Don Farber
THERAVĀDA MONKS ON ALMSROUND, THAILAND
5 | The Higher Training in Concentration
THE BENEFITS of concentration (samādhi) and serenity (samatha, śamatha) are many. Serenity united with insight (vipassanā, vipaśyanā) into selflessness uproots the causes of saṃsāra. It enables us to develop virtuous qualities, integrate Dharma understanding with our minds, and attain the superknowledges, which are essential to benefit others most effectively. If we are serious about actualizing the paths, the practice of samādhi is a must.
While it is useful to be able to focus the mind single-pointedly, we should first focus on developing a broad understanding of the Dharma and cultivating a proper motivation for Dharma practice, such as renunciation or bodhicitta. If we develop samādhi with the motivation to have supernormal powers, be famous, or remain in a blissful meditative state, we are doing ourselves a disservice. The effort we put into developing concentration will bring little benefit compared to the results when concentration is cultivated with a motivation aspiring for liberation or awakening.
The meaning of concentration depends on the context. The mental factor of concentration is already present in our minds, although it is underdeveloped. While artists, students, athletes, and mechanics need concentration, the concentration in the noble eightfold path is different: it refers particularly to single-pointed concentration that leads to the four meditative stabilizations (jhāna, dhyāna). Concentration is a powerful state of mind able to control mental activity and the arising of afflictions. Serenity is concentration supported by the bliss of pliancy (passaddhi, praśrabdhi) that is able to keep the mind in equipoise on its object. “Concentrations” also refers to special meditations enabling a practitioner to engage in specific activities.
Concentration unifies the primary mind and its associated mental factors on the meditation object in a balanced way. It ensures uninterrupted attention and mindfulness on the object and produces mental tranquility. Free from manifest afflictions, it is like a mirror clearly reflecting objects. When combined with wisdom, such a mind brings deep realizations. This is very different from our usual distracted mind that sees only superficially and is often afflictive.
It is important to train in samādhi under the guidance of a qualified teacher. Working with the mind is a delicate venture, and without proper guidance we may go astray. A good meditation master who understands the various experiences that may arise in meditation is able to steer us skillfully and correctly and confirm our progress, preventing worry and unnecessary detours on the path.
The Buddha himself emphasized the attainment of samādhi and the jhānas. In the Pāli tradition, detailed meditation instructions are found in the commentaries and the Visuddhimagga. In the Sanskrit tradition, commentaries by Maitreya, Asaṅga, and Kamalaśīla discuss serenity and concentration in depth.
Some familiarity with realms (levels or planes of existence; bhūmi) and spheres of consciousness (avacara), as presented in the Pāli abhidhamma, is helpful before training to gain samādhi. Saṃsāra consists of three realms: the desire, material, and immaterial realms. Corresponding to these are the three spheres of consciousness: the desire- or sense-sphere consciousness (kāmāvacaracitta), the material-sphere consciousness (rūpāvacaracitta), and the immaterial-sphere consciousness (arūpāvacaracitta) (CMA pp. 29–31). There also exists supramundane consciousness (lokuttaracitta). Spheres of consciousness are mental states, while realms are planes of existence into which sentient beings are born.
The three spheres of consciousness are mundane states of consciousness; they are included within saṃsāra and true dukkha. While occurring most often in its corresponding realm, a particular sphere of consciousness is not limited to that realm. For example, the material-sphere consciousness occurs most frequently in beings born in the material realm. However, a human being in the desire realm may cultivate deep concentration such that when he goes into meditative absorption, his mind becomes a material-sphere consciousness. According to the depth of his concentration, he attains the first, second, third, or fourth jhāna. If his concentration is even more subtle, his mind becomes an immaterial-sphere consciousness, but when he emerges from meditation, his mind is again a desire-sphere consciousness.
Don Farber
THERAVĀDA MONKS ON ALMSROUND, THAILAND
If a human being attains a specific level of meditative absorption and maintains it through the rest of her life, she creates the karma to be born in that realm after death. For example, a meditator who has attained the sphere of consciousness called the base of nothingness of the immaterial realm creates the kamma to be born in the realm of the base of nothingness after death.
The Pāli commentarial tradition formalized in the Visuddhimagga recognizes forty objects of meditation with which serenity may be cultivated. A meditation teacher usually prescribes one of the following objects for the disciple depending on the disciple’s temperament:
• The ten kasiṇas (totalities): earth, water, fire, air, blue, yellow, red, white, limited space, and light
• The ten foul objects (asubha): corpses in various states of decay
• The ten recollections (anussati, anusmṛti): mindfulness of the Buddha, Dhamma, Saṅgha, ethical conduct, generosity, deities (the divine qualities of celestial beings), death, the parts of the body, breathing, and nibbāna
• The four divine abidings (brahmavihāra) or four immeasurables (appamañña, apramāṇa): love (mettā, maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), joy (muditā), and equanimity (upekkhā, upekṣā)
• The meditation objects of the four immaterial states, in ascending order: the bases of infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, and neither-discrimination-nor-nondiscrimination
• The one discrimination (ekasaññā): discerning the repulsiveness of food
• The one analysis (dhātuvavaṭṭhāna): defining the four elements
Not all of the forty meditation objects are unique to Buddhism. The kasiṇas and the four immaterial-state objects are used by meditators of other faiths. Meditating on mindfulness of the body and of breathing, the discrimination of repulsiveness of food, and the analysis of the four elements brings access concentration (upacāra samādhi) only. All the others will bring full absorption (appanā samādhi), that is, the jhānas. Any of the kasiṇas is a condition for cultivating the first five superknowledges.
People with certain temperaments are better suited for particular objects. Someone with strong attachment focuses on the ten foul objects and the parts of the body; someone suffering from anger uses one of the four divine abidings or four color kasiṇas. An easily scattered mind meditates on the breath. Someone inclined toward faith finds the first six recollections riveting. The intelligent focus on death, nibbāna, analysis of the four elements, and the repulsiveness of food. The remaining kasiṇas and the four immaterial-state objects can be used by everyone.
Before going to a quiet place to practice, think that you give your life to the Buddha. Doing this strengthens the mind. A good motivation and a strong determination to confront and work with afflictions are also important. Request your teacher for a meditation object and receive instructions on how to develop samādhi by using it.
At the beginning of a meditation session, review the disadvantages of sensual desires and cultivate the wish to be free from them. Recollect the qualities of the Three Jewels, feel joyful that you are entering the path of renunciation that all ariyas have followed, and be confident that you will gain the bliss of nibbāna.
Three signs are cultivated in the process of developing samādhi: the preliminary work sign (parikamma nimitta), the learning or acquired sign (uggaha nimitta), and the counterpart sign (paṭibhāga nimitta). Using the example of an earth kasiṇa, a meditator makes the kasiṇa disk—a round disk of clean clay about four fingers wide that is placed on a board in front of the meditator. With her eyes open, she looks at it, thinking “earth, earth.” When the image of earth is firm in her mind, she closes her eyes and continues to focus “earth, earth.” The actual object of meditation now is the image of earth, which is an object of mental consciousness, not visual consciousness. This is the preliminary work sign. If the image fades, she opens her eyes and looks at the earth kasiṇa to refresh her visualization and again lowers her eyes and meditates on the image of earth appearing to her mental consciousness. In this way she “develops this sign,” forming the image in her mind sometimes with open eyes and sometimes with them closed. At this initial stage of practice her concentration is called preliminary concentration (parikamma samādhi), and most of her effort goes toward being mindful of the object, noticing when a distraction or other hindrance has arisen, applying the antidote, and bringing the mind back to the meditation object.
