Brian Harris, Tibetan Nuns Project
TIBETAN NUNS DOING PUJA, INDIA
13 | Bodhisattva Training in the Perfections
THE PERFECTIONS (pāramī, pāramitā) are the method to attain awakening ourselves, and the four ways of gathering disciples (saṅgahavatthu, saṃgrahavastu) are the method to lead others on the path to awakening.
The Sanskrit tradition enumerates ten perfections: generosity (dāna), ethical conduct, fortitude, joyous effort, meditative stability, wisdom (paññā, prajñā), skillful means, unshakable resolve, power (bāla), and exalted wisdom (ñāna, jñāna). The last four are refined aspects of wisdom, making six perfections. In the Pāli tradition the ten are generosity, ethical conduct, renunciation (nekkhamma, naiṣkramya), wisdom, joyous effort, fortitude, truthfulness (sacca, satya), determination (adhiṭṭhāna, adhiṣṭhāna), love and compassion, and equanimity.
Pāramī and pāramitā mean “going beyond the end” or “reaching perfection.” When done with the bodhicitta motivation, these practices take us beyond saṃsāra to buddhahood, where all obscurations have been eliminated and all good qualities have been developed limitlessly. The perfections become supramundane when conjoined with the wisdom realizing emptiness: the bodhisattva knows the agent, object, and action of each perfection arise dependently and are therefore empty of inherent existence.
Having generated bodhicitta, we need to accumulate all the appropriate causes and conditions for full awakening. These are subsumed in the two collections of merit and wisdom. The collection of merit ripens the mind, makes it more receptive, and is the principal cause for a buddha’s form body. The collection of wisdom eradicates defilements and is the principal cause of a buddha’s dharmakāya. The two collections encompass the perfections.
The basis—the person who engages in the perfections—is those who have awakened their bodhisattva disposition by generating bodhicitta. They rely on a qualified spiritual mentor and receive extensive teachings on texts about the perfections. Not satisfied with intellectual knowledge, they reflect and meditate on these teachings and practice the perfections at every opportunity they have.
Regarding the nature of each perfection: (1) Generosity includes physical, verbal, and mental actions based on a kind intention and the willingness to give. (2) Ethical conduct is restraint from nonvirtue. (3) Fortitude is the ability to remain calm and undisturbed in the face of harm from others, physical or mental suffering, and difficulties in learning the Dharma. (4) Joyous effort is delight in virtue and in creating the causes to attain the dharmakāya and form bodies of a buddha. (5) Meditative stability is the ability to remain fixed on a virtuous object without distraction. (6) Wisdom is the ability to distinguish and deeply understand conventional and ultimate truths and to discern what to practice and what to abandon on the path.
Each perfection accomplishes the welfare of other sentient beings in a specific way. Generosity alleviates poverty and provides others with the basic necessities of life and other things they can enjoy. Ethical conduct eases others’ fear and pain. Fortitude bears others’ inconsiderate or harmful behavior without retaliating and causing them pain. Joyous effort helps others without laziness, resentment, or empathic distress. Meditative stability leads to the superknowledges. Wisdom teaches others so that they can generate wisdom, thus eliminating their doubts and leading them to awakening.
Since fulfilling the collections of merit and wisdom takes a long time, we need to ensure that we have precious human lives in our future rebirths so we will be able to continue practicing the path. Generosity ensures we have the material resources needed to practice. Ethical conduct is the principal cause of attaining good rebirth. Fortitude results in being attractive and having good companions who encourage our Dharma practice. Joyous effort enables us to complete virtuous projects in future lives. Meditative stability leads to a stable, peaceful mind that can meditate without distraction. The wisdom correctly understanding karma and its effects enables us to know what to practice and what to abandon on the path and thus to discern teachers imparting the correct path from charlatans. Engaging in each perfection and experiencing its results in future lives is important. Lacking even one will limit our opportunity to progress on the bodhisattva path in future lives.
Brian Harris, Tibetan Nuns Project
TIBETAN NUNS DOING PUJA, INDIA
The six perfections can be included in the three higher trainings. Generosity, ethical conduct, and fortitude are included in the higher training of ethical conduct; dhyāna is in the higher training of concentration; and wisdom is in the higher training of wisdom. Joyous effort is needed for all of them.
All six perfections can be included in the practice of each one. For example, a small act of generosity such as giving someone a cup of tea can be done with bodhicitta. Not harming others physically or verbally when giving the tea is ethical conduct. If the recipient harms us or doesn’t appreciate the gift, fortitude keeps the mind calm. Giving the tea is done with joyous effort, taking delight in being generous. Stability of mind is necessary so the mind maintains a bodhicitta motivation and is not polluted by afflictions while giving. Prior to giving, wisdom is needed to know what, when, and how to give. While giving, contemplating the emptiness of the giver, gift, recipient, and act of giving cultivates wisdom.
Fulfilling the perfections requires time, practice, and patience. Instead of expecting to be experts, we can accept our present abilities and at the same time work to increase them in the future. The Buddha did not start off fully awakened, and there was a time when he found the perfections challenging. However, because causes bring their corresponding results, by steady practice we can begin, develop, and complete all the bodhisattva practices.
