th Cong., 2nd sess. 2565–66. Also see Badeau, Grant in Peace 443, Hesseltine, Ulysses S. Grant 450–51; Garland, Ulysses S. Grant 508.

64. Pitkin, The General Departs 30.

65. Clemens, Mark Twain’s Autobiography, 48.

66. New York Times, June 12, 16, 1885.

67. New York Tribune, June 17, 1885.

68. Julia Dent Grant, Personal Memoirs 330–31.

69. John R. Proctor, “A Blue and Gray Friendship,” 31 Century Magazine 942–49 (1897); Arndt M. Stickler, Simon Bolivar Buckner: Borderland Knight 324–29 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1940).

70. McFeely, Grant 501.

71. Edmund Wilson, Patriotic Gore 132–33, 140 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962). In Four in America, Stein devoted her initial essay to Grant, before treating Wilbur Wright, Henry James, and George Washington. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947) 3–82.

72. James M. McPherson, “The Unheroic Hero,” New York Review of Books, 16–19 (February 4, 1999).

73. Grant, 2 Memoirs 276.

74. Pitkin, The Captain Departs 92–93.

75. Wilson, Patriotic Gore 138–39.