Paul speaks in my text [Acts 20:24] of finishing his course. We are all on a journey, travelling into another world.1
When discussing the relationship between African Americans and Paul’s letters, one often hears the account of Howard Thurman and his grandmother, Nancy Ambrose. The following excerpt from Thurman’s Jesus and the Disinherited merits full citation:
During much of my boyhood I was cared for by my grandmother, who was born a slave and lived until the Civil War on a plantation near Madison, Florida. My regular chore was to do all of the readings for my grandmother—she could neither read nor write. Two or three times a week I read the Bible aloud to her. I was deeply impressed by the fact that she was most particular about the choice of Scripture. For instance, I might read many of the more devotional Psalms, some of Isaiah, the Gospels again and again. But the Pauline epistles, never—except, at long intervals, the thirteenth chapter of First Corinthians. My curiosity knew no bounds, but we did not question her about anything.
When I was older and was half through college, I chanced to be spending a few days at home near the end of summer vacation. With a feeling of great temerity I asked her one day why it was that she would not let me read any of the Pauline letters. What she told me I shall never forget. “During the days of slavery,” she said, “the master’s minister would occasionally hold services for the slaves. Old man McGhee was so mean that he would not let a Negro minister preach to his slaves. Always the white minister used as his text something from Paul. At least three or four times a year he used as a text: ‘Slaves, be obedient to them that are your masters, as unto Christ.’ Then he would go on to show how it was God’s will that we were slaves, and how, if we were good and happy slaves, God would bless us. I promised my Maker that if I ever learned to read and if freedom ever came, I would not read that part of the Bible.”2
This poignant selection illustrates how slaveholders and white ministers often used Paul’s words to justify the cruel practice of enslaving African Americans. In their atrocious misappropriation, Scripture sanctioned slavery for blacks and linked their identity to that of chattel. The narrative also demonstrates some blacks’ rejection of Paul because of the way whites preached and interpreted his texts. Thurman’s grandmother echoed the words of the minister: “It was God’s will that we were slaves.” How could the God of the Bible sanction such atrocity? And how could African Americans utilize Paul to argue against such interpretive postures? This book aims to explore the complicated relationship that African Americans have with the apostle and to reveal and uncover the ways in which blacks did employ Paul to resist and protest the readings exemplified by the white minister in Nancy Ambrose’s powerful account. The white minister in this narrative is by no means an anomaly; such sermonic interpretations were endemic to the culture and indicative of the sentiments of the time. This reality makes it all the more astonishing that many blacks utilized Paul in their own work, repossessing and reappropriating him as a voice for liberation and freedom. The surprisingly provocative and powerful ways in which African Americans “rescue” Paul from the clutches of white supremacy speak in profound ways to the power of black faith, the ability of black resilience, and the fortitude of black intelligentsia.
The topic of this monograph is African American Pauline hermeneutics, and upon first glance the nomenclature raises a couple of issues. First, what is hermeneutics and what does that word signify? Second, what does it mean to assert that African Americans have particular hermeneutics when reading Paul? The term “hermeneutics” derives from the Greek word hermeneus, which denotes an interpreter or explicator.3 The Greek god Hermes (Roman god Mercury) was believed to be the interpreter or messenger of the gods, carrying forth to humans the communications and mysteries from the divines of Olympus.4 David Jasper characterizes Hermes’s role in the following way: “With his winged sandals Hermes was able to bridge the gap between the divine and human realms, putting into words those mysteries which were beyond the capacity of human utterance. Without such a messenger how would these two realms communicate with each other, and how would the gap in the understanding between the gods and humankind be overcome? His task was to bridge this gap and to make that which seems unintelligible into something meaningful and clear to the human ear.”5
Jasper’s comments regarding Hermes’s duties resonate well with the African American hermeneutics encountered in this monograph. In their essays, sermons, autobiographies, and conversion stories, the interpreters discussed in this book see themselves as divine mouthpieces bridging the gap between the divine and the human, uttering interpretations of Paul that defy the prevalent oppressive interpretive trajectories of the apostle as exemplified by the “master’s minister” in Nancy Ambrose’s narrative. For these interpreters, a gap in understanding Paul existed, and they sought to rectify this reality in their speeches, in their petitions, and in their work overall. Rather than messengers of the gods of Olympus, however, they were messengers of the God of the Bible, the God that spoke through Paul and who now spoke through them, providing them with true understandings of the apostle that were to be shared with the world. Hermeneutics, then, for the purposes of the present discussion, can be defined as the art of interpretation, an interpretive posture or perspective.6
