1 I take this title from a fundamental study, R. A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity, Cambridge, 1990.
2 F. Prinz, Frühes Mönchtum im Frankenreich, 2nd edn., Munich, 1988; M. Dunn, The Emergence of Monasticism. From the Desert Fathers to the Early Middle Ages, Oxford, 2000, now provides an overview.
3 G. Jenal, Italia ascetica atque monastica, Stuttgart, 1995.
4 B. Rosenwein, Negotiating Space. Power, Restraint and Privileges of Immunity in Early Medieval Europe, Ithaca, NY, 1999, pp. 32–5.
5 M. dell’Omo, Montecassino. Un’abbazia nella storia, Monte Cassino, 1999, p. 187 and figs. 30, 60, and 86.
6 Gregory the Great, Letter 8.5.
7 Benedict, Rule 48.7: transl. T. G. Kardong, Collegeville, MN, 1996, p. 382.
8 A. de Vogüé, La règle de Saint Benoît 6, Sources chrétiennes 186, Paris, 1971, p. 967.
9 Fortunatus of Braga, General Rule 9: transl. C. W. Barlow, Fathers of the Church 63, Washington, DC, 1969, p. 190.
10 H. Lutterbach, Monachus factus est. Die Mönchwerdung im frühen Mittelalter, Münster, 1995, pp. 90–105 and 120–3.
11 A. de Vogüé, La règle de Saint Benoît 6, pp. 1355–67; M. de Jong, In Samuel’s Image. Child Oblation in the Early Medieval West, Leiden, 1996.
12 P. Brown, Body and Society. Men, Women and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity, New York, 1988, pp. 260–1; J. Boswell, Expositio and oblatio: the abandonment of children and the ancient and medieval family, American Historical Review, 89 (1984): 10–33.
13 Gregory, Letter 3.61.
14 A. de Vogüé, La règle de Saint Benoît 1, Sources chrétiennes 181, Paris, 1972, pp. 41–3.
15 Benedict, Rule, Prologue 45 and 73.8, pp. 3 and 603.
16 Gregory, Dialogues 2.20: transl. O. J. Zimmermann, Fathers of the Church 39, New York, 1959, p. 87.
17 Benedict, Rule 55.7, p. 440.
18 A. Diem, Keusch und Rein, Amsterdam, 2000.
19 G. Muschiol, Famula Dei. Zur Liturgie in merowingischen Frauenklöstern, Münster, 1994.
20 Brown, Body and Society, pp. 259–84.
21 Muschiol, Famula Dei, pp. 43–63; C. Peyroux, Canonists construct the nun? Church law and women’s monastic practice in Merovingian Gaul, in R. W. Mathisen (ed.), Law, Society, and Authority in Late Antiquity, Oxford, 2001, pp. 242–55.
22 G. Lawless, Augustine of Hippo and his Monastic Rule, Oxford, 1987, pp. 135–48.
23 W. Klingshirn, Caesarius of Arles, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 117–24.
24 Life of Caesarius 1.35: transl. W. Klingshirn, Liverpool, 1994, pp. 26–7.
25 Caesarius, Letter 21.2 (to Caesaria), p. 130.
26 Caesarius, Rule for Nuns 56: transl. M. C. McCarthy, Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, 1960, p. 189.
27 Diem, Keusch und Rein, pp. 132–61.
28 Life of Caesarius 2.26, p. 56.
29 E. Diehl, Inscriptiones latinae christianae veteres, no. 46, Zurich, 1970, p. 13.
30 I. N. Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751, London, 1994, pp. 136–9.
31 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].2: transl. J. A. McNamara with J. Halborg and E. Whatley, Sainted Women of the Dark Ages, Durham, NC, 1992, p. 71. The Life of Radegund is in two parts, the first written by Venantius Fortunatus and the second by Baudovinia, a nun from Radegund’s own convent: B. Brennan, St. Radegund and the early development of her cult at Poitiers, Journal of Religious History, 13 (1984/5): 340–54.
32 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].6, p. 73.
33 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].12, p. 75.
34 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].13–14, pp. 75–6.
35 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].19 and 25, pp. 78 and 81.
36 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].17, p. 77.