The Treatise on the Pāramīs—written by the great Pāli commentator Dhammapāla and found in his commentary on the Cariyāpiṭaka and subcommentary to the Brahmajāla Sutta—explains the ten pāramīs as bodhisatta practices. Dhammapāla’s audience and purpose were “clansmen following the suttas (suttantikas) who are zealously engaged in the practice of the vehicle to great awakening (mahābodhiyāna), in order to improve their skillfulness in accumulating the collections (requisites) for awakening.” Praising the Buddha for having completed the bodhisatta path and becoming a fully awakened buddha, Buddhaghosa comments (Vism 1:33), “The virtue of the perfections done for the liberation of all beings is superior.”
The perfections are good qualities to cultivate no matter which of the three vehicles we follow, and many people seeking arahantship practice them. Bodhisattas must practice them more intensely and for a longer time to attain their spiritual goal. Disciples in Theravāda countries frequently praise their teachers for their great accumulation of pāramīs.
Buddhaghosa explains the progression from one perfection to the next (Vism 9:124). Having generated the four immeasurables, bodhisattas
…give gifts, which are a source of pleasure, without discriminating thus: “It must be given to this one; it must not be given to this one.” To avoid doing harm to beings they undertake the precepts of ethical conduct. They practice renunciation for the purpose of perfecting their ethical conduct. They cleanse their wisdom for the purpose of nonconfusion about what is good and bad for beings. They constantly arouse effort, having beings’ welfare and happiness at heart. When they have acquired heroic fortitude through supreme effort, they become patient with beings’ many kinds of faults. They do not deceive when promising, “We shall give you this; we shall do this for you.” They have unshakable determination for beings’ welfare and happiness. Through unshakable love, they place them first. Through equanimity, they expect no reward. Having thus fulfilled the pāramīs, they perfect all the good states classed as the ten powers, four kinds of fearlessness, six kinds of knowledge not shared [by sāvakas], and eighteen unique qualities of a buddha.
The ten perfections share many characteristics: they function to benefit others, are motivated by the aspiration to attain awakening, and are done with a mind unpolluted by craving, conceit, and wrong views. Great compassion and skillful means—the wisdom transforming them into the requisites of awakening—are their proximate causes and accompany each of them.
When contemplating the perfections, we should reflect: What afflictions do I need to be particularly on guard against when practicing each pāramī? What are the antidotes to that affliction? How can I energize mindfulness and introspective awareness to recognize the afflictions and apply their antidotes?
To develop inner strength to complete the path, bodhisattas offer themselves to the buddhas. Then, if they encounter difficulties in practicing the pāramīs—for example, they lack requisites for living, are insulted, experience illness or injury, or become exhausted—they reflect, “I have given myself to the buddhas for the sake of the awakening of all beings. Whatever comes, comes.” In this way they trust the Three Jewels and have confidence in the law of kamma and its effects. Not succumbing to fear or worry, they remain firm and determined to continue on the bodhisatta path.
Destroying self-centeredness and cultivating love are the means to accomplish the pāramīs. Bodhisattas treat all beings as equal to themselves in importance and remain emotionally stable in all circumstances. By contemplating sentient beings as their precious children or relatives, bodhisattas’ love, compassion, and affection increase. Having subdued their own ignorance, attachment, and anger, they mature others’ minds with the four ways of gathering disciples, causing sentient beings to enter and then complete any of the three vehicles.
The time necessary to accomplish the perfections depends on the inclination of each bodhisatta—whether wisdom, faith, or energy is predominant. All bodhisattas receive predictions of their awakening directly from a buddha and then proceed to fulfill the perfections in the time corresponding to their inclination. Since full awakening is attained by the power of wisdom, bodhisattas inclined toward wisdom proceed more rapidly.
Bodhisattas are a supreme field of merit, held dear by humans and non-humans, protected by deities, and unharmed by wild animals. Free from malice, jealousy, competitiveness, hypocrisy, miserliness, stubbornness, and arrogance, bodhisattas’ presence in a place prevents danger and disasters. Due to practicing the pāramīs, bodhisattas have long life, enabling them to accumulate excellent qualities, deepen their meditation, and complete a multitude of virtuous actions to benefit sentient beings. They have an attractive form drawing others to them, are born in excellent families, are influential, and have many helpers for their virtuous activities that benefit others. They are trustworthy and reliable, so sentient beings value their advice and give them authority. Because their minds have been transformed into the Dhamma, bodhisattas cannot be subjugated by others but instead subdue others through their noble qualities. Through these accomplishments, bodhisattas are capable and have many opportunities to guide others in the Dhamma of the three vehicles.
Nevertheless, we should not expect every bodhisatta to display all these benefits. Bodhisattas manifest in whatever ways benefit sentient beings according to sentient beings’ kamma. Thus they may be from a lower social class, physically unattractive, or have a short life.
The result of bodhicitta and the bodhisattas’ pāramīs is buddhahood, with the attainment of the magnificent form body with the thirty-two signs and eighty marks of a great person (mahāpurisa, mahāpuruṣa), and the dhammakāya, glorious with wondrous qualities such as the ten powers.
Five of the ten perfections in the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions have the same names—generosity, ethical conduct, fortitude, joyous effort, and wisdom. Unshakable resolve (Sanskrit tradition) and determination (Pāli tradition) have different names but similar meaning, as do meditative stability (Sanskrit tradition) and renunciation (Pāli tradition). While truthfulness, love, and equanimity are listed as perfections only in the Pāli tradition, and skillful means, power, and exalted wisdom only in the Sanskrit tradition, the meaning of each of these is found in the teachings of both traditions. Dhammapāla says that when seen according to their nature, the ten perfections become six, which are the six perfections found in the Sanskrit tradition. Thus the great majority of the material is shared in common.