Regarding the second question, what it means to assert that African Americans have particular hermeneutics when reading Paul, the subject matter assumes that African Americans have different and unique ways of reading and interpreting Paul and his writings. African Americans offered ways of reading Paul that were historically counter to the way many white Americans read the apostle. Nancy Ambrose’s story illuminates the intersections of the experiences of chattel slavery, the resulting suppression and dehumanization of African Americans, and how such realities shape the way African Americans read, interpret, and respond to Paul. The “distinct Black experience in America”7 affects black interpretations of the apostle, and so black Pauline hermeneutics address to a great extent “the Black man’s condition, and [are] committed to changing that condition.”8 Thus, in many instances African American Pauline hermeneutics are resistance or protest hermeneutics in which blacks employ Paul to protest the oppressive structures of society and to resist whites’ interpretations of the apostle. To be sure, African American history informs blacks’ interpretive postures when reading Pauline Scriptures.
In a true sense, African American Pauline hermeneutics are intricately tied to Geschichte, or history. The two cannot be divorced. How African Americans read Paul is influenced by how Paul was read and presented to them in the past. The dominant white presentation of the apostle to blacks included preaching the repeated sermon topic of “Slaves, obey your masters” from select Pauline passages by white ministers. Accordingly, the unethical behavior of whites who venerated and read Paul presented a faulty portrait of the apostle to the enslaved Africans. Thus, the actions of slaveholders and their ministers shaped African American interpretations of Paul, for many blacks saw the hypocrisy in the behavior of whites who loved and preached the apostle. For example, white preachers were often giving admonitions not to steal. Yet enslaved Africans argued that they themselves were stolen property, and so to them such words dripped with hypocrisy. Many black interpreters countered what they considered to be hypocritical depictions by choosing to act and react in more faithful ways to the apostle’s words.
It is important to note, however, that the African American community is not monolithic by any means. There is no one way that African Americans interpret and understand Paul; hence, the pluralization of “hermeneutics” in the topic under discussion. The Weltanschauung (worldview) of African Americans is diverse and multivalent, and Paul plays a significant role in African American reflection in the midst of all its diversity. African American Pauline hermeneutics—that is, the use and interpretation of Pauline Scripture by blacks—have impacted the religious thought and experience of many African Americans and have been employed by them to resist oppression and to protest dehumanization. The ensuing exploration will examine the various interpretive lenses that blacks utilize to understand the apostle and to apply his words to their lives and circumstances. For example, in the narratives and autobiographies of the enslaved, readers will get a sense of these authors’ precarious existences and catch glimpses into how some enslaved Africans weave Paul’s writings into the fabric of their lives, how they weave him into their own stories, and how they weave him into their own contexts. In the depths of pain, sorrow, torture, and dehumanization, many African Americans reach for Paul’s words, seize his language to give language to their own voices, and take up his writings to give meaning to their own horrid stories. The subsequent discussion will allow us, by glimpsing their lives, to understand how Paul fits into their realities, how they fit into Paul’s story, and at the same time how they transform Pauline texts and make them their own.
Why does this book focus only on Paul and not on the use of Scripture in its entirety by African Americans? The letters of Paul played an enormous role in justifying slavery and promoting slavery as a Christian practice. Paul’s words were central to the debate between those who advocated slavery and those abolitionists who fought against slaveholding. Because his words were used to justify their enslavement, blacks have had a complex relationship with the apostle, with some choosing to reject this part of Scripture altogether and others deciding to read his words in a more liberative way. Even today this complicated relationship remains, and the apostle continues to have a great deal of influence in African American Christian communities.
