NOTES
CHAPTER 1
1 U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 3rd ed., 1990. (
Home and Garden Bulletin, no. 232.)
2 U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 5th ed., 2000.
3 U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, “New Dietary Guidelines Will Help Americans Make Better Food Choices, Live Healthier Lives.” (Press release:
www.hhs.gov/news/press/2005.html.) Emphasis on reducing calorie intake will also be part of the forthcoming 2010 edition of “Dietary Guidelines for Americans.” See
http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DietaryGuidelines.htm. (Last accessed Saturday, January 07, 2010.)
4 Roy L. Walford,
Beyond the 120-Year Diet: How to Double Your Vital Years (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2000). Previously published in 1986 as
The 120-Year Diet.
CHAPTER 2
2 E. B. Edney and R. W. Gill, “Evolution of Senescence and Specific Longevity,”
Nature 220, no. 164 (October 19, 1968): 281-82.
3 R. Weindruch, “Caloric Restriction and Aging,”
Scientific American 274, no. 1 (January 1996): 46-52.
4 S. N. Austad, “Life Extension by Dietary Restriction in the Bowl and Doily Spider,
Frontinella pyramitela,”
Experimental Gerontology 24, no. 1 (1989): 83-92.
5 B. K. Patnaik, N. Mahapatro, and B. S. Jena, “Ageing in Fishes,”
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6 M. H. Ross, “Length of Life and Caloric Intake,”
The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 8 (August 25, 1972): 834-38.
7 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
National Vital Statistics Reports, 52, no. 9 (November 7, 2003).
8 R. L. Walford, D. Mock, R. Verdery, and T. MacCallum, “Calorie Restriction in Biosphere 2: Alterations in Physiologic, Hematologic, Hormonal, and Biochemical Parameters in Humans Restricted for a 2-Year Period,”
The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 57, no. 6 (June 2002): B211-24.
9 L. Fontana, T. E. Meyer, S. Klein, and J. O. Holloszy, “Long-term Calorie Restriction Is Highly Effective in Reducing the Risk for Atherosclerosis in Humans,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, no. 17 (April 27, 2004): 6, 659-63.
10 R. L. Walford and R. Weindruch.
The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction (Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1988).
11 M. T. Goodman, J. H. Hankin, L. R. Wilkens, L. C. Lyu, K. Mc-Duffie, L.Q. Liu, and L. N. Kolonel, “Diet, Body Size, Physical Activity, and the Risk of Endometrial Cancer,”
Cancer Research 57, no. 22 (November 15, 1997): 5077-85; A. S. Furberg and I. Thune, “Metabolic Abnormalities (Hypertension, Hyperglycemia and Overweight), Lifestyle (High Energy Intake and Physical Inactivity) and Endometrial Cancer Risk in a Norwegian Cohort,”
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European Journal of Cancer 32A, no. 4 (April 1996): 673-82.
12 N. Pitsikas, M. Carli, S. Fidecka, and S. Algeri, “Effect of Life-long Hypocaloric Diet on Age-Related Changes in Motor and Cognitive Behavior in a Rat Population,”
Neurobiology of Aging 11, no. 4 (July-Aug 1990): 417-23; C. L. Goodrick, “Effects of Lifelong Restricted Feeding on Complex Maze Performance in Rats,”
AGE 7:1-2.
13 L. W. Means, J. L. Higgins, and T. J. Fernandez, “Midlife Onset of Dietary Restriction Extends Life and Prolongs Cognitive Functioning,”
Physiology & Behavior 54, no. 3 (September 1993): 503-508; F. Idrobo, K. Nandy, D. I. Mostofsky, L. Blatt, and L. Nandy, “Dietary Restriction: Effects on Radial Maze Learning and Lipofuscin Pigment Deposition in the Hippocampus and Frontal Cortex,”
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 6, no. 4 (December 1987): 355-62.
14 C. Moreschi,
Beziehungen zwischen Ernährung und Tumorwachsen [The Connection Between Nutrition and Tumor Promotion],
Zeitschrift für Immunitätsforsch 2 (1909): 651-75.