She continues to develop the preliminary work sign until the learning sign arises. This subtler object replaces the preliminary work sign and arises when the meditator sees the mental image just as clearly when her eyes are closed as when she is looking at the kasiṇa. Now she stops looking at the external kasiṇa and focuses exclusively on the mental object, the learning sign. However, if her apprehension of the learning sign fades, she again looks at the physical earth kasiṇa with her eyes. Coarse engagement (vitakka) is important at this point to establish familiarity with the learning sign.
As she continues meditating, the five hindrances (see below) are gradually suppressed by the five absorption factors (jhānaṅga). Here “suppression” means manifest hindrances do not appear. Suppression of the five hindrances leads to greater clarity and ability to discern the functioning of the mind. The mind and body are at ease; the mind is virtuous, and one feels either pleasure or equanimity.
Untroubled by manifest afflictions and the five hindrances, the mind becomes more concentrated. The counterpart sign arises and access concentration is attained. While imperfections are seen in the learning sign, the counterpart sign is brighter and more purified. Luminous, beautiful, and vivid, it has no physical color or shape and is an object only of mental consciousness. It lacks the three characteristics of impermanence and so forth. Stabilizing the counterpart sign is difficult, so the meditator must guard it carefully and continue practice to attain full absorption.
Serenity begins with the state of access concentration prior to the first jhāna. Whereas access concentration, also called the stage of suppression abandonment (vikkhambhana-pahāna), is marked by the suppression of the five hindrances, the first jhāna is full absorption and is marked by full, stable development of the five absorption factors. While the absorption factors are present in access concentration, they are not firm, and a meditator can lose access concentration easily. But in full jhāna the absorption factors are stable and strong, and a shift in the sphere of consciousness occurs. The mind in full absorption does not perceive sensory objects but functions like a material sphere of consciousness. The person is in seated meditation at this time.
Many meditation masters suggest using the breath as the meditation object because focusing on it slows the thought processes and clears the mind of scattered thoughts. In this case, one begins by observing the physical sensations of the breath at the nostrils and upper lip, as it enters and exits. The learning sign is an image arisen from this physical sensation. When it arises, the meditator turns her attention to the nimitta—a colored luminous sphere or a radiant light—and that becomes her object of meditation.
Spoken about in both the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions, the five main hindrances (nīvaraṇa) and their antidotes need to be overcome with skill and effort from the beginning.
Sensual desire (kāmacchanda) produces craving and clinging. While the experience of sensual pleasure itself is not “bad,” attachment to it diverts our mind from spiritual practice. Remembering impermanence and the unsatisfactory nature of sensual pleasure helps to calm the mind. Sexual desire is the strongest desire human beings have, and it can be very distracting. Mentally analyzing the parts of the body and seeing their unattractiveness is an effective method for counteracting it.
Malice (vyāpāda) may arise toward a person, physical or mental pain, loneliness, certain ideas, sounds, thoughts, and so forth. Meditation on love or fortitude is the antidote.
Dullness and drowsiness (thīnamiddha, styānamiddha) manifest physically and mentally. Dullness is a heaviness of mind. The mind lacks energy, is bored, or is in a fog. Drowsiness is sleepiness, but it is not related to lacking sleep or being physically tired. Thinking about the qualities of the Three Jewels, the preciousness of our human life, our opportunity to cultivate wonderful spiritual qualities, and so on energizes the mind. Imagining brilliant sunlight filling us and dispelling mental darkness is also helpful.
Restlessness (excitement) and remorse (uddhaccakukkucca, uddhatyakaukṛtya) take the mind into the past or the future. Restlessness is an agitated mental state that includes anxiety, fear, apprehension, and worry. Remorse is an uncomfortable emotion that we did something we should not have done or did not do something we should have done. Focusing on the breath or any other object that soothes and pacifies the mind is effective to calm restlessness and worry. Bringing our attention back to the present is also useful: we are sitting in a safe place, cultivating virtue, and focusing on our meditation object.
Doubt (vicikicchā, vicikitsā) involves doubting our abilities, the teachings, or the possibility of actualizing our spiritual goals. After identifying a mental state as deluded doubt, bring your mind back to the meditation object. Deluded doubt differs from a virtuous mind that is curious and wants to learn. When we have doubts because we don’t understand a topic well, we should go to a teacher and request clarification.
The Buddha taught five methods for training the mind when it loses its meditation object (MN 20). When a hindrance is not so strong, simply returning the mind to the meditation object is sufficient. But when that doesn’t work, we must temporarily leave the meditation object and reflect on another topic to actively counteract the hindrance and bring the mind back to a balanced perspective. Antidotes to apply in sequence are: (1) Give attention to another object that is virtuous. Contemplate the opposite of the distracting thought or emotion. (2) Examine the danger and disadvantages of those thoughts. (3) Do not give attention to those thoughts and do something else. (4) Give attention to stilling the thoughts; for example, ask yourself, “What are all the factors that led to this thought or emotion coming into my mind?” Watch the thoughts flow by from a detached standpoint until they gradually quiet down. (5) Crush a nonvirtuous mental state with a virtuous one.
By employing these counterforces consistently and properly, hindrances decrease, and we are able to return to our meditation object. Over time the mind will become quiet, single-pointed, and concentrated.
The five absorption factors are cultivated in the process of attaining serenity. Their full development marks entrance into the first jhāna. Coarse engagement (vitakka, vitarka) repeatedly directs and applies the mind to the meditation object, which at this point is the counterpart sign. Refined engagement (vicāra) is sustained awareness on the meditation object. It examines and knows the object, keeping the mind on it. Coarse engagement is compared to ringing a bell and refined engagement to the resonance of the sound.
Rapture (pīti, prīti) is delight and satisfaction due to being interested in the object. It arises when the mind settles down and becomes peaceful due to coarse and refined engagement and lightness of body and mind. Bliss (sukha) is the pleasant, joyful, happy feeling accompanying concentration due to the depth of stillness in the mind. Rapture and bliss arise sequentially after coarse and refined engagement become more refined and concentration deepens. Rapture is tinged with exuberance and elation and is coarse compared to bliss, which is tranquil and satisfied.
One-pointedness (ekaggatā, ekāgratā) unifies the mind and its accompanying mental factors on the object. It is a stillness of mind that allows the mind to stay in a relaxed manner on the meditation object.
As the meditator approaches jhāna, the strengthening of the five factors happens sequentially. When all five factors are present and work together to plunge the mind into the object so that it becomes completely absorbed in the object, the first jhāna is attained.
These five factors have to be patiently cultivated. We cannot will ourselves to attain access concentration or to go from access to full concentration. If we cultivate the factors with consistent and relaxed effort, when they are mature and strong the mind will enter full absorption by itself.