Historically, many blacks felt connected to Paul and his writings, for they perceived in his words language that spoke to their own life circumstances, which enabled them to endure but also resist the status quo. African Americans engaged in a reclamation or resistance hermeneutic in which they reclaimed Paul for themselves in their fight and struggle against injustice and asserted their use of him in their resistance of racism. The enormous amount of attention black authors gave to Paul, as seen by the many citations and echoes of his work in their writings, underscores the pivotal place the apostle played in the debate about slavery as well as these authors’ own beliefs in his letters as Holy Scripture, which needed and called for their reflections and expositions. This combination of the massive number of references to Paul or his letters and blacks’ identification of these writings as sacred makes African American interpretations of Paul and his epistles significant resources for historical, religious, theological, and biblical conversations in contemporary discussions.
Exploring African American interpretations of Paul and his writings is a noteworthy undertaking both for what we can learn from these interpreters and because of the increase in reception history discussions in biblical scholarship. One of the tenets of Wirkungsgeschichte, or reception history, is that “biblical texts not only have their own particular backgrounds and settings but have also been received and interpreted, and have exerted influence or otherwise have had impact in countless religious, theological, and aesthetic settings.”9 The analysis of the interpretation of Paul and his influence among African Americans is an important aspect of the biblical reception project and will contribute greatly to this growing field of study. Thus, to extend Wirkungsgeschichte of Paul to African American interpreters is a necessary development in light of the historical presence of the apostle in black thought and reflection. Due to Paul’s towering presence in black writings, these compilations deserve substantial consideration and investigation. Moreover, this project is needed because, to date, no monograph has been devoted exclusively to analyzing the use of Paul’s letters among blacks with a historical, theological, and biblical focus. Such a project is important for documenting the intersection of black religious life with American religious life because black religious life and experience are deeply woven into the fabric of American religious life. If this issue is not examined, an important piece of American religious history will be ignored, since Paul’s words appear throughout history in various documents, essays, and narratives written by black Americans.
African Americans have been studying and utilizing the Bible for hundreds of years. Yet with the rather recent increase in the number of African Americans entering the academy to study Scripture in the guild, important volumes on black scriptural interpretation have been written and have extensively shaped the academic landscape of biblical studies. Charles Copher, one of the founders of African American biblical interpretation, established the African presence in the Bible perspective, and in the 1980s monographs by Renita Weems, Just a Sister Away: A Womanist Vision of Women’s Relationships in the Bible, and Cain Hope Felder, Troubling Biblical Waters: Race, Class, and Family, addressed biblical interpretation through black women’s experiences and black scriptural interpretation regarding the issues of race, class, and family, respectively.10 These three scholars’ groundbreaking works help set the course of subsequent black biblical interpretation. Stony the Road We Trod: African American Biblical Interpretation, published in 1991, consists of a collection of articles written by black scholars that reveal the wide variety of hermeneutical strategies utilized by African American biblical scholars as well as the emerging questions and issues specific to black scholars and the black church.11
In the beginning of the twenty-first century, several additional significant monographs appeared. In 2000, a notable massive tome entitled African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Structures was published.12 In this collection of essays, edited by Vincent Wimbush, a variety of scholars address the role of the Bible in African American culture and how blacks have utilized the Bible in diverse ways in different arenas of their lives, such as in music and literature. In 2003, Randall Bailey edited and published Yet with a Steady Beat: Contemporary U.S. Afrocentric Biblical Interpretation, which includes a collection of essays on scriptural interpretation and the many interpretive strategies employed by black biblical scholars at the turn of the century.13 Blackening of the Bible: The Aims of African-American Biblical Scholarship, by Michael Joseph Brown, published in 2004, provides a vital introduction to the field of black biblical interpretation, and Allen Callahan’s innovative project, The Talking Book: African Americans and the Bible, published in 2006, provides four themes that he believes shape African Americans’ experiences with Scripture: exile, exodus, Ethiopia, and Emmanuel.14 True to Our Native Land, another consequential volume, appeared in 2007. Edited by Brian Blount, Cain Hope Felder, Clarice J. Martin, and Emerson Powery, it is the first African American New Testament commentary, analyzing each New Testament book from an African American perspective.15 This substantial work includes a number of black scholars and interpretive postures, including womanist biblical hermeneutics. The Africana Bible, published in 2010, covers the Hebrew Bible, Pseudepigrapha, and apocryphal writings from African and African diasporic perspectives.16 Most recently, two additional, important monographs appeared. In The Genesis of Liberation: Biblical Interpretation in the Antebellum Narratives of the Enslaved, Emerson Powery and Rodney Sadler examine the ways in which enslaved Africans interpreted Scripture and the role of the Bible in the slave debate.17 And Stephanie Crowder explores maternity throughout the Old and New Testament through a womanist lens in When Momma Speaks: The Bible and Motherhood from a Womanist Perspective.18
Chapters, essays, and articles about African American interpretations of Paul and his letters appear in many of the works identified above, all of which focus more broadly on black scriptural interpretation. The present monograph is needed because most discussions of African Americans’ interpretations of Paul and his epistles occur within larger works on African American biblical hermeneutics. The focus on Paul is limited in these works by the structure and scope of the various projects. The current examination is indebted to the aforementioned studies and will interact with some of them at various points in the subsequent analysis.
