NOTES
Introduction
1. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280–1300.
Chapter 1: Focused on the Win, or Avoiding the Loss?
1. Keller, J. (2008). On the development of regulatory focus: The role of parenting styles. European Journal of Social Psychology 38, 354–64; E. T. Higgins (1991). Development of self-regulatory and self-evaluative processes: Costs, benefits, and tradeoffs. In M. R. Gunnar and L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, Vol. 23, Self processes and development (pp. 125–65) (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum); N. Manian, A. A. Papadakis, T. J. Strauman, and M. J. Essex (2006). The development of children’s ideal and ought self-guides: Parenting, temperament, and individual differences in guide strength. Journal of Personality 74, 1619–45.
2. Manian, N., T. Strauman, and N. Denney (1998). Temperament, recalled parenting styles, and self-regulation: Testing the developmental postulates of self-discrepancy theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, 1321–32.
3. Aaker, J. L., and A. Y. Lee (2001). I seek pleasures and we avoid pains: The role of self regulatory goals in information processing and persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research 28, 33–49.
4. Higgins, E. T., and O. Tykocinski (1992). Self-discrepancies and biographical memory: Personality and cognition at the level of psychological situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 18, 527–35.
5. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
6. Werth, L., and J. Förster (2006). How regulatory focus influences consumer behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology 36, 1–19.
7. Zhang, J., G. Craciun, and D. Shin (2010). When does electronic word-of-mouth matter? A study of product reviews. Journal of Business Research 63, 1336–41.
8. Fuglestad, P., A. J. Rothman, and R. W. Jeffery (2008). Getting there and hanging on: The effect of regulatory focus on performance in smoking and weight loss interventions. Health Psychology 27, S260–70.
9. Leonardelli, G. J., J. L. Lakin, and R. M. Arkin (2007). Regulatory focus, regulatory fit, and the search and consideration of choice alternatives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43 (6), 1002–9.
Chapter 2: Why Optimism Doesn’t Work for (Defensive) Pessimists
1. Scheier, M. F., and C. S. Carver (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research 16 (2), 210–28.
2. Grant, H., and E. T. Higgins (2003). Optimism, promotion pride, and prevention pride as predictors of quality of life. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29, 1521–32.
3. Norem, J., and E. Chang (2002). The positive psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology 58 (9), 993–1001.
4. Higgins, E. T. (2012). Beyond Pleasure and Pain: How Motivation Works (London: Oxford University Press).
5. Sackett, A. M., and D. A. Armor (2012). Reasoned optimism: The “intuitive functionalist” account of personal predictions. Manuscript under review.
Chapter 3: Focus on Work
1. Friedman, R. S., and J. Förster (2001). The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81, 1001–13.
2. Rietzschel, E. (2011). Collective regulatory focus predicts specific aspects of team innovation. Group Processes Intergroup Relations 14, 337–45.
3. Rusetski, A., and L. Lim (2001). Not complacent but scared: Another look at the causes of strategic inertia among successful firms from a regulatory focus perspective. Journal of Strategic Marketing 19 (6), 501–16.
4. Herman, A., and R. Reiter-Palmon (2011). The effect of regulatory focus on idea generation and idea evaluation. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts 5, 13–20.
5. Förster, J., H. Grant, L. C. Idson, and E. T. Higgins (2001). Success/failure feedback, expectancies, and approach/avoidance motivation: How regulatory focus moderates classic relations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 37, 253–60.
6. Liberman, N., L. C. Idson, C. J. Camacho, and E. T. Higgins (1999). Promotion and prevention choices between stability and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77, 1135–45.
7. Brockner, J., E. T. Higgins, and M. Low (2003). Regulatory focus theory and the entrepreneurial process. Journal of Business Venturing 19, 203–20.
8. Wallace, J., L. Little, A. Hill, and J. Ridge (2010). CEO regulatory foci, environmental dynamism, and small firm performance. Journal of Small Business Management 48, 580–604.