15 C. M. McCay, M. F. Crowel, and L. A. Maynard, “The Effect of Retarded Growth upon the Length of the Life Span and upon the Ultimate Body Size,”
The Journal of Nutrition 10 (1935): 63-79.
16 A. Koizumi, Y. Wada, M. Tuskada, T. Kayo, M. Naruse, K. Horiuchi, T. Mogi, M. Yoshioka, M. Sasaki, Y. Miyamaura, T. Abe, K. Ohtomo, and R. L. Walford, “A Tumor Preventive Effect of Dietary Restriction Is Antagonized by a High Housing Temperature through Deprivation of Torpor,”
Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 92, no. 1 (November 29, 1996): 67-82.
17 B. Conti, “Considerations on Temperature, Longevity and Aging,”
Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 65, no. 11 (June 2008): 1626-30.
18 E. J. Masoro, “Antiaging Action of Caloric Restriction: Endocrine and Metabolic Aspects,”
Obesity Research 3, suppl. 2 (September 1995): 241s-47s.
19 S. R. Spindler, J. M. Grizzle, R. L. Walford, and P. L. Mote, “Aging and Restriction of Dietary Calories Increases Insulin Receptor mRNA, and Aging Increases Glucocorticoid Receptor mRNA in the Liver of Female C3B10RF1 Mice,”
Journal of Gerontology 46, no. 6 (November 1991): B233-37; B. C. Hansen, “Obesity, Diabetes, and Insulin Resistance: Implications from Molecular Biology, Epidemiology, and Experimental Studies in Humans and Animals,” Synopsis of the American Diabetes Association’s 29th Research Symposium and Satellite Conference of the 7th International Congress on Obesity, Boston, Massachusetts,
Diabetes Care 18, no. 6 (June 1995): A2-9.
20 G. S. Roth, M. A. Lane, D. K. Ingram, J. A. Mattison, D. Elahi, J. D. Tobin, D. Muller, and E. J. Metter, “Biomarkers of Caloric Restriction May Predict Longevity in Humans,”
Science 297 (2002): 811.
21 T. A. Hughes, J. T. Gwynne, B. R. Switzer, C. Herbst, and G. White, “Effects of Caloric Restriction and Weight Loss on Glycemic Control, Insulin Release and Resistance, and Atherosclerotic Risk in Obese Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus,”
The American Journal of Medicine 77, no. 1 (July 1984): 7-17; R. I. Misbin, “Dietary Regulation of Insulin Receptors in Obesity,”
The Journal of Nutrition 111, no. 3 (March 1981): 475-79; P. J. Savage, L. J. Bennion, and P. H. Bennett, “Normalization of Insulin and Glucagon Secretion in Ketosis-Resistant Diabetes Mellitus with Prolonged Diet Therapy,”
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 49, no. 6 (December 1979): 830-33.
22 American Diabetes Association, “Evidence-Based Nutrition Principles and Recommendations for the Treatment and Prevention of Diabetes and Related Complications,”
Diabetes Care 25 (2002): S50-60.
23 J. O. Holloszy and L Fontana, “Caloric Restriction in Humans,”
Experimental Gerontology 42, no. 8 (August 2007): 709-12.
24 J. M. Lipman, A. Turturro, and R. W. Hart, “The Influence of Dietary Restriction on DNA Repair in Rodents: A Preliminary Study,”
Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 48, no. 2 (May 1989): 135-43.
25 R. S. Sohal, S. Agarwal, M. Candas, M. J. Forster, and H. Lal, “Effect of Age and Caloric Restriction on DNA Oxidative Damage in Different Tissues of C57BL/6 Mice,”
Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 76, nos. 2-3 (October 20, 1994): 215-24; V. Haley-Zitlin and A. Richardson, “Effect of Dietary Restriction on DNA Repair and DNA Damage,”
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26 C. M. Gedik, G. Grant, P. C. Morrice, S. G Wood, and A. R. Collins, “Effects of Age and Dietary Restriction on Oxidative DNA Damage, Antioxidant Protection and DNA Repair in Rats,”
European Journal of Nutrition (July 28, 2004); D. C. Cabelof, S. Yanamadala, J. J. Raffoul, Z. Guo, A. Soofi, and A. R. Heydari, “Caloric Restriction Promotes Genomic Stability by Induction of Base Excision Repair and Reversal of Its Age-Related Decline,”
DNA Repair 2, no. 3 (March 1, 2003): 295-307.