A mind with full concentration is like a room with only one chair. When the chair is occupied, a guest coming into the room leaves immediately because there is no place for him to sit. Similarly, when samādhi is focused one-pointedly on the meditation object, other thoughts cannot stay in the mind.
Concentration does not eliminate the hindrances and afflictions completely; it suppresses their manifest forms. Only the wisdom developed by unifying serenity and insight can eradicate them completely.
A meditator in the human realm can attain the four material absorptions and four immaterial absorptions. In each successive state of absorption, concentration deepens. However, the immaterial absorptions are not useful for cultivating wisdom because the mind is too absorbed.
In the Pāli suttas, the Buddha describes right concentration in terms of the four jhānas, which are distinguished by their component factors. While the sutta presentation and the Abhidhamma analysis may differ superficially, they come to the same point. The table on the following page shows both presentations.
Jhānic concentration is sharp, focused, and free from tension. It is arrived at through balanced effort that is firm but not tight. The mind is totally withdrawn from sense objects, although there is some difference of opinion whether there is recognition of sound. But even if there is, it does not disturb the mind. The mind is secluded from nonvirtuous states, and the five hindrances have been suppressed.
Some people mistakenly believe that Buddhism requires us to give up pleasure. Here we see this is not the case. We actively cultivate rapture and bliss that pervade the entire body in the first jhāna (MN 39:15). Rapture and bliss help stop the mind’s obsession with sensual pleasure, thus halting the creation of destructive karma involved with procuring and protecting sense objects.
Just as stability in access concentration is needed before attaining the first jhāna, mastery of the first jhāna is needed before going on to the second, and so forth. This involves perfecting our skill in the lower jhāna so that we can enter, abide, and emerge from it without difficulty. We can stay in that jhāna for as long as we wish, and when we emerge the mind is clear, not confused about where we are or what is happening around us. After coming out of the jhāna, we can review the experience, noting the process by which we entered, abided, and emerged from it and analyze it clearly knowing each absorption factor that was present.
PROGRESSING THROUGH THE FOUR JHĀNAS
Jhāna |
Abhidhamma Analysis |
Sutta Exposition |
First |
Present: 1. coarse engagement 2. refined engagement 3. rapture 4. bliss 5. one-pointedness |
Absent: 1. sensual pleasures 2. nonvirtuous states of mind Present: 1. coarse engagement 2. refined engagement 3. rapture 4. bliss born of seclusion (from the five hindrances) |
Second |
Present: 1. rapture 2. bliss 3. one-pointedness |
Absent: 1. coarse engagement 2. refined engagement Present: 1. internal stillness 2. one-pointedness of mind 3. rapture 4. bliss born of concentration |
Third |
Present: 1. bliss 2. one-pointedness |
Absent: 1. rapture Present: 1. equanimity 2. mindfulness 3. introspective awareness 4. physical bliss |
Fourth |
Present: 1. neutral feeling 2. one-pointedness |
Absent: 1. physical bliss and pain 2. joy and grief Present: 1. neutral feeling 2. purity of mindfulness 3. equanimity 4. mind that is purified, bright, unblemished, rid of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability |
Meditators must develop several meditative skills in one jhāna before going on to the next (SN 34): knowing the absorption factors that jhāna has; entering jhāna easily; steadying the mind in jhāna; being able to emerge from the jhāna at the time we have determined before entering it; relaxing the mind and making it flexible; knowing and being comfortable with the object; knowing whether a sign or one of the three characteristics is the object;10 resolving to elevate the mind to the next, higher jhāna; acting with care to enter jhāna; maintaining continuity in the practice; and fulfilling the necessary and beneficial qualities for concentration.
As we develop these skills and become familiar with the first jhāna, we begin to reflect that while the first jhāna is wonderful and definitely better than pleasures of the desire realm, it also has some faults. It isn’t far removed from the desire-realm mind with its five hindrances and manifest defilements, and coarse and refined engagement are comparatively coarse factors. We recall that the Buddha spoke of another meditative absorption even more excellent and peaceful in which coarse and refined engagement are absent. Having repeatedly reflected on the defects of the first jhāna and the benefits of the second, we make a determination to attain the second jhāna. According to the Pāli commentaries, this analysis occurs after we have left the first jhāna and resumed normal consciousness, because there is no thought or deliberations while absorbed in the jhānas.
In the break times, we receive the four requisites—food, shelter, clothing, and medicine—with right livelihood, alternate walking and sitting meditations, and sleep in moderation in the middle part of the night. Then during meditation sessions, after continuing to focus on the meditation object and strengthening our faculty of concentration, we enter access concentration and go directly into the second jhāna without passing through the first jhāna.
To attain the first jhāna, coarse and refined engagement were necessary to direct the mind to the meditation object and hold it there. Now other factors perform those functions, so those two factors are released. Due to this, inner stillness and clarity of mind become more prominent. Rapture and bliss are still present, and the one-pointed unification of mind is stronger, so the depth of concentration increases. Whereas previously rapture and bliss arose due to being separated from the five hindrances, now they are present due to the power of samādhi itself.
As before, we familiarize and train in this jhāna, developing the skills mentioned above. Although we initially experience the second jhāna as much superior to the first, after some time we see its faults: as concentration deepens, rapture makes the mind too exhilarated. Aware of a deeper level of concentration, we resolve to attain it. With the intention to abandon rapture, we renew our practice with the meditation object, strengthening the faculty of concentration until rapture subsides. When it does, the third jhāna dawns. Bliss and one-pointedness are still present. Mindfulness, introspective awareness, and equanimity now come to prominence. Our body is blissful and we have a pleasant abiding. Free from rapture, bliss drenches and pervades our entire body. Cultivating skill in the various aspects of the third jhāna, we train and develop mastery in it.
After mastering the third jhāna, we see that it too is faulty because the feeling of bliss is comparatively coarse and subtle attachment to it may arise. A neutral feeling would be the best support for equanimity. Knowing there is a superior state of concentration, we resolve to attain the fourth jhāna and practice in order to release the bliss. When our faculties are strong enough, the bliss fades away, and we enter the fourth jhāna. Pleasure and pain vanish, and equanimity, which is far more peaceful than bliss, comes to the forefront. The firmness of equanimity fully purifies mindfulness, and one-pointed unification of mind is strong. Now the meditator “sits pervading this body with a pure bright mind, so that there is no part of his whole body not pervaded by the pure bright mind” (MN 39:18). This radiant mind abides in equanimity, undisturbed even by bliss.
The jhānas are higher levels of the mundane mind; they are more focused, flexible, and have greater ability to perceive clearly than the confused, obscured mental states of the desire realm. People who have attained any of the four jhānas see sensual pleasure as pointless and boring. They would much rather partake in jhāna meditation, where they can remain for days and emerge refreshed and invigorated, unlike people who go on vacation and return exhausted.
Some meditation masters encourage their disciples to use insight to analyze the jhāna states after emerging from them. Examining states of samādhi in this way, practitioners see that even these blissful states are composed of various factors, arise due to causes and conditions, and are impermanent, impersonal, and not to be grasped at. Such analysis prevents meditators from craving and longing for these meditative experiences for their own sake. It also prevents them from generating the erroneous view that these states are a self or an encounter with a supreme being. Furthermore, such analysis prevents the temptation of conceit to arise. Instead, they see once again that everything lacks self.
The Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism
KOREAN MONKS MEDITATING DURING A THREE-MONTH-LONG WINTER RETREAT
Beyond the four jhānas are the four immaterial states, deeper states of concentration in which mental peace remains undisturbed. While advancing from one jhāna to the next involves refining the mind by successively abandoning coarse mental factors, sequentially progressing through the four immaterial states entails refining the object of meditation. Taking their names from their meditation objects, the four immaterial states are called base of infinite space (ākāsānañcāyatana, ākāśānantyāyatana), base of infinite consciousness (viññāṇañcāyatana, vijñānānantyāyatana), base of nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana, ākiñcanyāyatana), and base of neither-discrimination-nor-nondiscrimination (n’evasaññānāsaññāyatana, naivasañjñānāsañjñāyatana). This last state is also called the peak of saṃsāra due to being the most refined mental state within saṃsāra.
To go into the immaterial absorptions, we focus on a luminous sphere or radiant light—blue, for example—which is the counterpart sign of our jhānic meditation, and expand it until it is as vast as space. Undivided, seamless, and pervading all space, blue is the only thing in our field of awareness. We absorb in this vast blueness with the mind of the fourth jhāna. To enter the absorption of infinite space, we consider that while the fourth jhāna is peaceful, it is nevertheless faulty because its object is a form, and a meditative absorption without form would be superior and more peaceful. We resolve to attain the base of infinite space, and resolving “Let this form vanish,” we mentally remove the blue pervading all space. When our mind is properly prepared, the blue light vanishes, and all that remains as an object of awareness is the infinite space where the bright light had been. The mind now immerses in this infinite expanse of space, with no perception of a sign at all. We thus enter and dwell in the base of infinite space, the first immaterial absorption.
When we are accustomed to infinite space, we reflect that consciousness is aware of infinite space; it is as if consciousness pervades that infinite space. Shifting our attention from infinite space to the infinity of consciousness pervading it, we make a determination to attain the absorption on infinite consciousness. By means of this determination and repeated practice, the perception of space falls away and there is just consciousness extending infinitely. We enter the second immaterial state.
When we master the absorption on infinite consciousness, we reflect that it lacks obstruction and impediment. We now focus on the unimpeded nature of infinite consciousness until the awareness of consciousness falls away and there remains only the awareness of nothingness. Focusing on the nonexistence of the consciousness of infinite space, we enter the absorption on the base of nothingness.
After becoming familiar with this, we turn our attention to the consciousness that is aware of nothingness. That consciousness is very subtle, and when we focus on it, we enter the fourth immaterial state that has as its object the consciousness that is aware of nothingness. This absorption is so subtle and refined that when in it, we cannot say whether discrimination is present or not. Neither-discrimination-nor-nondiscrimination is the object of that absorption.
Beings born in the immaterial realms due to having attained these states of meditative absorption when they were human beings stay in these states of samādhi for eons. When the kamma to abide in them is exhausted, those beings take rebirth in other saṃsāric realms. When the Buddha was still a bodhisattva, he trained with two meditation teachers and mastered the absorption on neither-discrimination-nor-nondiscrimination. Realizing that his mind was still not completely free from defilements, he respectfully departed. Under the bodhi tree, he perfected wisdom and insight, attaining full awakening.
The Buddha spoke of eight meditative liberations (vimokkha, vimokṣa), deep states of concentration bringing temporary liberation from defilements (MN 77:22): the four jhānas using (1) an internal form, interpreted by the commentary as a color in one’s own body, (2) an external form, interpreted as a colored kasiṇa or a color in another’s body, (3) “the beautiful,” interpreted as a pure, beautiful colored kasiṇa or the four brahmavihāras, (4–7) the four immaterial absorptions, and (8) cessation of discrimination and feeling (saññāvedayitanirodha, saṃjñāveditanirodha), also called the attainment of cessation (nirodhasamāpatti). The last, the temporary suspension of all manifest activity of the six consciousnesses, requires both concentration and insight. Unlike the first seven meditative liberations, which can be attained by ordinary beings, it can be attained only by nonreturners and arahants who have mastered the four jhānas and four immaterial absorptions.
Maitreya’s Abhisamayālaṃkāra in the Sanskrit tradition also explains the eight meditative liberations and defines them as “exalted knowers not polluted by the afflictions of their own level.” The first three are called the “three paths of emanation” because by abandoning attachment to forms, bodhisattvas eliminate obstacles to emanating many forms that fulfill the needs of sentient beings. Here they (1) emanate many forms while their own bodies remain visible to others, (2) emanate many forms while their bodies are not visible to others, and (3) counteract their like and dislike for emanating beautiful and unattractive forms respectively. Bodhisattvas practice the eight meditative liberations and nine meditative absorptions for the benefit of others.
While the most important aim of the Buddha’s teachings is ceasing rebirth under the influence of ignorance and kamma and attaining nibbāna, the suttas praise other spiritual accomplishments as well. One is mastery over dimensions of the mind—the jhānas and four immaterial absorptions, which are praised for their peace and ease. Another is mastery over nature and external phenomena, gained by actualizing the first five superknowledges (abhiññā, abhijñā). A byproduct of samādhi, these five give meditators supernormal physical and mental powers, enabling them to perform feats that cannot be explained by available scientific means. While some non-Buddhists see these as the purpose of the path, the Buddha emphasized that only nibbāna is actual liberation from dukkha. Thus when cultivating the superknowledges, it is essential to have a good motivation and to take care not to fall prey to conceit and clinging. Compassionately using these powers to benefit others and spread the Buddha’s teachings is meaningful. The superknowledges are:
1) Supernormal powers (iddhi, ṛddhi) are cultivated based on the powerful concentration of the fourth jhāna. They enable us to defy ordinary scientific laws by gaining mastery over nature. With them we can make our body into many bodies and then absorb these bodies back into a single body. We can become invisible, appearing and vanishing at will, pass through walls and mountains with ease, go under the earth, walk on water, and fly in space.
Chapter 12 of the Visuddhimagga describes the rigorous training necessary to do this, attaining each jhāna using various kasiṇas, progressing through all eight absorptions in forward and reverse order, alternating various absorptions, entering and emerging from absorptions very quickly, and so forth. With this extraordinary mental power, we then direct our mind to the exercise of the supernormal powers. Through the force of intention, and based upon this profound acuity and agility in samādhi, we gain the supernormal powers described above.
2) Divine ear, or clairaudience, is the ability to hear sounds in the human world, heavenly realms, and other realms and directions where sentient beings dwell. We can hear these faraway sounds as easily as if they were nearby.
3) Understanding the minds of others is the ability to know the mental states of others. We know minds affected and unaffected by attachment, anger, and confusion; exalted and unexalted minds, concentrated and unconcentrated minds, liberated and unliberated minds. Others’ mental states are known as clearly as seeing a spot on our own face reflected in a clean, bright mirror.