Chapter 4: Focus on Kids
1. Higgins, 1991.
2. Higgins, E. T. (1989). Continuities and discontinuities in self-regulatory and self-evaluative processes: A developmental theory relating self and affect. Journal of Personality 57, 407–44.
3. Manian, Strauman, and Denney, 1998.
4. Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood (New York: Academic Press).
5. Harter, S. (1986). Cognitive-developmental processes in the integration of concepts about emotions and the self. Social Cognition 4, 119–51.
6. Van Hook, E., and E. T. Higgins (1988). Self-related problems beyond the self-concept: The motivational consequences of discrepant self-guides. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55, 625–33.
7. Leung, C. M., and S. F. Lam (2003). The effects of regulatory focus on teachers’ classroom management strategies and emotional consequences. Contemporary Educational Psychology 28, 114–25.
Chapter 5: Focus in Love
1. Molden, D. C., E. J. Finkel, S. E. Johnson, and P. Eastwick (2012). Promotion- or prevention-focused attention to and pursuit of potential romantic partners. Manuscript in preparation, Northwestern University.
2. Finkel, E. J., P. W. Eastwick, and J. Matthews (2007). Speed-dating as an invaluable tool for studying romantic attraction: A methodological primer. Personal Relationships 14, 149–66.
3. Berscheid, E., and W. Graziano (1979). The initiation of social relationships and interpersonal attraction. In R. L. Burgess and T. L. Huston (Eds.), Social exchange in developing relationships (pp. 31–60) (New York: Academic Press).
4. Molden, D. C., L. D. Olson, and G. L. Lucas (2012). Motivating the development and restoration of trust. Manuscript submitted for publication, Northwestern University.
5. Liu, H. (2011). Impact of regulatory focus on ambiguity aversion. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 24, 412–30.
6. Downey, G., A. L. Freitas, B. Michaelis, and H. Khouri (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships: Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, 545–60.
7. Winterheld, H. A., and J. A. Simpson (2011). Seeking security or growth: A regulatory focus perspective on motivations in romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101, 935–54.
8. Rusbult, C. E., P. A. M. Van Lange (2003). Interdependence, interaction, and relationships. Annual Review of Psychology 54, 351–75.
9. Molden, D. C., and E. J. Finkel (2010). Motivations for promotion and prevention and the role of trust and commitment in interpersonal forgiveness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46, 255–68.
10. Santelli, A. G., C. W. Struthers, and J. Eaton (2009). Fit to forgive: Exploring the interaction between regulatory focus, repentance, and forgiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 96, 381–94.
11. Righetti, F., C. E. Rusbult, and C. Finkenauer (2010). Regulatory focus and the Michelangelo phenomenon: How close partners promote one another’s ideal selves. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 46, 972–85.
12. Winterheld, H. A., and A. Simpson (2012). Social support and regulatory focus: A dyadic perspective. Manuscript in preparation, California State University, East Bay.
13. Molden, D. C., G. M. Lucas, E. J. Finkel, M. Kumashiro, and C. E. Rusbult (2009). Perceived support for promotion-focused and prevention-focused goals: Associations with well-being in unmarried and married couples. Psychological Science 20, 787–93.
14. Bohns, V. K., G. M. Lucas, D. C. Molden, E. J. Finkel, M. K. Coolsen, M. Kumashiro, C. E. Rusbult, and E. T. Higgins (2012). Opposites fit: Regulatory focus complementarity and relationship well-being. Social Cognition (in press).
Chapter 6: Focus on Making Decisions
1. Lee, A., P. Keller, and B. Sternthal (2009). Value from regulatory construal fit: The persuasive impact of fit between consumer goals and message concreteness. Journal of Consumer Research 36, 735–47.
2. Semin, G. R., E. T. Higgins, L. G. de Montes, Y. Estourget, and J. F. Valencia (2005). Linguistic signatures of regulatory focus: How abstraction fits promotion more than prevention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89, 36–45.
3. Liberman, Idson, Camacho, and Higgins, 1999.
4. Scholer, A. A., X. Zou, K. Fujita, S. J. Stroessner, and E. T. Higgins (2010). When risk-seeking becomes a motivational necessity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 99, 215–31.