The perfections taught in both traditions will be explained together. This will be followed by the perfections found in one tradition but not another. Material from Dhammapāla’s treatise has Pāli spelling, and material from the Sanskrit tradition has Sanskrit spelling.
Based on nonattachment and the relinquishing of miserliness, generosity is the mind of giving. Generosity is of four types:
1) Giving material resources is giving possessions or money. Bodhisattas give whatever is needed to whoever needs it. They give even if not asked, and they give a suitable amount, not just a little so that the other person will leave them alone. They give without expecting to receive a gift, praise, or fame in return, and when there is not enough to go around, they distribute it equitably among all those in need. They do not give things that may cause harm or stimulate afflictions to arise in others’ minds, such as weapons, intoxicants, pornography, and dangerous chemicals. They give only what is appropriate for the recipient and conducive for the other’s well-being.
Should bodhisattas notice they are becoming attached to a particular object, they immediately give it away. When asked for things, they contemplate the disadvantages of clinging and see the person asking as a close friend helping to free him from bondage to these items and giving him the opportunity to be generous.
Bodhisattas also give their own body by serving others or giving parts of their body, but they do this only when it is suitable. If they hesitate to give their body, they should think that if people in need of the various parts of a medicinal tree were to come and take them, the tree would not complain. Similarly, since this body has the nature of dukkha and since they have entrusted it to the service of others, there is no sense clinging to it thinking, “This is mine, this am I, this is my self.”
Ārya bodhisattvas are able to give their body without hesitation or fear. Practitioners below this level are allowed to give only parts of their body if doing so does not jeopardize their lives. It is wiser for ordinary bodhisattvas to maintain their precious human lives and use them to practice the Dharma. Meanwhile, they can aspire to give their bodies in the future, after they become āryas.
Ārya bodhisattvas who give their bodies do not experience physical suffering due to their great merit and do not experience mental suffering due to their wisdom. Ordinary bodhisattvas feel physical suffering when giving parts of their body. However, the pain they experience serves only to intensify their compassion for other sentient beings, who experience far greater pain in unfortunate rebirths.
We should practice giving possessions as much as we can, making offerings to the Three Jewels each day, offering our food before eating, and giving to those in need. Doing practices in which we imagine giving our body, possessions, and virtues of the past, present, and future are also beneficial, especially if we reflect that the giver, recipient, and gift exist dependently and are empty of inherent existence.
2) Giving fearlessness is offering protection to those who are frightened, lost, or in danger. It calms sentient beings’ minds and shields them from physical suffering.
3) Giving love includes volunteering in social welfare projects, consoling the grieving, and encouraging others’ good qualities.
4) Giving the Dhamma is giving correct Dhamma teachings that lead to well-being and peace in this and future lives and to liberation and full awakening. Bodhisattas introduce the Dhamma to sentient beings who have not met it and mature the minds of those who are already practicing. They give discourses on the three vehicles according to the disposition of the audience. When sharing the Dhamma, they do not expect special treatment, respect, or offerings but simply give advice or instructions to others as one close friend to another.
Generosity has many benefits. It is the cause to receive resources. Making offerings to the Three Jewels creates a karmic connection that will enable us to meet holy beings who will guide us on the path. Bodhisattvas give whatever is required and beneficial with a joyful heart, knowing that through this, they will attain full awakening.
If we think of the benefits of giving and the disadvantages of stinginess but still cannot bring ourselves to give to a person who has asked for something, the Buddha tells us to humbly explain to him:
At this point my strength is meager and my roots of virtue are immature.… I still have the perspective of grasping and am stuck in grasping things as I and mine. And so, good person, I beg you to forgive me and not to be upset. [In the future] I will act, accomplish, and exert myself in order to fulfill your desires and those of all beings.32
Being generous does not mean abolishing all the poverty in the world. If we have the wish to give but lack resources, there is no fault. Each situation in which we are requested to help needs to be examined individually, in light of our motivation, capability, and the repercussions of our action.
Ethical conduct is the attitude of abandoning all thoughts of harming others through relinquishing the self-centered attitude. There are three types of ethical conduct:
1) Restraining from destructive actions entails abandoning the ten nonvirtues and abiding in whatever precepts and commitments we have taken. It is the best protection from being harmed and is more effective than thousands of warheads and the best bodyguards. Ethical conduct gives us sovereignty over our body, speech, and mind. Those with pure ethical conduct exude the “fragrance of virtue,” making them more attractive to others and thus more effective in benefitting them.
If afflictions arise in the mind threatening their virtue, bodhisattas reflect, “Didn’t I resolve to attain awakening for the benefit of all beings? To do this, I must teach the Dhamma, and to be a trustworthy guide, I must have a pure character and possess attainments such as the jhānas and wisdom. All these are founded upon pure ethical conduct. Therefore I should protect my ethical conduct.” Thus bodhisattas strengthen their ethical resolve, personal integrity, and consideration for others; take lay or monastic precepts; avoid transgressing their precepts by exercising mindfulness and introspective awareness; and purify all transgressions.
Bodhisattvas guard the four gates through which ethical errors occur: (1) ignorance regarding what to practice and abandon, (2) lack of respect for the precepts—not thinking that ethical conduct is important, (3) carelessness, and (4) strong afflictions that overpower the mind. They practice the antidotes to these four by (1) studying the ten virtues and the precepts, (2) developing faith and respect for the precepts by understanding the disadvantages of unethical behavior and the benefits of ethical conduct, (3) being careful and conscientious in their actions by maintaining mindfulness and introspective awareness, and (4) applying antidotes to the afflictions.
