3. AN ERA OF EXPERIMENTATION
NEW TECHNOLOGY LAID THE GROUNDWORK FOR MODERN PISTOLS AND REVOLVERS AND INTRODUCED FEARS ABOUT GUNS AND CRIME.
During the Thirty Years’ War among European powers, King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was killed in battle in 1632 by Catholic imperial forces using wheellock pistols.
The Arrival of the Wheellock and Flintlock
NEW IGNITION-AND-FIRING DEVICES MADE GUNS MORE PORTABLE AND PAVED THE WAY FOR PISTOLS AND REVOLVERS.
MARTIAL WHEELLOCK RIFLE
Country: France
Date: circa 1560
Barrel Length: 31in
Caliber: .45
Wheellocks were used by France, Spain, and England in their colonies.
The 16th century marked an inflection point in the development of firearms, thanks to a new generation of ignition-and-firing devices and the introduction of smaller, easier to carry weapons.
Until that time, the predominant lighting-and-shooting mechanism for muskets was the matchlock, which used a smoldering cord and priming powder. The guns were sturdy and simple to operate, but had limitations: The cord and powder were vulnerable to wind and rain; the burning cord alerted targets to the location of the gunman; and the complicated loading and firing process meant swift-moving cavalry couldn’t rely on them. As the 1500s progressed, gunsmiths began experimenting with a new device, the wheellock, which ignited the powder internally without a match cord.
The change meant less effort was required to load and conceal guns and that they were available to fire at a moment’s notice. The new technology also laid the groundwork for modern handguns—pistols and revolvers—and introduced new fears about the use of guns in crime and political assassination.
The Da Vinci Codex
Some scholars attribute the essential idea for the wheellock to Leonardo da Vinci, the Renaissance polymath who kept detailed notebooks of his ideas and inventions. There are drawings of what looks like a wheellock device for a gun in Leonardo’s Codex Atlanticus, a 12-volume work assembled in the 16th century that set out the inventor’s ideas on astronomy, hydraulics, musical instruments, and more. Other historians trace the invention of the wheellock to an anonymous German craftsman whose mechanism appeared in a volume published in 1505. The German hypothesis suggests that the “Loffelholz Drawings,” a collection of designs of uncertain provenance, may contain ideas that predate those of Leonardo.
Whoever deserves credit—and in all likelihood it should be shared—the earliest wheellocks seem to have been inspired by the clever notion of attaching a tinder lighter to the side of a musket to provide a means of igniting the gun’s powder supply. (Imagine a rudimentary cigarette lighter or the utility lighter used to start a backyard grill.) The key components were a hammerlike piece known as the “dog” or “dog’s head” that held a piece of iron pyrite and a spring-loaded steel wheel.
In preparation to fire, the shooter wound the wheel with a key, or “spanner,” putting tension on the spring. When the trigger was pulled, the wheel released, struck the iron pyrite and generated a shower of sparks. The trigger pull simultaneously opened the pan holding the priming powder, which when lit sent a flash through a touchhole on the side of the gun barrel. When the main powder charge in the breech ignited, gases were released that propelled the bullet.
The design evolution helped shift conflict on the battlefield. The new guns, albeit expensive to produce, were portable, which made it feasible to arm a cavalry unit. By the 1520s, designers were focusing on the wheellock and creating smaller guns—pistols—that could be operated easily with one hand.
Since each wheellock weapon could be fired only once before requiring an elaborate reloading procedure, well-equipped cavalry members began to carry two pistols. Some also added a smaller, more manageable version of the musket known as a “carbine.” So armed, a horseman could get off three shots in quick succession, making him a far more lethal threat than ever before.
ARMS AND THE RENAISSANCE MAN
Leonardo da Vinci's 1481 design for a multibarreled cannon sought to overcome the slow rate of fire of weapons of the era.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) recorded many ideas for improving weaponry, though it would be centuries before engineering technology would catch up with his vision. Field cannon of the era, for example, were difficult to reload, and there was a lag between blasts. Leonardo suggested a triple-barreled artillery piece where each barrel would be loaded separately, but all three fired simultaneously. In the 20th century, designers included multibarrel weapons in warships, military airplanes, and rocket launchers.
Similarly, Leonardo’s idea for an armored car—one that could move in any direction and bristled with powerful weaponry—anticipated the modern tank. Leonardo imagined his machine would be powered by eight men inside the car who would turn cranks to rotate the wheels. He also considered using horses to make his armored car move but dropped the idea because the animals would be difficult to control within the vehicle.