4) Recollection of past lives is the ability to know the particular details of our own lives for eons in the past.
5) With the divine eye we can see beings dying and reappearing in their next life according to their kamma. We know what actions sentient beings did to cause rebirth in particular realms and can see events in faraway places and other dimensions in the universe. Dhamma teachers with this ability may use it to know the kamma of sentient beings and thus who they will be able to benefit and which beings are ripe to enter the Dhamma path. Then with supernormal powers, they will go to these places to teach them.
6) Unlike other superknowledges, knowing the destruction of all pollutants does not require the full power of samādhi as a prerequisite. We can attain it on the basis of any of the four jhānas or, according to the commentary, with access concentration. This superknowledge realizes the “liberation of mind liberation by wisdom” (cetovimuttipaññāvimutti, cittavimuktiprajñāvimukti), nibbāna, which is totally free from all defilements.
While the Buddha taught the three spiritual accomplishments of nibbāna, meditative absorptions, and superknowledges, he did not expect all his disciples to accomplish the latter two. He knew his followers had different aptitudes and interests. Someone who attains nibbāna but not the other two abilities is “one liberated by wisdom” (paññāvimutta, prajñāvimukta). This person may attain jhāna or he may attain liberation without jhāna, developing wisdom and eradicating defilements on the basis of access concentration. Those who attain nibbāna as well as the various meditative absorptions have mastery of a wide range of mental states and are called “those liberated in both ways” (ubhatobhāgavimutta, ubhayatobhāgavimukta). Śrāvakas who attain nibbāna as well as mastery over mental states and the superknowledges that follow from them are called “arahants having the six superknowledges” (chalabhiññā arahant, ṣaḍabhijña arhat). In Theravāda countries we find all three persons to this day.
I heard about an Indian laywoman named Dipa Ma who was renowned as a stream-enterer; she passed away a little over twenty years ago. At the request of her meditation teacher, she mastered all eight meditative absorptions and the five superknowledges. She would resolve to sit in a particular absorption for a specific amount of time and emerge from it exactly at that time. Her teacher attested to her powers: one day he saw her floating in the sky above the treetops outside his window and at another time watched her dive into the ground and emerge from it. One day her teacher and a professor arranged for someone to be with her in one location, but she arrived for an appointment with the professor ten miles away at the same time. There are many such stories about her, yet she always remained a humble and sincere Dharma practitioner. She died in an interesting manner: she bowed to the Buddha and passed away before she could stand up.
The first five superknowledges are mundane powers attained through the fourth jhāna; the knowledge of the destruction of all pollutants is supramundane. While non-Buddhists may actualize the first five, only Buddhists will develop the insight and wisdom necessary to attain the sixth, an arahant’s liberation. The last three superknowledges—recollection of past lives, knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings according to their kamma and destruction of the pollutants—are the three higher knowledges the Buddha gained under the bodhi tree.
Sometimes two other powers—insight knowledge and mind-made body—are included at the beginning of the list of superknowledges, bringing the total to eight. Insight knowledge (vipassanā ñāṇa, vipaśyanā jñāna) knows “this body of mine, made of material form, consisting of the four great elements, procreated by a mother and father, and built up out of boiled rice and porridge, is subject to impermanence…and this consciousness of mine is supported by it and bound up with it” (MN 77:29).
Due to the ability of jhāna, we can create a mind-made body (manomayakāya)—a physical body with limbs and sense sources that is an exact replica of our own body. Once the mind-made body is extracted from the physical body—like a reed extracted from a sheath—we mentally control it because it has no mind of its own, even though to others it looks like a normal body moved by its own consciousness. The mind-made body can travel to distant places while we remain at the monastery. It can appear to teach Dhamma elsewhere, and when it has served its purpose, we absorb it back into our own body.
According to the Sanskrit tradition, cultivating the first five superknowledges is essential for bodhisattvas to be of great benefit to sentient beings and to accumulate the extensive merit necessary to attain full awakening. Bodhisattvas go to pure lands where they listen to Dharma teachings directly from the Buddha and create enormous merit by emanating abundant and magnificent offerings for the holy beings there.
By means of clairaudience, bodhisattvas listen to teachings given in other places. Understanding all languages, they hear a wide range of teachings and can speak to students in their own language. Through knowledge of others’ mind, bodhisattvas directly know others’ interests and dispositions as well as their emotional patterns and habitual thoughts so they can teach them skillfully. By knowing their past lives, bodhisattvas can seek out the spiritual mentors, Dharma practices, and spiritual friends they knew in previous lives, enabling them to progress rapidly on the path.
The divine eye enables bodhisattvas to know others’ karmic tendencies and their receptivity to the Dharma, so they can interact with them accordingly. They also know the karmic results of actions people are creating now, enabling them to guide disciples more effectively. They can locate their previous disciples and, because of their karmic connection, help them in their present life forms. Knowledge of the destruction of pollutants is knowledge of their own level of spiritual attainments and the paths they have attained.
While the Buddha possessed the superknowledges, he did not display them to show off and prohibited his followers from doing so. To ensure that monastics remain humble, one of our precepts is not to publicly proclaim one is an arhat or has these special abilities. Throughout the ages, the Buddha’s disciples with these abilities have used them discreetly, without drawing attention to themselves, working in unobtrusive ways to benefit others and spread the Dharma.
Attaining these powers through samādhi without having the correct motivation can be dangerous. If someone has not cultivated compassion, he may use these powers to gain power, respect, or material gain, which are very far from the goal of the Buddhist path—liberation and full awakening.
A few ordinary people have some clairvoyance by the power of karma; they may know a future event or someone’s thoughts. These karmic abilities are limited in scope, are lost at death, and what they perceive may not be completely accurate. Possessing them does not indicate that person has spiritual realizations.
Many of the instructions to cultivate serenity in the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions are the same, so only points that have not been previously explained or that are slightly different are explained below.
Regarding meditation in general, we can talk about two processes—serenity and insight—and two types of meditation—stabilizing and analytical. Stabilizing meditation is predominantly used to develop serenity and analytical meditation to develop insight. The difference between serenity and insight lies not in their meditation object but in the way the mind engages with the object. Serenity focuses on the object single-pointedly, while insight analyzes it deeply.
External factors—altitude, temperature, time of day, and physical health—influence our ability to meditate. Without good conditions, we may be able to develop some concentration but not full serenity. Therefore we should seek appropriate internal and external environments for meditation. Asaṅga and Kamalaśīla encourage us to have the following conditions when doing retreat to develop serenity and as many of them as possible during daily meditation practice. First, live in a calm, quiet, safe place with clean water and air where you can secure food, clothing, and shelter easily. Be near other meditators, teachers, or Dharma friends who can help if questions or hindrances arise. Prior to beginning retreat, develop a clear, correct understanding of how to do the practice and to overcome difficulties that may arise. In addition, be free from coarse desires and be satisfied and content. Avoid involvement in worldly activities and commotion. Finally, observe pure ethical conduct, keeping whatever precepts you have received and abandoning at least the ten nonvirtues.