Additionally, two monographs, written by two African American New Testament scholars, Brad Braxton and Love Sechrest, focus explicitly on Paul. In No Longer Slaves: Galatians and African American Experience, Braxton concentrates on liberating and empowering aspects of the Galatian text for black communities. Utilizing a reader-response methodology, he argues that Paul’s language in the letter centers on Christian unity in the midst of difference. Thus, Paul’s rejection of the need for gentile circumcision means that gentile identity continues and that in this new creation there is no “obliteration of difference but obliteration of dominance,”19 for unity does not mean sameness. Paul, then, affirms blackness in all its forms and at the same time rejects racial hierarchies and supremacy.
In her book A Former Jew: Paul and the Dialectics of Race, Love Sechrest looks at almost five thousand ancient Jewish and non-Jewish texts in regard to ethnic and racial identity. Using historical and literary methodologies, she presents an analysis of ancient understandings of race and ethnicity and how these perspectives shape Paul’s own understanding of race. One of her primary arguments is that Paul operates with a different understanding of “the nature of ethnic and racial identity” than what is found in modern discourse.20 She then brings the evidence of this research into conversation with modern understandings of race, contending that scholars often underestimate the “radical nature of the transformation of identity in Pauline thought.”21 In fact, the transformation of identity is so radical in Paul that he believes those who follow Christ “suspend the bonds of allegiance to their birth identity” and become part of a new race, that of Christian.22 The work of Braxton and Sechrest makes significant contributions to understanding Paul in terms of race and identity, particularly from the perspectives of two African American specialists in the New Testament field of Pauline studies.
The present analysis differs methodologically and in scope of content from Braxton, Sechrest, and all the works listed above, for none of these previous compositions provides a comprehensive study that traces a historical trajectory of black thought and reflection upon the apostle from the 1700s to the mid-twentieth century, as this project will do. This book (1) consists of a historical trajectory from the 1700s to the mid-twentieth century, (2) concentrates solely on African American Pauline hermeneutics, and therefore can be more in-depth in this regard, and (3) engages the use of Paul’s language in enslaved Africans’ conversion experiences. These previous significant studies contribute to the conversation about African American interpretations of Paul and lay the foundations for the subsequent work through their engagement of black biblical interpretation. Although building upon these works in a number of ways, the current study differs from them in method, focus, and scope.
The core question this study seeks to address is how African Americans have interpreted Paul and the Pauline epistles from the 1700s to the mid-twentieth century. Thus, this investigation will not present one correct reading of Paul from an African American perspective but rather will shed light on the many insights of black interpreters who read, preached, and studied Paul’s letters and will allow their voices and ideas to come to the forefront. This analysis, then, delineates African American interpretive postures to the apostle and his epistles on their own terms and in their own expressions as much as possible. Hence, the citation of primary texts is central to the present project, and so the reader will find extensive quotations from these primary sources in what follows. These citations are necessary for understanding these authors’ use of Paul, the Scriptures they cite and echo, and the portrait of Paul they paint in their own words. Moreover, these excerpts bear witness to the eloquence and sophisticated textures of these interpreters’ voices.