2) Collecting positive qualities is taking every opportunity to enhance the collections of merit and wisdom in order to progress on the path. Bodhisattas respect their spiritual mentors and those worthy of respect, offer service to them, and care for them during illness. They appreciate advice and instructions given by the wise and rejoice in the merit of others. With gratitude for those who have helped them, they benefit and honor others in return.
3) Benefiting sentient beings in need involves caring for the ill and injured, comforting the grieving, giving wise advice to those about to act recklessly, helping others in danger, and facilitating reconciliation and forgiveness. It also entails aiding the blind, deaf, and those who are physically or mentally challenged, helping those without faith to cultivate it, teaching the lazy how to be energetic, and instructing those plagued by the five hindrances in their antidotes. Bodhisattas rehabilitate those with faulty ethical conduct, addictions, and criminal records. In short, in whatever way their companionship, knowledge, or abilities can benefit others, they employ these without hesitation.
Being judicious, bodhisattas are accessible to others but only at the right time, in a suitable place, and in a proper situation. They neither push their help and advice on others nor refuse them when needed. In guiding others, bodhisattas behave only in ways that increase others’ good qualities and virtuous actions and avoid abusing or humiliating others. As much as possible, bodhisattvas act in accordance with others’ wishes and needs as long as these do not harm themselves or others and do not distract from Dharma practice.
The three types of ethical conduct occur in a fixed sequence. Restraint from harm establishes the foundation for engaging in virtuous actions, which in turn enables us to work for the welfare of sentient beings.
When hearing of the wondrous deeds and spiritual accomplishments of previous bodhisattas, bodhisattas do not become discouraged or overwhelmed but reflect, “Those great beings were once human beings too. They trained in the pāramīs and fulfilled the collections, thus attaining their great abilities. I too will train as they did and attain the same realizations and abilities to benefit others.” In this way, bodhisattas generate faith and inspire themselves.
Bodhisattas do not become arrogant due to the purity of their ethical conduct but always remain humble, concealing their virtues and revealing their faults. They are content, do not complain, and are not conceited or manipulative. They are honest and direct yet tactful.
Cultivating the unpolluted wisdom that does not grasp the inherent existence of the sphere of three—the person abandoning the destructive action, the destructive action, and the being who was to be the recipient of harm—makes a bodhisattva’s practice of ethical conduct supramundane.
Bodhisattas dedicate their merit for full awakening, not for a fortunate rebirth, release from saṃsāra, or attainment of the superknowledges. Dhammapāla (TP sec. 10) says they dedicate it:
…only for the purpose of becoming an omniscient buddha in order to enable all beings to acquire the incomparable adornment of ethical conduct.
Fortitude or patience is the ability to remain resolute and calm in the face of hardship or suffering. Remembering the disadvantages of anger as explained earlier inspires us to practice fortitude. Since we cannot identify who is a bodhisattva and who is not, it is better to restrain our anger toward all beings.
Cultivating fortitude brings many benefits. Others find us attractive, we are close to holy beings, our discriminating wisdom is keen, our future rebirths will be fortunate, and our nonvirtues decrease. Fortitude is the basis for a good reputation, enabling us to benefit others. The perfection of fortitude is of three kinds:
1) The fortitude undisturbed by harm from others involves not retaliating when others harm us, those dear to us, or our possessions. Here are some themes for reflection to avoid anger, resentment, and spite when others harm us:
• Anger is the real enemy because it destroys all that is good, perpetrates harm, and spreads negativity.
• Enemies are the result of angry thoughts and preconceptions. To free myself from enemies, I must relinquish anger.
• Anger destroys my virtue and merit. Without these I cannot fulfill my bodhisatta aspiration. Until I do that, all sentient beings will be immersed in dukkha.
• No good comes from anger. Due to it, my good qualities and reputation decline. I cannot sleep or eat well.
• This suffering will consume that karma, no longer enabling it to obscure my mind.
• Although this suffering arises from the harmful deeds of others, this body of mine is the field for that suffering, and the karma that made me take this body was created by me alone. There is no reason to blame others for my misery.
• The person harming me is my teacher, enabling me to cultivate fortitude.
• Although this person is harming me now, in the past he has been my friend and someone who has helped.
• All beings are like my children. How can I become angry at their misdeeds done through unknowing?
• This harm is showing me the suffering nature of saṃsāra. I must work to end the dukkha of myself and others.
• It is the nature of the cognitive faculties to encounter pleasant and unpleasant objects.
• The harmer, harmful action, and recipient of harm have ceased at this very moment. They are past. With whom shall I be angry, and who is becoming angry? Since all phenomena are selfless, who can harm whom?
• The Buddha looks at all these beings as dear ones. How can I hate someone the Buddha holds dear?
• Mere phenomena alone exist, devoid of being I or mine. Arising and disintegrating due to causes and conditions, they do not come from anywhere, they do not go anywhere, they are not established anywhere. There is no self-sufficient agency in anything whatsoever.
• The person and the action are different. While an action may be harmful or wrong, the person who does it is not evil. He has the potential to become a buddha. The real troublemaker is his afflictions that make him act in detrimental ways.
The Pāli tradition explains that bodhisattas dissect the experiences of harm and anger into their parts and see that each factor arises dependent on other ones and is transient, arising and passing away in the briefest moment. What is there to cling to? Being impermanent, these factors are unsatisfactory, and being both impermanent and unsatisfactory, they are not suitable to be considered mine, I, or my self. There is no person being criticized and no person feeling hurt due to it.