The real meaning of “living in seclusion” has to do with renouncing the glitter of saṃsāra: abandoning thoughts of the past and future and relinquishing sensual desire for present objects (MN 21:10). Without this, our arrogance could increase by living in an isolated place and thinking, “Others should praise me and give me offerings because I am a great meditator doing what others cannot do.” We may have given up good food but be nourishing our arrogance instead!
It is important to practice in a consistent manner and avoid grandiose expectations of quick results. Short meditation sessions are recommended; pushing ourselves to do long sessions makes the mind tight, causing resistance to meditation. As the mind becomes more stable, sessions are gradually lengthened. Mindfully engaging in appropriate activities during break times between sessions helps the mind to be settled during the next session.
The seven-point meditation position of Vairocana straightens the subtle energy channels in our bodies, allowing the wind-energies (pāṇa, prāṇa) to flow smoothly, making the mind clearer and calmer.
1. Sit on a cushion with your legs in the vajra position: the left foot on the right thigh and the right foot on the left thigh. Other cross-legged positions that do not strain the knees are also fine. If you cannot sit cross-legged, you may also sit on a small bench or in a straight-backed chair with your feet flat on the floor.
2. Put your right hand on top of the left, palms up. Touch the thumbs together lightly and put your hands in your lap near your navel. Some meditation masters advise putting the hands palms down on the knees.
3. Keep your shoulders level.
4. Straighten the back.
5. Slightly incline your head, but do not let it droop.
6. Keep your lips and teeth natural. Your tongue should be on the upper palate to prevent thirst as well as excess saliva.
7. Direct your eyes toward the tip of your nose. If this is difficult, direct your gaze downward, but don’t focus on anything.
Keeping your eyes a little bit open when you meditate prevents drowsiness. The position of the eyes may vary according to the practice you do. Your physical position should be firm but also relaxed.
Begin the meditation session by taking refuge in the Three Jewels and cultivating a bodhicitta motivation. Recite inspiring verses and make requests to your spiritual mentor and the Three Jewels to uplift the mind. At the completion of the session, dedicate the merit for the welfare of all sentient beings.
While any object, internal or external, may initially be used to cultivate serenity, the final or actual object has to be one perceived by the mental consciousness. This is because concentration is developed with the mental consciousness not the sense consciousnesses. Although we may initially gain familiarity with the object by looking at it, we meditate on it with our mental consciousness.
Because sentient beings have different tendencies and dispositions, the Buddha described four general categories of objects for serenity meditation:
Extensive objects are so called because they are used for the development of both serenity and insight.
Objects for purifying behavior correspond with our temperament and help us counteract habituation with a particular affliction. Those with great desire concentrate on the ugly aspect of their object of attachment. Someone with strong anger meditates on the four immeasurables. Someone suffering from confusion contemplates dependent arising, while a conceited person reflects on the five mental and physical aggregates, the twelve sources, and the eighteen constituents. Doing this illustrates there is no independent self that is special. Someone with many distracting thoughts meditates on the breath to calm the mind.
Objects of skillful observation are so called because becoming skilled in or knowledgeable about them helps us realize emptiness. These objects are the five aggregates, eighteen constituents, twelve sources, twelve links of dependent arising, and appropriate and inappropriate results of various karmic causes.
Objects for purifying afflictions help to purify coarse and subtle afflictions of the three realms by temporarily suppressing them—this occurs by seeing the lower dhyānas as coarse and the higher dhyānas as peaceful—or by cutting their root through meditating on the sixteen attributes of the four truths.
In addition to these four objects, several other objects may also be used to cultivate serenity.
The conventional nature of the mind is the clear and aware nature of the mind. “Focusing the mind on mind” means one moment of mind focuses on the moment of mind immediately preceding it. To do this, we need to know what the mind is and be able to identify it. When the mind is distracted toward external objects and internal conceptualizations, its own clear and aware nature is obscured. When it can be seen alone, its qualities of clarity (which reflects objects by arising in their aspect) and awareness (which knows objects) become evident.
To identify the mind, gaze at an object with a muted, uniform color, and focus on the mind that is perceiving it. Immediately identify any distractions that may arise and return your attention to the clear and aware nature of the mind. As you do this, gradually these distractions will cease, and you will perceive a stable, lucid state of mind.
Keith Adams (Woking, Surrey)
MOGAO CAVES, DUNHUANG, CHINA
When the mind is able to remain in the present, undisturbed by thoughts of the past and future, we may experience a vacuum because we have removed our mind from its familiar focus on external objects. After some time of increasing the duration of this experience, we will glimpse the clear and aware nature of the mind. This is the mind that is the meditation object for developing serenity on the conventional nature of the mind. The practices of mahāmudrā and dzogchen both emphasize meditating on the mind itself to cultivate serenity.
The challenge with using the mind as the focal object is that because it is formless, we can easily slip into meditating on a mere conception of the lack of materiality or fall into blank-minded meditation on nothingness. In both instances we have lost the object of meditation.
Emptiness as the object for cultivating serenity is only for those of exceptionally astute aptitude who have realized emptiness inferentially. Temporarily forsaking analysis, they concentrate on emptiness that has been conceptually understood. Here, there is some danger that if they lack clear ascertainment of emptiness, they will meditate on nothingness instead.
The Buddha as the object for cultivating serenity is recommended by many masters due to its many advantages. It helps us recollect the Buddha’s qualities, inspires the mind, accumulates much merit, and facilitates other practices that involve visualizing the Buddha.
Begin by looking at an image of the Buddha or reflect on an eloquent description of him. Lower your eyes and, in the space in front of you, visualize the Buddha as a three-dimensional living being with a body made of brilliant golden light. Imagining a small figure makes the mind more alert; visualizing a bright figure counteracts laxity (laya); imagining it to be heavy prevents excitement and scattering.
Mentally go over the features of the Buddha’s body, then focus single-pointedly on his body as a whole. If the image fades, review the various features again and then sustain your concentration on the entire form. If one part of the Buddha’s body appears clearly, focus on that, and when it fades, return your attention to the entire body. Do not insist on trying to visualize every detail clearly before concentrating on the image.
The breath is a good meditation object. By focusing on it for a long time, the mind becomes still and settled, bringing respite from the afflictions.
Before being able to seriously cultivate serenity, we need to subdue whichever affliction is strongest, so it does not intrude when we meditate. By following this advice, our mind will be more malleable when meditating, and our ethical conduct and psychological well-being will also improve. A more stable mind provides the opportunity for concentration, bodhicitta, and wisdom to grow.
While cultivating serenity, we should use one meditation object without changing it in each meditation session. During a retreat to gain serenity, it is advisable to do mainly stabilizing meditation, with little analytical meditation, because analysis may disturb concentration. After serenity is attained, a meditator does analysis to combine serenity and insight, and at this time analysis does not disturb concentration.
Maitreya’s Madhyāntavibhāga speaks of five faults that interfere with developing serenity and eight antidotes that eliminate them.