27 T. Hofer, L. Fontana, S. D. Anton, E. P. Weiss, D. Villareal, B. Malayappan, and C. Leeuwenburgh, “Long-Term Effects of Caloric Restriction or Exercise on DNA and RNA Oxidation Levels in White Blood Cells and Urine in Humans,”
Rejuvenation Research 11, no. 4 (August 2008): 793-99.
28 N. J. O’Callaghan, P. M. Clifton, M. Noakes, and M. Fenech, “Weight Loss in Obese Men Is Associated with Increased Telomere Length and Decreased Abasic Sites in Rectal Mucosa,”
Rejuvenation Research 12, no. 3 (June 2009):169-76.
29 D. Kritchevsky, “Caloric Restriction and Cancer,”
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30 See, for example, K. B. Michels, A. Ekbom, “Caloric Restriction and Incidence of Breast Cancer,”
JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 291, no. 10 (March 10, 2004): 1, 226-30; F. C. Papadopoulos, I. Pantziaras, P. Lagiou, L. Brandt, L. Ekselius, and A. Ekbom, “Age at Onset of Anorexia Nervosa and Breast Cancer Risk,”
European Journal of Cancer Prevention 18, no. 3 (June 2009): 207-11.
31 A. M. Holehan and B. J. Merry, “Modification of the Oestrous Cycle Hormonal Profile by Dietary Restriction,”
Mechanisms of Ageing and Development 32, no. 1 (October 14, 1985): 63-76.
32 C. J. Carr, J. T. King, and M. B. Visscher, “The Effects of Dietary Caloric Restriction on Maturity and Senescence, with Particular Reference to Fertility and Longevity,”
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33 Roy L. Walford,
Maximum Life Span (New York: Norton, 1983): 90.
34 J. F. Nelson, R. G. Gosden, and L. S. Felicio, “Effect of Dietary Restriction on Estrous Cyclicity and Follicular Reserves in Aging C57BL/6J Mice,”
Biology of Reproduction 32, no. 3 (April 1985): 515-22.
35 For a review, see H. Y. Chung, B. Sung, K. J. Jung, Y. Zou, and B. P. Yu, “The Molecular Inflammatory Process in Aging,”
Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 8, nos. 3-4 (March-April 2006): 572-81.
36 A. Hiona and C. Leeuwenburgh, “Effects of Age and Caloric Restriction on Brain Neuronal Cell Death/Survival,”
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (June 2004) 1019: 96-105.
37 L. Fontana, T. E. Meyer, S. Klein, J. O. Holloszy, “Long-term Calorie Restriction Is Highly Effective in Reducing the Risk for Atherosclerosis in Humans,”
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, no. 17 (April 27, 2004): 6, 659-63.
CHAPTER 3
1 From an interview quoted by Reuters. Study: “Special Diets Don’t Mean More Weight Loss.” Reuters newsfeed (via
www.yahoo.com), November 9, 2004. The research was reported in M. L. Dansinger, J. L. Gleason, and J. L. Griffith, et al., “One-Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk,” presented at the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions, November 12, 2003, in Orlando, FL.
2 R. B. Ervin, J. D. Wright, C. Y. Wang, and J. Kennedy-Stephenson, “Dietary Intake of Fats and Fatty Acids for the United States Population: 1999-2000,”
Advance Data 348 (November 8, 2004): 1-6.
3 B. R. Hammond Jr., E. J. Johnson, R. M. Russell, N. I. Krinsky, K. J. Yeum, R. B. Edwards, and D. M. Snodderly, “Dietary Modification of Human Macular Pigment Density,”
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4 J. K. Campbell, K. Canene-Adams, B. L. Lindshield, T. W. Boileau, S. K. Clinton, and J. W. Erdman Jr., “Tomato Phytochemicals and Prostate Cancer Risk,”
The Journal of Nutrition 134, suppl. 12 (December 2004): 3486S-92S.