The Sanskrit tradition explains that after meditating on emptiness, bodhisattvas view all elements of the harm—the harmer, the harmed, and the act of harming—as deceptive, similar to reflections and illusions in that they deceptively appear to exist inherently although they do not. This wisdom enables bodhisattvas to bear suffering without physical or mental anguish and, thus, without anger.
Practicing fortitude and being compassionate do not mean our physical and verbal actions are always passive and pleasing. While calm behavior is appropriate in some situations, in others we may need to act forcefully or assertively to stop one person from harming another. Yet even in such a situation, we act without anger.
When someone harms us and then, realizing his error, sincerely apologizes, it is crucial that we forgive him and do not hold a grudge. Continuing to remind the person of his error or secretly wishing for harm to befall him runs counter to the bodhisattva spirit.
2) The fortitude of voluntarily accepting suffering is the ability to endure physical or mental suffering and hardship with calm. There are times in our lives when we willingly bear suffering. A woman in labor willingly bears the pain of childbirth. Similarly, we cultivate the capacity to bear suffering without becoming upset, because doing so will prevent future suffering and enable us to progress on the path to awakening.
When experiencing physical pain from illness or injury or mental pain from injustice or betrayal, we remember that this pain is the result of our own destructive actions. We can reflect, “It is better that this karmic seed ripens now as present suffering than in a horrible rebirth in the future.” Or we can think, “May my suffering suffice for the misery of all sentient beings.” We contemplate that enduring suffering with a calm mind dispels conceit, strengthens renunciation, fortifies our refuge in the Three Jewels, and increases our compassion.
3) The fortitude of practicing the Dharma enables us to happily continue to learn and practice for however long it takes to fathom the Dharma’s deep and detailed meanings. Fear and resistance may arise along the path because the Dharma challenges our dearly held but afflictive preconceptions and prejudices. It takes fortitude not to retreat to the habitual emotions and behavior that are the very source of our misery and instead to arouse courage and continue practicing. Meditating on emptiness challenges the very root of innate self-grasping ignorance, so great fortitude and courage are required to dismantle it.
This fortitude includes accepting Dharma concepts that our wisdom has not yet completely penetrated by trusting the Buddha’s word on the basis of the teachings we have already understood or experienced. This enables us to continue to investigate the teachings, knowing that time is needed to fully understand them. As we gain the fortitude born from reflecting on the Dharma, we become able to tolerate things that previously seemed intolerable.
Joyous effort is an attitude that takes delight in virtue. Without it, actualizing our spiritual aspirations is impossible. But with joyous effort we happily practice the path for our own and others’ welfare, without discouragement or exhaustion. With indefatigable effort, we will not give up when we undertake to fulfill the collections of merit and wisdom and liberate all sentient beings from saṃsāra. Thus joyous effort is said to be the source of all auspicious attainments.
The texts mention three types of joyous effort:
1. Armor-like joyous effort is enthusiasm for practice. It enables us to continue without falling prey to the laziness of procrastination, pursuing meaningless activities, or discouragement. With it, bodhisattvas vow, “I shall dedicate myself for eons to benefit even one sentient being.”
2. Joyous effort of acting constructively is supported by a deep aspiration to benefit sentient beings, making our mind energetic and delighted to practice.
3. Joyous effort of benefiting sentient beings reaches out to help the same groups of sentient beings mentioned in the ethical conduct of benefiting others.
The Abhisamayālaṃkāra speaks of three types of joyous effort that counteract the three types of laziness:
1. Joyous effort of not being attached to frivolous actions counteracts the laziness of attachment to the eight worldly concerns. Remembering the disadvantages of cyclic existence jolts us out of our complacent distraction.
2 Joyous effort of not becoming fatigued opposes the laziness of sleep, lethargy, and procrastination. Contemplating death helps us appreciate the opportunity our present precious human life affords and dispels procrastination.
3 Joyous effort of thoroughly upholding the path opposes the laziness of discouragement that thinks, “I am incapable of practicing the Dharma,” “The path is too difficult,” or “The goal of awakening is too high.”
Sometimes we want to develop a certain skill or to help others, but our work does not turn out as we wished and we feel discouraged. This happens to me too. But when I examine my motivation, my confidence returns. I began with a sincere desire to benefit. Regardless of what others may say, knowing that my motivation was genuine gives me courage and inner strength. Even though I may not be outwardly successful, I still feel satisfied. On the other hand, if my motivation is not sincere, then even if others praise me and I become famous, discomfort and self-doubt plague me.
It’s important to counteract the laziness of discouragement. Do this by reflecting on the fact that you have the potential for liberation and full awakening. Reflect on the marvelous situation of freedom and fortune that you have with your precious human life. Recall that the Buddha was once a limited sentient being like you, but through his diligent practice, he attained full awakening.
Initially our ability to practice is quite weak. As we practice repeatedly, our capacity increases. When our capacity becomes strong, we will look back and see that what initially seemed almost impossible has now become possible and that we have accomplished what we did not think we could do. Our inner capabilities have grown because we made effort.
Four forces counteract the laziness inhibiting joyous effort: Thinking of the benefits of joyous effort and the faults of laziness, we generate interest in cultivating joyous effort and abandon laziness. With stability we continue whatever virtuous activities we begin, committing to do them only after examining whether we have the time and ability to complete these projects. With joy, we consistently and continuously act in beneficial ways. With relinquishment, we rest our body and mind when needed and later enthusiastically resume our virtuous activities.