As will be observed repeatedly in this book, however, often these writers do not explain their interpretive processes or their hermeneutical decisions. In some cases, genre plays a role in the absence of this information, such as in the writing of petitions. Yet there are occasions in the African American literature where writers do explain how they interpret Paul’s letters and what their aims entail, and we will observe these hermeneutical considerations when they appear. Nonetheless, in many instances, because of the environment in which these writers lived and worked, they simply asserted their use of Paul with no exegetical or hermeneutical explanations of their interpretive processes. Reasons for these omissions range from the types of documents written, to the urgency of the moment in which they were written, to the danger of writers losing their lives if they did explain how they were interpreting Paul. One significant example of the latter is Jupiter Hammon, who preached to mixed audiences, consisting of both enslaved Africans and slaveholders, and so had to be careful about how he preached and interpreted Paul to his audiences. He often had to be clever enough in his preaching that blacks would understand the nuances of what he was saying while white slaveholders would miss his subtle calls for freedom and equality.23 Accordingly, in light of the variety of circumstances of the authors discussed in this book, another important aim of this work is to reveal the various portraits of Paul found within these authors’ texts and to showcase the multifaceted ways the apostle has been understood throughout the years in black communities in terms of their own historical locations, theological beliefs, and biblical interpretations.
The current analysis revolves around a central tenet that most of these authors raise in their Pauline hermeneutics, that is, the relationship between their rich, provocative, and defiant adoptions and adaptations of the apostle Paul and the way in which they understood his letters as sacred Scripture—as texts to be engaged, examined, and proclaimed as protests against evil and injustice. The sacredness of these letters mattered to these interpreters and provided the divine impetus to utilize the apostle to resist and protest injustice and oppression. Just as the sacredness of these letters mattered to these interpreters, these interpreters, in seeing themselves in Pauline Scripture, understood that they too mattered in God’s divine economy and that this understanding had ethical, social, and political implications.
The subsequent research demonstrates the overwhelmingly positive role that Paul plays in African American Pauline hermeneutics. Again and again we will see how black interpreters take up Paul’s voice and use him to protest and resist injustice. However, we will meet two interpreters who, in the vein of Howard Thurman’s grandmother, choose to resist Paul and Pauline Scripture. They, too, are a part of African American Pauline hermeneutics, for their rejection of him is based upon their interpretation of who he is and what he has meant for black communities throughout history. These figures notwithstanding, this monograph will focus primarily upon what is most common in African American autobiographies, essays, sermons, and petitions, that is, the positive adoption and adaptation of Paul and blacks’ use of his words in the protest tradition.
Many of the authors chosen for this monograph are thought provoking and subversive when it comes to the apostle Paul and his letters. They utilize his work to protest and resist white supremacy, slavery, the slave trade, black dehumanization, and male-centered readings that prohibit women preachers, and in doing so, they select Paul as a source to speak to black and black female identity in a positive way. These authors are representatives of their period regarding the types of subversive readings of Paul taking place in their historical contexts. Many engage in subversive ways of reading Paul that were revolutionary for their own time, place, and audience. Furthermore, many were significant personalities in American history working to effect change through their voices. The interpreters selected have written or dictated substantial prose works, either autobiographies, sermons, essays, conversion stories, or books, that facilitate a context in which to understand how they employ the apostle in their writings in a radical manner. Each work or person included is introduced with some brief historical information, if available, and selected material follows with interpretive analysis. If necessary, additional historical information may appear in order to add context to the work and or person discussed.
Not all the black hermeneuts that meet the above criteria are included in the following pages. As stated above, I have chosen representative figures of subversive readings of Paul. Numerous individuals and writings that interpret Paul in subversive ways, specifically in regard to racism against African Americans, have been omitted from detailed analysis due to space and time. As research for this project unfolded, it became clear that there simply was no way to include every author and every writing that employs Paul and his letters. Such omissions do not in any way reflect a lack of significance on their part. They do, however, represent, to this author’s mind, the vast amount of work yet to be done in African American Pauline hermeneutics. This monograph attempts to contribute to the overall conversation about Paul and African Americans and to illustrate the historical legacy of subversive Pauline hermeneutics by blacks as well as spur more interest and research in this field. This book can be thought of as an introductory volume to the field of African American Pauline hermeneutics.