5 E. R. Miller III, R. Pastor-Barriuso, D. Dalal, R. A. Riemersma, L. J. Appel, and E. Guallar, “Meta-Analysis: High-Dosage Vitamin E Supplementation May Increase All-Cause Mortality,”
Annals of Internal Medicine 142, no. 1 (January 4, 2005): 37-46. Note: The authors of the paper acknowledge several limitations to their analysis, the most important of which is that the studies that involved very high doses of vitamin E were often very small, and were conducted on patients with chronic illnesses.
6 Katherine Tallmadge, “Eat Less, Live Longer?”
The Washington Post (May 19, 2004): F1.
CHAPTER 4
2 A. Salminen and K. Kaarniranta, “Insulin/IGF-1 Paradox of Aging: Regulation via AKT/IKK/NF-kappaB Signaling,”
Cellular Signalling (October 26, 2009).
3 J. A. Mattison, M. A. Lane, G. S. Roth, and D. K. Ingram, “Calorie Restriction in Rhesus Monkeys,”
Experimental Gerontology 38, nos. 1-2 (January-February 2003): 35-46.
4 R. L. Walford, D. Mock, R. Verdery, and T. MacCallum, “Calorie Restriction in Biosphere 2: Alterations in Physiologic, Hematologic, Hormonal, and Biochemical Parameters in Humans Restricted for a 2-Year Period,”
The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 57, no. 6 (June 2002): B211-24; L. M. Redman, C. K. Martin, D. A. Williamson, and E. Ravussin, “Effect of Caloric Restriction in Non-Obese Humans on Physiological, Psychological and Behavioral Outcomes,”
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Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 299, no. 1 (February 5, 2009): 129-36.
5 W. R. Pendergrass, P. E. Penn, J. Li, and N. S. Wolf, “Age-Related Telomere Shortening in Lens Epithelium From Old Rats Is Slowed by Caloric Restriction,”
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6 While there are plenty of reasons to keep your fasting glucose levels low, and although the glycemic theory of aging is intuitively appealing, one recent study suggests that glucose may actually be a less important part of the CR effect than previously thought. The study compared four groups of mice, one with a gene causing altered glucose levels, placed on CR; another with that same gene but not placed on CR; and then two groups without the gene, again one group on CR, one not. Survival was associated with degree of CR, not with circulating glucose levels. However, this was only one study, as of yet not repeated. See R. McCarter, W. Mejia, Y. Ikeno, V. Monnier, K. Kewitt, M. Gibbs, A. McMahan, and R. Strong, “Plasma Glucose and the Action of Calorie Restriction on Aging,”
The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 62, no. 10 (October 2007): 1059-70.
7 M. Barbieri, M. R. Rizzo, D. Manzella, R. Grella, E. Ragno, M. Carbonella, A. M. Abbatecola, and G. Paolisso, “Glucose Regulation and Oxidative Stress in Healthy Centenarians,”
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8 N. Libina, J. Berman, and C. Kenyon, “Tissue-Specific Activities of
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10 M. Ristow, K. Zarse, A. Oberbach, N. Klöting, M. Birringer, M. Kiehntopf, M. Stumvoll, C.R. Kahn, and M. Blüher, “Antioxidants Prevent Health-Promoting Effects of Physical Exercise in Humans,”
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12 S. X. Cao, J. M. Dhahbi, P. L. Mote, and S. R. Spindler, “Genomic Profiling of Short- and Long-Term Caloric Restriction Effects in the Liver of Aging Mice,”
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13 R. J. Colman, T. M. Beasley, D. B. Allison, and R. Weindruch, “Attenuation of Sarcopenia By Dietary Restriction in Rhesus Monkeys,”
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14 R. J. Colman, R. M. Anderson, S. C. Johnson, E. K. Kastman, K. J. Kosmatka, T. M. Beasley, D. B. Allison, C. Cruzen, H. A. Simmons, J. W. Kemnitz, and R. Weindruch, “Caloric Restriction Delays Disease Onset and Mortality in Rhesus Monkeys,”
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15 N. L. Bodkin, T. M. Alexander, H. K. Ortmeyer, E. Johnson, and B. C. Hansen, “Mortality and Morbidity in Laboratory-Maintained Rhesus Monkeys and Effects of Long-Term Dietary Restriction,”
The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58, no. 3 (March 2003): 212-19.