Bodhisattvas cultivate three types of confidence enabling them to maintain their joyous effort: With confidence in action, they are prepared to act alone, without others’ help. With confidence in their capacity to work for others, they engage in beneficial activities without self-doubt or hesitation. With confidence to oppose afflictions, they are determined to prevent and counteract afflictions.
Bodhisattas reflect, “Have I accumulated the collections today? What have I done to benefit sentient beings today?” In this way, they remember their heartfelt spiritual aspiration and encourage themselves to act upon it. Bodhisattas willingly take upon themselves the suffering of all beings and rejoice in their merit and virtues. They frequently recall the Buddha’s great qualities and perform all actions motivated by bodhicitta. Whatever happiness they experience, they aspire for all beings to experience it as well. In this way, day by day, they accumulate the requisites for awakening.
While different in name, the Sanskrit perfection of meditative stability and the Pāli perfection of renunciation deal with the same practices: renunciation of sense pleasures and cultivation of concentration. The perfection of meditative stability involves developing concentration through the nine stages of sustained attention. The method to do this was described previously.
While bodhisattvas renounce the pursuit of sense pleasures to develop the eight meditative absorptions, these are not their main interest. Their ultimate aim is to use their concentration to develop the insight focused on emptiness and then use that to cut the root of saṃsāra and eliminate the two obscurations.
The pāramī of renunciation is grounded in realizing the unsatisfactory nature of saṃsāra. Based on a sense of spiritual urgency (saṃvega), bodhisattas abandon attachment to sense pleasures and to existence in all saṃsāric realms. Renunciation protects bodhisattas from extreme asceticism, involvement in the afflictions of others, and indulging in sense pleasures.
To reinforce renunciation, bodhisattas reflect on the dangers of sense pleasures, the distraction of the householder’s life, and the benefits of monastic life. They see that career and family life lead to numerous entanglements that consume time and galvanize afflictions. Sense pleasures give limited pleasure and abundant harm, like honey smeared on the blade of a sword. They are fleeting like a flash of lightning, and they intensify our thirst like drinking salt water.
Seeing these disadvantages, bodhisattas contemplate the benefits of renunciation, simplicity, and solitude and become monastics. Living with ethical conduct, they cultivate contentment with robes, almsfood, and shelter, and through this they come to delight in meditation and attain the jhānas. Here Dhammapāla discusses the thirteen ascetic practices and the forty meditation objects for the cultivation of serenity.
Cultivating the wisdom, intelligence, and knowledge to attain full awakening does not require a high IQ or educational degree. Rather we must be open-minded, have the ability to learn and analyze clearly, be sincere in our spiritual aspirations, and have created sufficient merit. Our intelligence and ability to understand can be increased in this life through learning, thinking, and meditating under the guidance of a wise and compassionate teacher.
In the Sanskrit tradition, the perfection of wisdom is of three types: wisdom understanding emptiness, wisdom of fields of knowledge and skills necessary to benefit sentient beings, and wisdom knowing how to benefit sentient beings. Here the wisdom realizing emptiness is emphasized, because without it we remain in saṃsāra and our ability to benefit others is restricted.
Meditation on emptiness is of two kinds: space-like meditation and illusion-like meditation. Space-like meditation is meditative equipoise on emptiness—the selflessness of persons and phenomena. It is called “space-like” because emptiness is unencumbered and limitless like space and the mind meditating on emptiness is spacious, uncluttered by the appearances of inherently existent objects and discursive conceptualizations.
After refuting inherent existence, what remains is mere nominal existence. It is obvious from our own experience that things exist and bring help or harm; our actions have effects. However, when we analyze how these things exist, we cannot find anything that exists “from its own side,” in its own right. Everything exists by being merely designated.
After practitioners arise from meditative equipoise on emptiness, things once again appear inherently existent due to the latencies of ignorance. Bodhisattvas now do illusion-like meditation, reflecting that things are like illusions in that they appear one way (as inherently existent) but exist in another (as empty of inherent existence). This meditation enables practitioners to remain equanimous regarding the seemingly attractive and repulsive things they encounter. Mindfulness of the illusion-like nature of persons and phenomena reinforces their realization of emptiness in formal meditation sessions.
In the Pāli tradition, the perfection of wisdom understands the general and specific characteristics of phenomena. It arises based on concentration and knowledge of the four truths and clearly illuminates phenomena.
Wisdom purifies all the other perfections, enabling them to serve as the foundation for the omniscient mind of a buddha. Wisdom enables bodhisattas to give even their own bodies. It frees ethical conduct from afflictions such as craving. Recognizing the dangers of sense pleasures and the householder’s life, wisdom knows the benefits of renunciation, jhāna, and nibbāna. It steers joyous effort in a proper direction, enabling it to accomplish all virtues. Wisdom gives bodhisattas fortitude when encountering others’ wrongdoings and offensive behavior. Those with wisdom speak truthfully, have firm determination, lovingly care for the welfare of all beings, and maintain equanimity when serving and guiding them and while still abiding with the vicissitudes of saṃsāra.
To cultivate wisdom arising from learning, bodhisattas fully study the five aggregates, six sources, eighteen constituents, four ariya truths, twenty-two faculties, twelve links of dependent arising (Vism 14–17), four establishments of mindfulness, and classifications of phenomena. Bodhisattas also learn worthy fields of knowledge that could be useful to sentient beings. Bodhisattas cultivate the wisdom arising from thinking by reflecting on the specific characteristics of the phenomena that they have studied.