5. Pham, M., and T. Avnet (2004). Ideals and oughts and the reliance on affect versus substance in persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research 30, 503–18.
6. Werth, L., and J. Förster (2007). The effects of regulatory focus on braking speed. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 37, 2764–87.
7. Described in E. T. Higgins (2002), How self-regulation creates distinct values: The case of promotion and prevention decision making, Journal of Consumer Psychology 12, 177–91.
8. Herzenstein, M., S. Posavac, and J. Brakus (2007). Adoption of new and really new products: The effects of self-regulation systems and risk salience. Journal of Marketing Research 19, 251–60.
9. Kirmani, A., and R. Zhu (2007). Vigilant against manipulation: The effect of regulatory focus on the use of persuasion knowledge. Journal of Marketing Research 19, 688–701.
Chapter 7: Focus on Our World
1. Boldero, J., and E. Higgins (2011). Regulatory focus and political decision making: When people favor reform over the status quo. Political Psychology 32, 399–418.
2. Ibid.
3. Lucas, G. M., and D. C. Molden (2011). Motivating political preferences: Concerns with promotion and prevention as predictors of public policy attitudes. Motivation and Emotion 35, 151–64.
4. Dolinski, D., and M. Drogosz (2011). Regulatory fit and voting. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 41, 2673–88.
5. Pew Research Center (2006). Attitudes toward immigration: In black and white. http://pewresearch.org/pubs/21/attitudes-toward-immigration-in-black-and-white.
6. Los Angeles Times (2008). Latinos still the largest, fastest-growing minority. May 1.
7. Stern, Eliyahu. Don’t fear Islamic Law in America. New York Times (September 2, 2011).
8. Oyserman, D., A. Uskul, N. Yoder, R. Nesse, and D. Williams (2007). Unfair treatment and self-regulatory focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43, 505–12.
9. Wilson, R. W., and A. W. Pusey (1982). Achievement motivation and small-business relationship patterns in Chinese society. In S. L. Greenblatt, R. W. Wilson, and A. A. Wilson (Eds.), Social interaction in Chinese society (pp.195–208) (New York: Praeger).
10. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
11. Zaal, M., C. Van Laar, T. Stahl, N. Ellemers, and B. Derks (2001). By any means necessary: The effects of regulatory focus and moral conviction on hostile and benevolent forms of collective action. British Journal of Social Psychology 50, 670–89.
12. Brebels, L., D. De Cremer, and C. Sedikides (2008). Retaliation as a response to procedural unfairness: A self-regulatory approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95, 1511–25.
13. Moreland, R. L., and S. Beach (1992). Exposure effects in the classroom: The development of affinity among students. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 28, 255–76.
14. Shah, J. Y., P. C. Brazy, and E. T. Higgins (2004). Promoting us or preventing them: Regulatory focus and manifestations of intergroup bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30, 433–46.
15. Phills, C., A. Santelli, K. Kawakami, C. Struthers, and E. T. Higgins (2011). Reducing implicit prejudice: Matching approach/avoidance strategies to contextual valence and regulatory focus. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47, 968–73.
16. Förster, J., E. T. Higgins, and L. Werth (2004). How threat from stereotype disconfirmation triggers self-defense. Social Cognition 22, 54–74.
Chapter 8: Identifying and Changing Focus
1. Freund, A. M. (2006). Age-differential motivational consequences of optimization versus compensation focus in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging 21, 240–52.
2. Finegold, D., S. Mohrman, and G. M. Spreitzer (2002). Age effects on the predictors of technical workers’ commitment and willingness to turnover. Journal of Organizational Behavior 23, 655–74.
3. Unpublished Motivation Science Center survey.
4. Van Dijk, D., and A. N. Kluger (2010). Task type as a moderator of positive/ negative feedback effects on motivation and performance: A regulatory focus perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior 32:8, 1084–1105.