AN EVOLUTIONARY ERA
As handguns became smaller, they played a larger role on the battlefield.
1495 Leonardo da Vinci included what might be the earliest sketches of a wheellock ignition device in his Codex Atlanticus, a compilation of his ideas and sketches.
1517 Fearing that the spread of wheellock pistols would lead to crime, Austrian emperor Maximilian I decreed what are thought to be among the earliest gun-control laws.
1560s The Northern European snaphance gun lock debuted. It was simpler and more reliable than the traditional wheellock.
1584 William, Prince of Orange, was assassinated with a flintlock pistol, underscoring how smaller, concealable weapons could enable crime.
1632 Protestant King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was killed by Imperial Catholic forces using wheellock pistols during the Thirty Years’ War among European powers.
Wheellock Long Guns
WITH ORNATE DECORATIONS, THESE LONG GUNS SAW ONLY LIMITED USE AS MILITARY WEAPONS.
TSCHINKE WHEELLOCK RIFLE
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1630
Barrel Length: 37in
Caliber: .33
The lock on this rifle is distinguished by its external wheel and mainspring.
HUNTING RIFLE
Country: Germany
Date: mid 17th century
Barrel Length: 32 3/4in
The walnut stock is decorated with inlaid silver wire and appliqué.
WHEELLOCK SPORTING GUN
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1620
Barrel length:: 46 1/2in
Caliber: .50
The wheellock was an internal ignition system that protected the gunpowder from weather conditions. A steel wheel rotated against a sliver of iron pyrite to produce sparks which flashed through a touchhole to light the main gunpowder charge. Sixteenth and 17th century wheellock long guns, used primarily for hunting, had barrels that could exceed 40 inches, allowing the powder charge to burn completely and provide greater propulsion and accuracy. Most of these weapons were smoothbore muzzle-loaders.
The Handgun Makes Its Debut
EARLY PISTOLS, WHICH WERE EASIER TO SHOOT WHILE ON THE MOVE, WERE POPULAR WITH BOTH CAVALRY UNITS AND OUTLAWS.
WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Country: Italy
Date: circa 1635
Barrel Length: 10 1/5in
Caliber: .525
Giovanni Battista Francino, who belonged to a distinguished gunsmith family in Brescia, Italy, made this 1 pound, 11 ounce pistol.
WHEELLOCK HOLSTER PISTOL
Country: France
Date: circa 1615
Barrel Length: 24in
Caliber: .350
The top of the barrel is engraved with the motto “A good heart against bad fortune.”
The pistol, a term likely derived from the Italian gunmaking center of Pistoia, combined wheellock technology with a short barrel and downward-angled grip that facilitated aiming while on the move. Though wheellock pistols and carbines were generally too expensive to be manufactured in sufficient numbers for ordinary infantry, they became the weapons of choice for elite members of the cavalry and prized possessions of the wealthy.
The new guns’ ornamentation added to their allure. Some were inlaid with mother-of-pearl and steel-wire scrollwork, while others were designed with large round pommels at the base of the grip, a decorative flourish that made the weapon easier to pull out of a coat pocket or saddle holster, where they were carried by mounted troops and civilian owners.
The smaller, more concealable guns inadvertently empowered another category of armed men. Bandits, highwaymen, and political assassins adopted the pistol, which was easily hidden beneath a cloak. In 1584, an assassin used a wheellock pistol to shoot Dutch leader William the Silent in one of the first political killings with a handgun.
Historians associate the emerging threat of gun crimes in the 16th century to the first generation of what we today refer to as gun-control laws. Emperor Maximilian I, for example, declared restrictions on carrying wheellock weapons in Austria in 1517. In later years, similar laws spread throughout the Holy Roman Empire, and several Italian states adopted curbs by the 1530s.
Wheellock Handguns
THE FIRST TRUE HANDGUNS TAKE THEIR PLACE NEXT TO BULKIER MUSKETS.
WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Origin: probably Dutch
Date: circa 1550
Barrel Length: 23in
Caliber: .40
Gold Damascus-style decoration on the top of the barrel suggests the work of Damianus de Nerve or Diego de Caias.
WHEELLOCK HOLSTER PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1580
Barrel Length: 12in
Caliber: .550
The lock was designed by Nuremberg gunsmith Wolf Stopler.
DUCK’S FOOT PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1580
Main Barrel: 11in
Caliber: .600
A volley of bullets could hit multiple opponents with the pull of a single trigger.