Then they engage in the preliminary portion of the wisdom arising from meditation, which is included under mundane kinds of full understanding (pariññā, parijñāna). Here bodhisattas discern the three general characteristics of the aggregates and understand all internal and external phenomena as follows, “This is mere name and form (nāmarūpamatta), which arise and cease according to conditions. There is no agent or actor. It is impermanent in the sense of not being after having been; unsatisfactory in the sense of oppression by changing; and not self in the sense of being unsusceptible to the exercise of mastery.” Through this understanding bodhisattas abandon attachment and lead others to do so too. They mature sentient beings’ minds in the paths of the three vehicles, helping them to attain the jhānas, meditative liberations, concentrations, attainments, and mundane superknowledges. They continue doing this until they reach the peak of wisdom and the qualities of the Buddha are in sight.
The wisdom arising from meditation may be spoken of in two ways: the five mundane superknowledges (Vism 12–13) and the five purifications. Purification of view, purification by overcoming doubt, purification by knowledge and vision of what is and is not the path, and purification by knowledge and vision of the way are mundane purifications. Purification by knowledge and vision is the supramundane knowledge of the four ariya paths (Vism 18–22).
Dhammapāla comments that the Visuddhimagga describes these topics for someone following the sāvaka path to arahantship. Bodhisattas should practice them with compassion, bodhicitta, and the skillful means of wisdom. In addition, bodhisattas develop wisdom up to and including purification by knowledge and vision of the way. They must wait to attain purification by knowledge and vision because this is the four ariya paths that realize nibbāna in stages. Before entering the ariya paths, bodhisattas must skillfully balance their development of compassion and wisdom, and only when the pāramīs are complete do they enter the ariya paths and attain full awakening. In this way their attaining nibbāna will coincide with their full awakening.
The Sanskrit perfection of unshakable resolve and the Pāli perfection of determination are similar. The perfection of unshakable resolve entails making strong aspirations and resolute determinations to do specific great deeds for the benefit of sentient beings. In the Sanskrit tradition, these include the twelve pledges of the Medicine Buddha, forty-eight pledges of Amitābha Buddha, and ten pledges of Samantabhadra. According to the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra, the latter are to pay homage to all buddhas, praise all buddhas, make abundant offerings, confess destructive actions, rejoice in others’ virtues, request the buddhas to teach, request the buddhas to remain in the world, follow the teachings of the buddhas at all times, benefit and live harmoniously with all living beings, and dedicate all merit to sentient beings.
Bodhisattvas make unshakable resolves that may not be actualized, such as promising to lead each and every sentient being out of suffering. Making such pledges is not a pointless pursuit. It strengthens our determination to be of whatever benefit we can to whatever sentient being is in need, regardless of the difficulties it may entail for us personally. As ordinary beings with limited physical and mental abilities, we have to assess what we can actually do before acting. Nevertheless, making such wonderful resolutions, even if they seem unrealistic, expands the scope and strength of our minds so that gradually we will be able to increase our capacity to benefit others.
The perfection of determination is the unshakable resolve to fulfill our promise to liberate sentient beings and to perfect the ten pāramīs. It gives us the courage to remain steadfast in the practice, even when afflictive mental states threaten to dislodge us.
The above practices are shared by the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions. The following ones are found in the list of perfections from one tradition but not the other, although they are in fact practiced in both traditions.
Skillful means indicates the way in which buddhas and bodhisattvas, motivated by compassion, explain the teachings and adapt their behavior to best communicate with sentient beings, who have unique needs and capacities. Skillful means also includes bodhisattvas’ ability to see all phenomena as empty without abandoning sentient beings, and to their ability to abide in deep states of concentration without being hindered by attachment to rebirth in the material and immaterial realms.
The Bodhisattvabhūmi describes two sets of skillful means. Regarding the first, accomplishing all the qualities of a buddha within themselves, bodhisattvas practice looking upon all sentient beings with compassion, taking rebirth in saṃsāra due to compassion and wisdom, knowing the ultimate nature of phenomena, not abandoning beings in saṃsāra, desiring the exalted wisdom of unsurpassed awakening, and spurring their enthusiasm with bodhicitta.
Regarding the second, ripening all other living beings, bodhisattvas cultivate the ability to teach sentient beings how to transform small actions into great virtue, cause them to accomplish great roots of virtue without hardship, eliminate anger in those who dislike the Buddha’s doctrine, encourage those with a neutral attitude to enter into the Buddha’s doctrine, ripen the mindstreams of those who have entered into the Dharma, and cause mature sentient beings to attain liberation.
Power is of many types: the power of no longer indulging in the afflictions because they have been abandoned, the power of superior thought to train in the exalted wisdom of ārya bodhisattvas, the power of remembering all Dharma teachings heard or read, the power to remain in deep concentration without being distracted, the power of knowing the behavior of each sentient being in the countless realms, the power to fulfill all our aims, the power of being skilled in distinguishing and examining the Buddha’s qualities, the power to not give up engaging in the Buddhas’ activities, the power to completely ripen the Buddha’s qualities within self and others, the power of great love protecting all sentient beings without bias, the power of great compassion to eliminate the duḥkha of all sentient beings without bias, the power to experience the ultimate reality that is like an illusion, and the power of approaching the exalted wisdom of omniscience.
Contemplating these powers of ārya bodhisattvas gives us a glimpse of the qualities we will be able to gain by practicing the Bodhisattva Vehicle. Creating the causes for such powers and using them to benefit ourselves and others will bring us great satisfaction, confidence, and exuberance to practice.