1) Laziness (kosajja, kausīdya) may be of three types: sleeping and lying around, busyness doing useless saṃsāric activities, and discouragement. The actual antidote to laziness is mental pliancy, but since it takes a while to strengthen this mental factor, we begin by cultivating three other antidotes. Faith in the benefits of serenity appreciates the excellence of meditation. Depending on it, aspiration (chanda), which takes interest in and wants to derive the benefits of cultivating serenity, easily arises. Aspiration leads to effort, a mental factor taking delight in practicing concentration. By practicing, we eliminate excitement and laxity and develop pliancy, a mental factor free from mental and physical inflexibility, heaviness, and feelings of hardship. With physical and mental pliancy, our body feels light and flexible, and we are able to keep our mind on whatever virtuous object we choose without difficulty.
2) Forgetting the instruction means losing the meditation object. The mind strays from the object and goes to objects of attachment, anger, and so forth. This fault occurs mainly on the first four stages of sustained attention explained below. The antidote is mindfulness, a mental factor that is familiar with the meditation object and holds the mind on it in such a way that it impedes distraction and forgetfulness. To develop strong mindfulness in meditation, cultivating mindfulness in all aspects of life is important.
3) Since excitement and laxity have the same antidote, introspective awareness, they are grouped together as the third fault. Single-pointedness of mind has two characteristics, stability and clarity. Stability is the ability to stay on the meditation object. Excitement is the chief obstacle to stability because it distracts the mind to objects of attachment. With coarse excitement we lose the meditation object completely; with subtle excitement the meditation object isn’t entirely lost, but we are unable to engage it completely because an object of attachment is about to pop into our mind.
Clarity is the clarity of the mind apprehending the meditation object; its chief obstacle is laxity, which decreases the intensity of the clarity so that the mind’s mode of apprehending the object becomes loose. Laxity differs from lethargy (thīna, styāna)—a heaviness of body and mind that is close to sleep and makes us lose both stability and clarity. With coarse laxity there is some stability on the object, but the clarity has decreased and the object no longer appears clearly. The mind lacks force and remains in a vague state with an agreeable sensation, although it isn’t distracted to another object.
Subtle laxity is especially dangerous and difficult to recognize because it is similar to samādhi in that both have stability and clarity, and the mind is peaceful and experiences a pleasurable sensation. Although clarity remains and the mind may abide single-pointedly on the object, the mind is too relaxed, its grip on the object too loose. A meditator’s breath may stop, and she may sit in meditation for days believing she has attained serenity, when in fact subtle laxity has set in.
Mindfulness and introspective awareness work together to eliminate faults. Mindfulness holds and remembers the object of meditation, and introspective awareness assesses whether excitement or laxity has arisen to interrupt concentration. Although introspective awareness is said to be the antidote to excitement and laxity, it is not the actual antidote; it lets us know we need to apply the antidote. Here introspective awareness is like a spy, occasionally checking to see if faults to concentration have arisen. If not, continue meditating. If so, apply the specific antidote to that fault. For coarse excitement, the antidote is to make the mind more sober by contemplating impermanence, death, or the sufferings of saṃsāra. The remedy for subtle excitement is to relax the intensity of concentration slightly, but not so much that we lose the object. The antidote to coarse laxity is to enlarge the scope of the object, making it brighter and elaborating on the details. If coarse laxity persists, temporarily leave the meditation object and, to uplift the mind, contemplate a topic such as precious human life, the good qualities of concentration, benefits of bodhicitta, or qualities of the Three Jewels. When subtle laxity is present, hold the meditation object more firmly in the mind.
4) Non-application (anabhisaṃskāra) means we do not apply the antidotes when we know excitement or laxity is present. The antidote is to apply the appropriate antidote to whichever fault has arisen and exert effort to eliminate it.
5) Over-application applies antidotes to excitement and laxity when they haven’t occurred or when they have already been eliminated. Its antidote is equanimity, where effort is slightly relaxed.
Being able to identify in our own experience the mental factors interrupting concentration and those supporting it is essential. It takes time and introspective awareness to observe how our mind operates, but as we do, Dharma will come alive for us.
Maitreya outlined nine stages of sustained attention that are accomplished sequentially to attain serenity. Certain faults are prominent in each stage, so specific antidotes are emphasized in each. To progress through these stages, we develop six powers (bala) and four mental engagements (manaskāra).
1) Placing the mind (cittasthāpana). Here our goal is to find the meditation object and place the mind on it, even though the mind cannot remain there for long. This stage is accomplished by the power of hearing (śruti), for we learn about the cultivation of serenity and place the mind on the object as instructed by our teacher. Effortful engagement (balavāhana) is used because great effort is required to make the mind stay on the object.
2) Continual placement (pravāhasaṃsthāpa). The power of reflecting (āśaya) on the object collects the mind and binds it to the object at least for a short while. Effortful engagement is still necessary to keep the mind on the object, but now the mind is not immediately distracted and can stay on the object with some continuity.
3) Repeated placement (pratiharaṇa). Distractions are fewer, and when they arise we are able to recognize them quickly and bring the mind back to the object. Due to developing the power of mindfulness during the previous two stages, the mind easily returns to the meditation object. Interrupted engagement (sacchidravāhana) is present on the third through seventh stages because concentration is not continuous.
4) Close placement (upasthāpana). Mindfulness is generated at the beginning of a session, and attention remains on the object more easily and distractions are fewer. Coarse excitement and laxity are present, so engagement with the meditation object is still interrupted.
5) Taming (damana). The mind is tamed—it can stay on the object almost continuously without wandering. Coarse laxity and coarse excitement are no longer problems. Now the mind becomes too absorbed in the object, and subtle laxity occurs. Engagement is interrupted by subtle laxity and subtle excitement, but concentration is easily restored by the power of introspective awareness, which sees the faults of distraction to sense objects, discursive thoughts, and auxiliary afflictions and prevents the mind from going toward them.
6) Pacifying (śamana). Through the power of introspective awareness, all resistance to single-pointed meditation is gone. During the fifth stage, concentration was tightened to eliminate laxity. Now concentration may be too tight, causing subtle excitement. Subtle laxity may still arise from time to time, so both of these make for interrupted engagement with the object. The power of introspective awareness can now sometimes identify excitement and laxity before they arise and deal with them.
7) Thoroughly pacifying (vyupaśamana). Even if subtle thoughts or disturbing emotions manifest, they are easily pacified. Subtle laxity and subtle excitement arise occasionally—so engagement is still interrupted—but the power of effort easily and quickly stops them. Mindfulness, introspective awareness, and effort are well developed, but non-application of the antidotes may still occur.
8) Making single-pointed (ekotīkaraṇa). Only a little effort is needed at the beginning of the session to discern the details of the object and guard against laxity and excitement. After that, the mind can stay on the object through the power of effort, so uninterrupted engagement (niśchidravāhana) is present. Single-pointed concentration lasts longer.
9) Placement in equipoise (samādhāna). Due to the power of familiarity (paricaya) with the previous powers, the mind spontaneously remains in samādhi. Effort to maintain mindfulness and introspective awareness is no longer required. Once mindfulness is placed on the object and the mind has entered meditative equipoise, it effortlessly remains single-pointed. Spontaneous engagement (anābhogavāhana) is present, and single-pointed meditation automatically continues for a long time. The sense consciousnesses are totally absorbed and no longer respond to external stimuli during meditation. This is the highest concentration attainable with a desire-realm mind. It is a similitude of serenity; fully qualified serenity has not yet been attained.