HOLSTER PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: 1610
Barrel length: 18in
Caliber: .580
Sixteenth century wheel-lock designs allowed guns to be carried primed and ready to fire, giving rise to a weapon that could be used with one hand. Cavalrymen had a weapon they could fire from horseback without dismounting. But outlaws saw the benefit of a concealable firearm, and European jurisdictions enacted bans on handguns as an anticrime measure—the forerunner of modern gun control.
Wheellock Combination Weapons
MAKERS CREATED DUAL-PURPOSE WEAPONS WITH MACE, AXE, MILITARY FORK, HALBERD AND OTHER FEATURES.
COMBINED HALBERD AND DOUBLE-BARRELLED PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1590
Barrel Length: 27 1/4in
Bore: .35
A combined spear, axe, and gun make this weapon a triple threat. The hook on the right could grasp a mounted enemy.
MILITARY FORK AND WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1590
Caliber: .35
The upper portion of the long, narrow handle, also called a haft, is inlaid with masks and flowers made from stag antlers.
MACE AND WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1560
Length: 22 7/10in
Weight: 3 1/4 lb
The pistol barrel forms the shaft of the mace; the six-point flange features cloverleaf cutouts.
COMBINATION DAGGER AND WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1575–1600
Length: 19in
Caliber: .29
This 1 pound, 11 ounce weapon is made of steel and wood.
COMBINED AXE AND WHEELLOCK PISTOL
Origin: Germany or Iberia
Date: early 17th century
Overall Length: 21 4/5in
Bore: .31
There are five barrels embedded in the axe head; they are concealed by a hinged cover.
As the 16th century progressed, gunmakers began combining wheellock-pistol technology with conventional weaponry. In case the pistol misfired, the soldier could resort to one of the weapon’s other functions—for example, pulling a rider off his steed with a handle. Though the multipurpose weapons were often clumsy and difficult to use, they were prized as curiosities.
The Flintlock Revolution
EUROPEAN DESIGNERS USED A STEEL STRIKING STONE TO CREATE SPARKS AND STREAMLINE GUNMAKING.
MODEL 1787 FLINTLOCK MUZZLE-LOADING CARBINE
Country: Germany
Date: circa 1790
Barrel Length: 27in
FLINTLOCK BLUNDERBUSS
Country: Great Britain
Date: 1755–1760
Barrel Length: 12 1/2in
This muzzle-loading flintlock weighed 5 pounds, 13 ounces. The flared barrel opening was 1 1/6 inches.
British Duck Foot Pistol
Flintlock devices were used well into the 18th century in combination with a variety of eccentric pistol designs, none more memorable than the “duck foot.” With four barrels, the weapon could fire a quartet of bullets simultaneously, if not necessarily accurately. Prison wardens and ship captains brandished the weapons to deter unruly prisoners or sailors. Only a limited number of duck foot pistols were ever made, and those that remain have become prized collectors’ items.
By the late 16th century, gunsmiths in northern Europe were devising improved methods of generating sparks to ignite priming powder. The main advance involved using hardened steel against natural flint.
The first of these was the “snaphance,” or “snaphaunce” (from the Dutch word for “pecking bird”), which appeared in the 1560s. In this simpler and more reliable variation of a gun lock, the jaws of a spring-loaded “cock” holding a fragment of flint moved forward at the pull of the trigger and struck a piece of steel, creating sparks that lit powder in the priming pan. If a shot was successful, the fire ignited the main powder load in the breech and the bullet was released. If the process failed and the bullet didn’t launch, it was labeled “a flash in the pan,” a phrase that later came to suggest noise or pyrotechnics with little or no lasting effect.
Seizing on the promise of flint, gunsmiths in France and elsewhere in Europe began to develop what would become known as the flintlock. In this streamlined design, the pan cover and steel-striking piece were combined into a single component and the overall number of gun parts were reduced to fewer than 20—half as many as the wheellock. In time, gunsmiths also moved the mechanical striking parts to the interior of the lock, where they were less exposed to the elements.
The flintlock coexisted for centuries with the more entrenched matchlock and wheellock guns. Early iterations can be seen in paintings of the 1620s by the Flemish Baroque artist Peter Paul Rubens, and flintlocks saw action during the English Civil War (1642–1651). They continued to catch on with military men and others, and by the 18th century, flintlock technology was widely embraced.