The perfection of exalted wisdom knows the diversity of phenomena, conventionalities, and enables bodhisattvas to be of great benefit to all beings.
Truthfulness is speaking without deception. Through speaking truthfully and acting according to our promises, we remain true to our word to benefit sentient beings and do not abandon them. Through this, they will come to trust us, which opens the door to our benefiting them.
Bodhisattas speak the truth, whether others react by helping or harming them. They teach the Dhamma skillfully, according to the inclination of the audience, but do not alter the Buddha’s word so that others will give them respect or offerings. Thus sentient beings can trust that bodhisattas’ teachings are the actual Dhamma, not something adjusted or made up to indulge their afflictions.
With truthfulness bodhisattas accept the empty nature of beings. Not being deceived about the true nature of phenomena, they complete all collections for awakening and accomplish the bodhisatta path.
Love is the aspiration to give happiness to all sentient beings and create the conditions whereby they will be happy. Bodhisattas think, “It is good to wish others happiness, but that alone will not give them happiness. I must act with love and joyous effort to accomplish this.” They also reflect that sentient beings are the incomparable field of merit with which they are able to cultivate virtue and fulfill the collections. In that way, bodhisattas consistently maintain a mind that cherishes sentient beings and never abandons them. With an unbounded heart they reach out to give happiness to others. To do that, they must eliminate sentient beings’ misery and its cause, the afflictions. In this way they generate compassion wishing sentient beings to be free from suffering and its causes.
Brian Harris (Tibetan Nuns Project)
BUTTER LAMP PUJA AT DOLMA LING NUNNERY IN DHARAMSALA, INDIA.
Equanimity is impartiality regarding the desirable and undesirable, the pleasing and displeasing. Remaining equanimous, bodhisattas continue to practice no matter what comes their way. With equanimity they benefit sentient beings without discriminating between those who help and those who harm.
Without equanimity the mind oscillates according to what we encounter from the people and things around us. This lack of balance impedes concentration, disturbs ethical conduct, and obstructs acting in ways that benefit sentient beings. Imbued with equanimity, we can face whatever comes in a balanced way, free from worry, discontent, and fear, thus increasing our determination to serve sentient beings and supporting the practice of all the pāramīs.
Found in both the Pāli and Sanskrit traditions, the four ways of gathering disciples are used by bodhisattvas to inspire people’s interest in the Dharma and persuade them to learn and practice. These are also known as “four ways of promoting the good of others” and “four means of unification,” in which we form a community unified by the common goal of Dharma practice.
1) Being generous and giving material aid involves helping others materially by supplying them with what they need. Others will be attracted by our generosity, and that opens the door for us to teach them the Dharma. Also, giving ensures that they have the material requisites to learn the Dharma, without which sincere disciples will be unable to practice. The Pāli and the Sanskrit traditions both attest that the gift of the Dharma is the highest gift, because it enables others to create the causes for temporal and ultimate happiness themselves.
2) Friendly, pleasant speech involves speaking to others in a variety of ways depending on the situation. We may talk with people about what interests them to make their acquaintance. When they are receptive to the Dharma, we speak pleasantly by instructing them in the Buddha’s teachings and giving them wise advice when they face difficulties. Bodhisattvas speak politely, respect others, listen carefully to what they say, and do not force their ideas on others. They are not biased regarding who they teach—rich and poor, male and female, ordained and lay.
3) To encourage others with beneficial conduct, we praise their good qualities and support them so they can practice the Dharma and transform their physical, verbal, and mental actions into virtue. We may do this by organizing or leading Buddhist services, meditations, and retreats. By engaging in social welfare projects, Buddhists show the public that our compassion is not merely verbal, and they become attracted to the Dharma. Encouraging others who face karmic obstacles that make them resistant to the Dharma requires great patience and diligence but is worthwhile. In short, we try to arouse faith in the skeptic, virtue in the unethical, generosity in the stingy, and wisdom in the ignorant (AN 9:5).
4) Acting congruently and living the teachings through personal example inspires others to practice and increases their faith in the Three Jewels. Embodying the Dharma in our daily actions is essential to be worthy of others’ trust and be able to continue to benefit them. Here we work and live with others, providing them with a good example of how to live a kind and ethical life. In skillful ways we lead others to adopt virtuous ways.
Teaching the Dharma is highly beneficial, but it is also a great responsibility that must be approached gradually and with the permission of our spiritual mentor. A compassionate motivation for teaching is of crucial importance, and we must continually reflect on and purify our motivation. The Buddha criticized monastics who taught in the hope that others would listen to them and express their appreciation by offering requisites and other gifts. Such a way of teaching is impure. The Buddha explained the pure way to teach (SN 16:3):
But a bhikkhu who teaches the Dhamma to others with the thought: “The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, immediate, inviting one to come and see, applicable, to be personally experienced by the wise. Oh, may they listen to the Dhamma from me! Having listened, may they understand the Dhamma! Having understood, may they practice accordingly!” Thus he teaches the Dhamma to others because of the intrinsic excellence of the Dhamma; he teaches the Dhamma to others from compassion and sympathy, out of tender concern. Such a bhikkhu’s teaching of the Dhamma is pure.
To give the Dharma to others, we must know it well ourselves; otherwise we run the risk of giving incorrect teachings and damaging students. We should not teach topics we do not understand well. When we do not know the answer to a question, it is best to say, “I don’t know,” and then consult our teacher or research the topic in Dharma texts.