The book proceeds in the following manner: chapter 1, “Early Eighteenth Century to Early Nineteenth Century,” begins by exploring the historical, biblical, and theological landscape of early America and continues by examining enslaved Africans’ petitions and analyzing their authors’ use of Paul in their government documents. The discussion then turns to early African American interpreters, Jupiter Hammon, Lemuel Haynes, John Jea, and David Walker, who in many ways forge the foundation for later black scriptural hermeneutics in their use of Paul to defy many of the oppressive interpretations of Paul occurring during this time. This chapter also analyzes the use of Paul by early black women preachers Jarena Lee and Zilpha Elaw, who, because of their gender and race, faced dangerous circumstances but risked their lives anyway to preach the gospel. Their important writings anticipate a long trajectory in viewing Paul as an ally to female preachers.
As the debates over slavery in this country became increasingly caustic and contentious, the stories of slavery from African Americans who were able to escape it became all the more critical because they informed the world of the horrors taking place in this practice. Chapter 2, “Mid-Nineteenth Century to Late Nineteenth Century,” discusses how such escapees from slavery, such as James Pennington and Harriet Jacobs, use Pauline language to tell their stories in profound ways. It also discusses Daniel Payne, a free black, who heads north because of the South’s slavocracy. In addition, during this time black women preachers like Maria Stewart and Julia Foote continue the traditions of Jarena Lee and Zilpha Elaw in employing Paul to sanction their right and call to preach.
Once slavery is abolished, African Americans are forced to reckon with its legacy in a variety of forms, including Jim Crow and segregation. In the group of writings discussed in chapter 3, “Late Nineteenth Century to Mid-Twentieth Century,” authors such as Howard Thurman and Albert Cleage speak candidly about their rejection of Paul because of his use in the slave debate, whereas others, like Reverdy Ransom, William Seymour, Charles Harrison Mason, Ida B. Robinson, and Martin Luther King Jr., employ him fervently to argue against racism, segregation, and lynching. Seymour, Mason, and Robinson also contend that Paul’s words about the Spirit can bring new life, healing, and racial unity. Paul was instrumental in Mason’s protest against war.
In chapter 4, “Pauline Language in Enslaved Conversion Experiences and Call Narratives,” accounts by ex-slaves of their conversion experiences and their call to preach are analyzed in regard to Pauline language. We find these powerful narratives in a volume entitled God Struck Me Dead, in which formerly enslaved Africans tell of their dramatic conversions to Christianity and God’s call upon their lives to proclaim the gospel.
Chapter 5, “African American Pauline Hermeneutics and the Art of Biblical Interpretation,” raises and answers several important questions: What does reception history look like for African Americans when it comes to Paul and his writings? What common themes emerge in this study, and how do these themes impact biblical interpretation at large? What are some possible next steps in engaging African American Pauline hermeneutics, this important aspect of biblical reception history? This area is a rich and unmined field full of potential, and so the last section of this chapter will explore briefly some of these possibilities.
With all this in mind, this research examines an array of primary source material from a range of African American authors whose writings are political, theological, biblical, historical, and rhetorical. The beauty of these texts is that many of them combine all these elements, which enables one to see the hermeneutical features so prominent in these authors’ works. Readers will gain a sense of these authors’ times and places and gain a glimpse into their world and how the apostle Paul affects it and how it affects the apostle Paul. For these black hermeneuts, Pauline hermeneutics is not a neutral undertaking where reading Paul is a leisure activity or an exercise. Rather, in many cases reading, writing about, or preaching Paul had life-or-death consequences with significant implications in the authors’ lives and in the lives of those in their respective communities. Hence, engaging Paul was neither a mere intellectual endeavor nor a hobby to pass the time, but it had real-life consequences that spoke to current debates that affected African American existence.