The fact that the flintlock devices could be attached to most any type of weapon and that they were moderately priced made them popular with Europeans and in European colonial territories. They also attracted interest from nonaristocrats: Hunters began to equip long guns with flintlock firing mechanisms, and duelists clashing over perceived slights used matched pairs of decorated flintlock pistols to settle scores.
While most flintlocks continued to be muzzle loaded, by the 1700s some gunsmiths made pistols loaded via the breech. The user unscrewed the barrel and inserted powder and ball at the breech, a process that sounds arduous but actually proved more efficient than the traditional use of a ramrod via the muzzle. A skilled gunman could fire several rounds in a minute with a breech-loading firearm.
Distinctive Styles and Models
During this era, the trade of gunsmith flourished, and craftsmen adorned weapons with ornamental carvings, silver mountings, engravings, and decorative inlays. By the late 18th century, sophisticated gun-smiths in Britain, the American colonies, and France had developed distinctive styles and models.
John Waters of Birmingham, for example, produced a famous blunderbuss pistol (from the Dutch donderbus, or “thunder gun”) that fired batches of shot, or small lead balls, from a flared muzzle. The wide mouth of the barrel allowed the shot to spread in flight, increasing the chances of hitting one or more targets. Below the brass barrel, Waters attached a spring-loaded blade that snapped out upon the pull of a secondary trigger. The miniature bayonet allowed the pistol user to close in for the kill if his initial shot didn’t finish the job.
Craftsmen with London’s Griffin & Tow made a pistol popular during the reign of Queen Anne (1665–1714) that had a tapered barrel and two triggers, one for each of the gun’s locks. A small version of the weapon was known as a “muff pistol,” suggesting that it could be concealed in the hand warmer of a lady fearing attack, or perhaps planning to commit one herself. Queen Anne–style pistols remained popular in the United Kingdom for the rest of the 18th century.
In the American colonies, a Scottish immigrant named James Hunter produced the first colonial-manufactured military pistol at the Rappahannock Forge in Virginia. Hunter’s design imitated one used by the British Light Dragoons. The .69-caliber pistol had a nine-inch barrel and an elegant brass-capped pommel. Soldiers and sailors continued to use flintlock pistols, carbines, and muskets through the 1830s.
THE FLINTLOCK ASSASSIN
William I, Prince of Orange (1533–1584), was also known as William the Silent. He overcame his famous reticence to serve as leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish Hapsburgs. That rebellion in turn led to the formation of the Dutch Republic in 1648.
William met an untimely end at the hand of a Burgundian named Balthasar Gerard, who regarded the prince as a traitor to King Philip II of Spain and to the Catholic Church. To execute his plot, Gerard engaged in an elaborate multiyear deception. After ingratiating himself with William, Gerard acquired a pair of flintlock pistols and shot his quarry dead in Delft in July 1584. Caught and imprisoned, Gerard met an even worse fate: live quartering and disembowelment, the removal of his heart, and separation of his head from his neck.
Early Flintlock Guns
MOVING ON FROM THE WHEELLOCK.
With early flintlocks, gunmakers streamlined traditional design, combining the pan cover and steel-striking piece into a single component and reducing the overall number of gun parts to fewer than 20—half as many as the wheellock. The term flintlock refers both to the ignition mechanism itself and to any firearm that incorporates the mechanism into its design.
FLINTLOCK REPEATING GUN
Country: Spain
Date: 1739
Barrel Length: 32 1/5in
Caliber: .635
FLINTLOCK FOWLING PIECE
Country: Spain
Date: circa 1790
Barrel Length: 42 1/4in
Caliber .66
SHORT LAND MUSKET
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1785
Barrel Length: 41 3/10in
Caliber: .750
FLINTLOCK GUN
Country: Italy
Date: circa 1696
Barrel Length: 42 3/5in
Caliber: .675
This 7 pound, 6 ounce flintlock was made in Florence by Michele Lorenzoni.
FLINTLOCK OF KING FREDERICK WILLIAM II
Country: Prussia
Date: circa 1790
Barrel Length: 11 1/2in
Later Flintlock Guns
THE FLINTLOCK REMAINED IN USE FOR MORE THAN TWO CENTURIES.
NEW LAND FLINTLOCK
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1811
Barrel Length: 39 1/5in
Caliber: .750
A muzzle-loading military musket
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE’S SPORTING GUN
Country: France
Date: 1809
Barrel Length: 30in
BAKER CAVALRY CARBINE
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1827
Barrel Length: 19 4/5in
Caliber: .62
The Prince of Wales began supplying his regiment with these carbines in 1803.