5. Plessner, H., C. Unkelbach, D. Memmert, A. Baltes, and A. Kolb (2009). Regulatory fit as a determinant of sport performance: How to succeed in a soccer penalty-shooting. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 10, 108–15.
6. Van Stekelenburg, J., and B. Klandermans (2003). Regulatory focus meten met behulp van spreekwoorden [Using proverbs to measure regulatory focus]. Jaarboek Sociale Psychologie (Groningen, The Netherlands).
7. Van-Dijk and Kluger, 2004.
8. Florack, A., M. Scarabis, and S. Gosejohann (2005). Regulatory focus and consumer information processing. In F. R. Kardes, P. M. Herr, and J. Nantel (Eds.), Applying social cognition to consumer-focused strategy (pp. 235–63) (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates).
9. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
10. Sung and Choi, 2011. Increasing power and preventing pain: The moderating role of self-construal in advertising message framing. Journal of Advertising, 40, 71–86.
11. Shah, J. (2003). The motivational looking glass: How significant others implicitly affect goal appraisals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85, 424–39.
12. Levine, J. M., E. T. Higgins, and H.-S. Choi (2000). Development of strategic norms in groups. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 82, 88–101.
13. Faddegon, K., D. Scheepers, and N. Ellemers (2008). If we have the will, there will be a way: Regulatory focus as a group identity. European Journal of Social Psychology 38, 880–95.
Chapter 9: It’s the Fit That Counts
1. Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist 55, 1217–30.
2. Higgins, E. T. (2006). Value from hedonic experience and engagement. Psychological Review 113(3), 439–60.
3. Cesario, J., H. Grant, and E. T. Higgins (2004). Regulatory fit and persuasion: Transfer from “feeling right.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86, 338–404.
4. Avnet, T., D. Laufer, and E. T. Higgins (2012). Are all experiences of fit created equal? Two paths to persuasion. Manuscript submitted for publication, Columbia University.
5. Lee, A. Y., and J. L. Aaker (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86, 205–18.
6. Wang, J., and A. Y. Lee (2006). The role of regulatory focus in preference construction. Journal of Marketing Research 43(1), 28–38. doi:10.1509/jmkr.43.1.28.
7. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
8. Paine, J. W. (2009). Follower engagement, commitment, and favor toward change: Examining the role of regulatory fit. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University.
9. Li, A., J. Evans, M. Christian, S. Gilliland, E. Kausel, and J. Stein (2011). The effects of managerial regulatory fit priming on reactions to explanations. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 115, 268–82.
Chapter 10: The Triumph of the Fittest
1. Lockwood, P., C. H. Jordan, and Z. Kunda (2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: Regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, 854–64.
2. Schokker, M., J. Keers, J. Bouma, T. Links, R. Sanderman, B. Wolffenbuttel, and M. Hagedoorn (2010). The impact of social comparison information on motivation in patients with diabetes as a function of regulatory focus and self-efficacy. Health Psychology 29, 438–45.
3. Freitas, A. L., N. Liberman, and E. T. Higgins (2002). Regulatory fit and resisting temptation during goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38, 291–98.
4. Wall Street Journal (2010). BP links safety to pay in fourth quarter. October 19.
5. Daryanto, A., K. de Ruyter, and M. Wetzels (2010). Getting a discount or sharing the cost: The influence of regulatory fit on consumer response to service pricing schemes. Journal of Service Research 13, 153–67.
6. Brodscholl, J. C., H. Kober, and E. T. Higgins (2007). Strategies of self-regulation in goal attainment versus goal maintenance. European Journal of Social Psychology 37, 628–48.
7. Plessner, Unkelbach, Memmert, Baltes, and Kolb, 2009.
8. Unkelbach, C., H. Plessner, and D. Memmert (2009). “Fit” in sports: Self-regulation and athletic performances. In J. Forgas, R. Baumeister, and
D. Tice (Eds.), The psychology of self-regulation (pp. 93–105) (New York: Psychology Press).
9. Latimer, A. E., S. E. Rivers, T. A. Rench, N. A. Katulak, A. Hicks, J. K. Hodorowski, E. T. Higgins, and P. Salovey (2008). A field experiment testing the utility of regulatory fit messages for promoting physical activity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44, 826–32.