17 T. E. Meyer, S. J. Kovács, A. A. Ehsani, S. Klein, J. O. Holloszy, and L. Fontana, “Long-Term Caloric Restriction Ameliorates the Decline in Diastolic Function in Humans,”
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18 M. M. Riordan, E. P. Weiss, T. E. Meyer, A. A. Ehsani, S. B. Racette, D. T. Villareal, L. Fontana, J. O. Holloszy, and S. J. Kovács, “The Effects of Caloric Restriction and Exercise-Induced Weight Loss on Left Ventricular Diastolic Function,”
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19 T. Hofer, L. Fontana, S. D. Anton, E. P. Weiss, D. Villareal, B. Malayappan, and C. Leeuwenburgh, “Long-Term Effects of Caloric Restriction or Exercise on DNA and RNA Oxidation Levels in White Blood Cells and Urine in Humans,”
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20 J. O. Holloszy, and L. Fontana, “Caloric Restriction in Humans,”
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21 L. Fontana, E. P. Weiss, D. T. Villareal, S. Klein, and J. O. Holloszy, “Long-Term Effects of Calorie or Protein Restriction on Serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 Concentration in Humans,”
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23 J. G. Wood, B. Rogina, S. Lavu, K. Howitz, S. L. Helfand, M. Tatar, and D. Sinclair, “Sirtuin Activators Mimic Caloric Restriction and Delay Aging in Metazoans,”
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24 M. Kaeberlein, T. McDonagh, B. Heltweg, J. Hixon, E. A. West-man, S. Caldwell, A. Napper, R. Curtis, P. S. Distefano, S. Fields, A. Bedalov, and B. K. Kennedy, “Substrate Specific Activation of Sirtuins by Resveratrol,”
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25 J. A. Baur, K. J. Pearson, N. L. Price, H. A. Jamieson, C. Lerin, A. Kalra, V. V. Prabhu, J. S. Allard, G. Lopez-Lluch, K. Lewis, P. J. Pistell, S. Poosala, K. G. Becker, O. Boss, D. Gwinn, M. Wang, S. Ramaswamy, K. W. Fishbein, R. G. Spencer, E. G. Lakatta, D. Le Couteur, R. J. Shaw, P. Navas, P. Puigserver, D. K. Ingram, R. de Cabo, and D. A. Sinclair, “Resveratrol Improves Health and Survival of Mice on a High-Calorie Diet,”
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26 J. L. Barger, T. Kayo, J. M. Vann, E. B. Arias, J. Wang, T. A. Hacker, Y. Wang, D. Raederstorff, J. D. Morrow, C. Leeuwenburgh, D. B. Allison, K. W. Saupe, G. D. Cartee, R. Weindruch, and T. A. Prolla, “A Low Dose of Dietary Resveratrol Partially Mimics Caloric Restriction and Retards Aging Parameters in Mice,”
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CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER 6
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2 T. E. Meyer, S. J. Kovacs, A. A. Ehsani, S. Klein, J. O. Holloszy, and L. Fontana, “Long-Term Caloric Restriction Ameliorates the Decline in Diastolic Function in Humans,”
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3 R. Kalani, S. Judge, C. Carter, M. Pahor, and C. Leeuwenburgh, “Effects of Caloric Restriction and Exercise on Age-Related, Chronic Inflammation Assessed by C-Reactive Protein and Interleukin-6,”
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4 L. K. Heilbronn, L. de Jonge, M. I. Frisard, J. P. DeLany, D. E. Larson-Meyer, J. Rood, T. Nguyen, C. K. Martin, J. Volaufova, M. M. Most, F. L. Greenway, S. R. Smith, W. A. Deutsch, D. A. Williamson, and E. Ravussin, “Effect of 6-Month Calorie Restriction on Biomarkers of Longevity, Metabolic Adaptation, and Oxidative Stress in Overweight Individuals,”
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5 S. J. Colcombe, A. F. Kramer, E. McAuley, K. I. Erickson, and P. Scalf, “Neurocognitive Aging and Cardiovascular Fitness: Recent Findings and Future Directions,”
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