FLINTLOCK MILITARY CARBINE
Country: France
Date: 1815
Barrel Length: 32 1/4in
Caliber: .71
This flintlock was likely used in Napolean’s Hundred Days campaign.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the flintlock began replacing earlier firearm-ignition technology. Gunmakers produced the blunderbuss, flintlock long gun, and the smoothbore musket. The guns fired lead shot and were favored as defensive weapons by coachmen, innkeepers, and merchants.
Dueling Pistols
FAMOUS MAKERS PRODUCED FIREARMS IN CASED PAIRS.
PERCUSSION PISTOLS
Country: Great Britain
Date: 1775–1885
Length: 14 1/2in
These silver-mounted pistols came with a leather powder flask and turnscrew.
SAW-HANDLE PISTOL
Country: Great Britain
Date: 1810–1815
Barrel Length: 9in
FLINTLOCK PISTOLS
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1815
Length: 14 7/8in
The locks are engraved with border ornament and sprays of foliage.
As antagonists moved from swords to pistols to settle scores in the 18th century, gunmakers began designing more accurate dueling pistols, often in cased pairs. Some of the era’s best known weapon designers, such as Londoners Robert Wogdon and brothers John and Joseph Manton, produced dueling pistols.
Blunderbusses and Carbines
THESE WEAPONS WERE EARLY VERSIONS OF THE SHOTGUN.
FLINTLOCK MILITARY BLUNDERBUSS
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1781
The blunderbuss got its name from the Dutch term donderbus, meaning “thunder box” or “thunder gun.”
FLINTLOCK BREECH-LOADING CARBINE
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1810
Barrel Length: 20 1/5in
Bore: .66
Breech-loading guns reduced reloading time by eliminating the need to push powder and projectiles down the barrel.
FLINTLOCK BLUNDERBUSS
Country: Great Britain
Date: circa 1790
Barrel Length: 13 7/10in
This brass-barrel blunderbuss features a top-mounted bayonet.
FLINTLOCK MUZZLE-LOADER
Origin: Netherlands
Date: 1810
Bore: .51
Renowned gunmaker Guillaume Berleur most likely made this weapon for Napoleon’s army.
The blunderbuss flintlock was muzzle loaded with a large caliber to contain many balls or slugs. The gun was intended to be fired at short range. The flintlock carbine was usually smaller and lighter than a military musket. Some were intended for use by cavalry.
European Flintlock Hunting Long Guns
GERMAN, BRITISH, AND ITALIAN CRAFTSMEN WERE KNOWN FOR THEIR ENGRAVING WORK.
FLINTLOCK SPORTING GUN
Country: France
Date: circa 1802
Barrel Length: 38 1/4in
Caliber: .638
Decorated with hunting scenes and the king’s portrait, this silver-mounted flintlock was a gift to Spain’s King Charles IV from the French government.
FLINTLOCK SPORTING GUN
Country: Germany
Date: 1646
Barrel Length: 44in
Bore: .39
The full stock of this hunting gun is lavishly inlaid with yellow-stained staghorn designs.
FLINTLOCK SPORTING GUN
Country: France
Date: circa 1675
Barrel Length: 46 1/2in
Caliber: .625
The Marquis de Croissy is said to have presented this exquisite firearm to the 7th Earl of Pembroke as a wedding gift in 1675.
By the start of the 18th century, designers were not only producing visually arresting guns, they had developed flintlocks which could hit moving targets, including birds in flight, because the firing mechanism was faster.
Asia Flintlock Guns
JAPAN, INDIA AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE PRODUCED EXTRAORDINARILY BEAUTIFUL GUNS.
FLINTLOCK GUN
Country: India
Date: circa 1780
Barrel Length: 39 3/4in
Caliber: .690
A ribbon pattern runs the length of the browned barrel, which is octagonal at the breech.
FLINTLOCK RIFLE
Origin: India
Date: circa 1835
Barrel Length: 42 3/4in
Caliber: .55
The Damascus-steel barrel has a gilt muzzle in the shape of a dragon’s head with eyes set with rubies and emeralds.
FLINTLOCK RIFLE
Country: Turkey
Date: 19th century
Turkish rifles of this period were profusely inlaid with gold, silver, and bands of colored ivory.
Though firearms first appeared in Japan in the 1200s, it took the introduction of European models in the 1600s to popularize them. The first use of firearms in the Ottoman Empire dates to at least the early 15th century. Gunmaking flourished across Asia in the 1700s and 1800s.