1. Excerpt from Lemuel Haynes’s speech “The Sufferings, Support, and Reward of Faithful Ministers Illustrated: Being the Substance of Two Valedictory Discourses, delivered at Rutland, West Parish, May 24th, A.D. 1818,” in Sketches of the Life and Character of the Rev. Lemuel Haynes, A.M., For Many Years Pastor of A Church in Rutland, VT and Late in Granville, New-York, ed. Timothy Mather Cooley (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1837), 179.
2. Howard Thurman, Jesus and the Disinherited (Richmond, IN: Friends United, 1981; original Nashville: Abingdon, 1949), 19–20.
3. David Jasper, A Short Introduction to Hermeneutics (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2004), 7.
4. Jasper, A Short Introduction to Hermeneutics. Cf. Michael Gorman, Elements of Biblical Exegesis: A Basic Guide for Students and Ministers, rev. and expanded ed. (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2009), 140.
5. Jasper, A Short Introduction to Hermeneutics, 7.
6. Gorman, Elements of Biblical Exegesis, 26.
7. Henry H. Mitchell, Black Preaching (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1979), 57.
8. Mitchell, Black Preaching, 30. Although Mitchell’s comments regarding a black hermeneutic occur in relationship to his discussion on black preaching, they are also appropriate for delineating African American Pauline hermeneutics. In addition, Mitchell’s comments should be construed for the sake of this monograph as gender inclusive, “black people’s condition.”
9. Hans-Josef Klauck, ed., Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2009), ix.
10. Charles B. Copher, “Three Thousand Years of Biblical Interpretation with Reference to Black Peoples,” in African American Religious Studies: An Interdisciplinary Anthology, ed. Gayraud S. Wilmore (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1989), 105–28; Charles B. Copher, Black Biblical Studies: An Anthology of Charles B. Copher; Biblical and Theological Issues on the Black Presence in the Bible (Chicago: Black Light Fellowship, 1993); Renita J. Weems, Just a Sister Away: A Womanist Vision of Women’s Relationships in the Bible (San Diego: LuraMedia, 1988); Cain Hope Felder, Troubling Biblical Waters: Race, Class, and Family, Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion, vol. 3 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1989); see also Cain Hope Felder, Race, Racism, and the Biblical Narratives (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2002).
11. Cain Hope Felder, ed., Stony the Road We Trod: African American Biblical Interpretation (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991).
12. Vincent Wimbush, ed., African Americans and the Bible: Sacred Texts and Social Structures (New York: Continuum, 2000).
13. Randall Bailey, ed., Yet with a Steady Beat: Contemporary U.S. Afrocentric Biblical Interpretation, Semeia Studies (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003).
14. Michael Joseph Brown, Blackening of the Bible: The Aims of African-American Biblical Scholarship (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2004); Allen Dwight Callahan, The Talking Book: African Americans and the Bible (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006).
15. Brian Blount et al., eds., True to Our Native Land: An African American New Testament Commentary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007).
16. Hugh Page and Randall Bailey, eds., The Africana Bible: Reading Israel’s Scriptures from Africa and the African Diaspora (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010).
17. Emerson Powery and Rodney Sadler, The Genesis of Liberation: Biblical Interpretation in the Antebellum Narratives of the Enslaved (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2016).
18. Stephanie Crowder, When Momma Speaks: The Bible and Motherhood from a Womanist Perspective (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2016).
19. Brad Braxton, No Longer Slaves: Galatians and African American Experience (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2002), 90, 94.
20. Love Sechrest, A Former Jew: Paul and the Dialectics of Race (New York: T&T Clark, 2009), 226.
21. Sechrest, A Former Jew, 226.
22. Sechrest, A Former Jew, 230–31. See especially 113–31.
23. Sondra O’Neale, Jupiter Hammon and the Biblical Beginnings of African-American Literature (Metuchen, NJ: ATLA and Scarecrow Press, 1993), 2–4; Arien Nydam, “Numerological Tradition in the Works of Jupiter Hammon,” African American Review 40, no. 2 (Summer 2006): 209.