As we progress through these stages of samādhi, the strength of mind and the power of meditation increase in dependence upon each other, and correspondingly clarity and stability increase, resulting in peace and happiness. Our complexion becomes youthful and radiant; we feel light and vigorous, and our dependence on coarse food decreases.
After attaining the ninth stage, we must still attain mental and physical pliancy, and the bliss of physical and mental pliancy. Some people are able to do this quickly; others must meditate for weeks before attaining serenity.
Asaṅga (LRCM 3:82) defines pliancy as “a serviceability of the body and mind due to the cessation of the continuum of physical and mental dysfunctions. It has the function of dispelling all obstructions.” Physical dysfunctions are related to wind-energies and make the body heavy and uncomfortable when engaging in virtue. Mental dysfunctions prevent us from enjoying eradicating afflictions.
Increased familiarity with concentration overcomes physical dysfunctions. At this time a sense of bliss and a pleasant tingling sensation occur on the head because dysfunctional wind-energies are exiting from the crown. Immediately afterward, dysfunctional mental states are overcome and special mental pliancy is attained. This is a serviceability of mind—lightness and clarity coupled with the ability to set the mind on whatever virtuous object we wish.
Special mental pliancy induces serviceability of the wind-energies flowing through the body as the wind-energies that power the afflictions subside. A wind-energy of physical pliancy pervades the whole body, and the body’s lack of serviceability for meditation is overcome. Physical pliancy is a lightness, buoyancy, and serviceability of body that enables it to be used for whatever virtuous purpose we wish, without pain or hardship. This leads to the experience of the bliss of physical pliancy, a very blissful tactile sensation.
As samādhi continues, we have the sense that the body has melted into the meditation object. At this point, the bliss of mental pliancy is experienced. The mind is very joyous, pliant, and confident in concentration. Following this, there is a sensation similar to placing a cool hand atop a freshly shaven head. The mental bliss decreases a little, and when it becomes stable, unchangeable bliss of concentration and unchangeable mental pliancy are experienced. At this point serenity and access concentration have been attained. As human beings, we are desire-realm beings, but while meditating our mind of access concentration is a material-sphere consciousness.
After attaining serenity, a practitioner may follow a mundane path to gain the five superknowledges and rebirth in material and immaterial realms. This involves mundane insight, where during seven preparatory stages one contemplates the faults of the lower absorption and the benefits of the higher absorption and then suppresses the level of afflictions interfering with attaining the higher one. Both Buddhists and non-Buddhists may do this.
Alternatively, Buddhists may, after attaining serenity, follow a supramundane path, in which serenity is used as the basis for cultivating insight into selflessness and emptiness. Doing this is necessary for attaining nirvāṇa and is unique to Buddhism.
It is not necessary to gain all eight meditative absorptions of the material-sphere and immaterial-sphere consciousnesses to cultivate insight realizing emptiness. Tsongkhapa says that union of serenity and insight as well as liberation can be attained by cultivating insight based on serenity—that is, by depending on access concentration (LRCM 3:95). However, unlike śrāvakas, who can attain their path of seeing with access concentration, bodhisattvas have their first direct perception of emptiness and enter the bodhisattva path of seeing while meditating in the fourth jhāna. At some time in their training, bodhisattvas will develop all eight meditative absorptions of the material and immaterial realms to enhance the flexibility of their concentration.
When human beings have attained access concentration or above, their single-pointed concentration does not vanish completely during the break times between meditation sessions. It is not manifest, however, and when they go about their daily activities, their five senses function. Their afflictions are weaker due to the powerful influence of samādhi, but afflictions may still arise, so practitioners must maintain mindfulness and introspective awareness in all activities.
Serenity becomes a Buddhist practice when supported by refuge in the Three Jewels. When coupled with the determination to be free and the wisdom realizing emptiness, serenity brings liberation. And when conjoined with bodhicitta and the wisdom realizing emptiness, serenity leads to full awakening. To ensure our practice of serenity brings liberation or full awakening, beginners should not seek meditative concentration to the exclusion of other practices. They should be sure to meditate on the defects of saṃsāra and the possibility of attaining liberation to cultivate a proper motivation and have a firm foundation for practicing insight.
The way of generating serenity is the same for śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. Those following the Sūtrayāna and those practicing the first three classes of tantra develop serenity in a similar manner and first attain serenity, then insight. Highest yoga tantra contains special techniques involving concentration on subtle objects. This makes the mind more subtle as well. A tantric practitioner who is already very familiar with meditation on emptiness through analytical meditation can attain serenity and insight simultaneously.
The depth of concentration needed to uproot cognitive obscurations is much greater than that needed to overcome afflictive obscurations. For that reason, bodhisattvas cultivate amazing states of concentration. Seventh ground bodhisattvas are able to enter and leave nondual concentration on emptiness in a split second. Their mental pliancy is so great that they can switch from single-pointedness on one meditation object to the same depth of concentration on another object in a moment. Other practitioners are not capable of doing this as quickly or with such ease.
Dekyi Wong
SHWEDAGON PAGODA, BURMA
While many great meditation masters in China have written about the cultivation of serenity and of concentration in general, the Tiantai master Zhiyi (538–97) authored some of the clearest and most important texts. His writings are particularly important because they appeared early in the history of Chinese Buddhism, when proper meditation instruction was available to sincere monastic practitioners but not to general Buddhist practitioners. Rooted in the classic Indian texts, Zhiyi’s comprehensive and clear instructions were a great boost to practitioners of his time and have been practiced by meditators in many Chinese schools to the present day. Presenting serenity and insight in accord with Maitreya and Asaṅga’s texts, Zhiyi emphasized practicing them in a balanced fashion.
Zhiyi’s Essentials for Practicing Serenity, Insight, and Dhyāna (Xiuxi zhiguan zuo chan fa yao) is a comprehensive guide to the cultivation of concentration. He speaks of the prerequisite internal and external conditions for the cultivation of serenity, emphasizing the importance of confession, purification, and renouncing desire for objects of the five senses. He also discusses sitting in the proper position, overcoming the five hindrances, adjusting the breath and the mind when entering meditation; adjusting the body, breath, and mind when abiding in meditation; and adjusting them when concluding a meditation session. His text also covers relating with sense stimuli and practicing in the break times when sitting, lying down, walking, and standing. Regarding meditation objects, he speaks specifically of the breath, foulness of the body, love, dependent arising, and the Buddha. He describes true and false signs of dhyāna absorption and how to resolve physical disorders and imbalances and hindrances from spirits. He concludes the book with realization of the fruits for śrāvakas and bodhisattvas.
Zhiyi’s Six Gates to the Sublime (Liu miao fa men) speaks of a sixfold meditation explained in Kātyāyaniputra’s Abhidharma Vibhāṣā (about 200 B.C.E.), Vasumitra’s Mahāvibhāṣā (150 C.E.), and Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (fourth century). Buddhaghosa transforms this into an eightfold formula in the Visuddhimagga (8:189–225). The “six gates” are counting the breath, following the breath, stabilizing, analyzing, transforming, and purifying. This same meditation is taught in the Tibetan tradition as well.