10. Spiegel, S., H. Grant, and E. T. Higgins (2004). How regulatory fit enhances motivational strength during goal pursuit. European Journal of Social Psychology 39, 39–54.
11. Spiegel, Grant, and Higgins, 2004.
12. See Freitas, A., and E. T. Higgins, 2002. Enjoying goal directed-action: The role of regulatory fit. Psychological Science 13, 1–6.
13. Hamstra, M., N. Van Yperen, B. Wisse, and K. Sassenberg (2011). Transformational-transactional leadership styles and followers’ regulatory focus. Journal of Personnel Psychology 10, 182–86.
14. Van-Dijk and Kluger, 2004.
Chapter 11: Under the Influence
1. Zhao, G., and C. Pechmann (2007). The impact of regulatory focus on adolescents’ response to antismoking advertising campaigns. Journal of Marketing Research 19, 671–87.
2. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
3. Cesario, Grant, and Higgins, 2004.
4. Holler, M., E. Hoelzl, E. Kirchler, S. Leder, and L. Mannetti (2008). Framing of information on the use of public finances, regulatory fit of recipients and tax compliance. Journal of Economic Psychology 29, 597–611.
Chapter 12: To Market
1. Lee and Aaker, 2004.
2. Florack, A., and M. Scarabis (2006). How advertising claims affect brand preferences and category–brand associations: The role of regulatory fit. Psychology and Marketing 23, 741–55.
3. Lee and Aaker, 2004.
4. Lee, Keller, and Sternthal, 2009.
5. Wang and Lee, 2006.
6. Aaker and Lee, 2001.
7. Daryanto, de Ruyter, and Wetzels, 2010.
8. Uskul, A., D. Sherman, and J. Fitzgibbon (2008). The cultural congruency effect: Culture, regulatory focus, and the effectiveness of gain- vs. loss-framed health messages. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45, 535–41.
9. Higgins, E. T., L. C. Idson, A. L. Freitas, S. Spiegel, and D. C. Molden (2003). Transfer of value from fit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84, 1140–53.
10. Mourali, M., and F. Pons (2009). Regulatory fit from attribute-based versus alternative-based processing in decision making. Journal of Consumer Psychology 19, 643–51.
11. Avnet, T., and E. T. Higgins (2003). Locomotion, assessment, and regulatory fit: Value transfer from “how” to “what.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39, 525–30.
12. Mourali and Pons, 2009.
Chapter 13: A Step-by-Step Guide to Creating Motivational Fit
1. Förster, J., and E. T. Higgins (2005). How global versus local perception fits regulatory focus. Psychological Science 16, 631–36.
2. Semin, G. R., and K. Fiedler (1991). The linguistic category model, its bases, applications and range. In W. Stroebe and M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology, Vol. 2 (pp. 1–50) (Chichester, England: Wiley).
3. Semin, Higgins, de Montes, Estourget, and Valencia, 2005.
4. Förster, Grant, Idson, and Higgins, 2001.
5. Grant and Higgins, 2003.
6. Förster, Grant, Idson, and Higgins, 2001.
7. Pennington, G. L., and N. J. Roese (2003). Regulatory focus and temporal perspective. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (6), 563–76.
8. Avnet and Higgins, 2003.
9. Cesario, J., and E. T. Higgins (2008). Making message recipients “feel right”: How nonverbal cues can increase persuasion. Psychological Science 19, 415–20.
10. Mourali and Pons, 2009.
11. Higgins, Idson, Freitas, Spiegel, and Molden, 2003.
12. Hong, J., and A. Y. Lee (2008). Be fit and be strong: Mastering self-regulation with regulatory fit. Journal of Consumer Research 34, 682–95; and Lee, Keller, and Sternthal, 2009.
13. Vaughn, L., A. Harkness, and E. Clark (2010). The effect of incidental experiences of regulatory fit on trust. Personal Relationships 17, 57–69.
14. Hong and Lee, 2008.