37 Baudovinia, Life of Radegund [2].16, p. 97.
38 Baudovinia, Life of Radegund [2].1, p. 87.
39 Venantius Fortunatus, Poems 2.1–7: Patrologia Latina 88: 87B–96A.
40 Venantius Fortunatus, Life of Radegund [1].1, p. 70.
41 B. Rosenwein, Negotiating Space, pp. 52–8; J. M. H. Smith, Women at the tomb: access to relic shrines in the early Middle Ages, in K. Mitchell and I. N. Wood (eds.), The World of Gregory of Tours, Leiden, 2002, pp. 163–80.
42 Baudovinia, Life of Radegund [2].14, p. 95.
43 Gregory of Tours, Lives of the Fathers 8.6: transl. E. James, Liverpool, 1985, p. 71.
44 Venantius Fortunatus, Poems, book 11: transl. J. George, Liverpool, 1995, pp. 103–10.
45 Baudovinia, Life of Radegund [2].33 and 36, pp. 83–4.
46 Baudovinia, Life of Radegund [2].10, p. 93.
1 S. Lancel, La survie et la fin de la latinité en Afrique du Nord, Revue des études latines, 59 (1981): 269–97.
2 R. Wright, Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian Francia, Liverpool, 1982.
3 P. Riché, Education and Culture in the Barbarian West, Columbus, SC, 1976.
4 R. Kaster, Guardians of Language, Berkeley, CA, 1988, pp. 3–8 and 11–70; H. I. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity, Madison, WI, 1982, pp. 299–339.
5 Cassiodorus, Variae 9.21.4: transl. S. J. B. Barnish, Liverpool, 1992, p. 122.
6 P. Heather, Literacy and power in the migration period, in A. K. Bowman and G. Woolf (eds.), Literacy and Power in the Ancient World, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 177–97.
7 Kaster, Guardians of Language, pp. 70–95; J. Fontaine, Isidore de Séville et la culture classique dans l’Espagne wisigothique, 2nd edn., Paris, 1983, pp. 785–806.
8 G. Dagens, Grégoire le Grand: culture et expérience, Paris, 1977, pp. 38–50.
9 R. A. Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 213–28.
10 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville, pp. 786–8.
11 Marrou, History of Education, p. 209.
12 P. Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life, Oxford, 1995; M. Nussbaum, The Therapy of Desire. Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics, Princeton, NJ, 1994; R. Sorabji, Emotion and Peace of Mind. From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation, Oxford, 2000.
13 Dagens, Grégoire le Grand, pp. 75–81.
14 Fontaine, Isidore de Séville, pp. 277–337.
15 Epistulae Austriacae 13, 16, and 22, W. Gundlach (ed.), Corpus Christianorum 117, Turnhout, 1957, pp. 431–41.
16 Life of Audoin, Bishop of Rouen 1: transl. P. Fouracre and R. A. Geberding, Late Merovingian France. History and Hagiography 640–720, Manchester, 1996, p. 154.
17 P. D. King, Law and Society in the Visigothic Kingdom, Cambridge, 1972.
18 I. N. Wood, Administration, law and culture in Merovingian Gaul, in R. McKitterick (ed.), The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval Europe, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 63–81.
19 C. Courtois and L. Leschi, Les Tablettes Albertini, Paris, 1952.
20 I. Velázquez Soriano, Documentos de época visigoda escritos en pizarra (siglos VI–VIII), 2 vols., Turnhout, 2000.
21 B. Effros, Monuments and memory: repossessing ancient ruins in early medieval Gaul, in M. de Jong and F. Theuws with C. van Rhijn (eds.), Topographies of Power in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2001, pp. 93–118; D. Kinney, Rape or restitution of the past? Integrating spolia, in S. C. Scott (ed.), Art and Interpreting. Papers in Art History from the Pennsylvania State University, 9, University Park, PA, 1995, pp. 56–67; J. Poeschke (ed.), Antike Spolien in der Architektur des Mittelalters und der Renaissance, Munich, 1996.
22 T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 170–6.
23 The Martryrology of Oengus: transl. W. Stokes, London, 1905, p. 193.
24 T. J. Brown, The oldest Irish manuscripts and their Late Antique background, in P. Ní Chatháin and M. Richter (eds.), Irland und Europa, Stuttgart, 1984, pp. 311–27.
25 For example T. Cahill, How the Irish Saved Civilization, New York, 1995.
26 N. Wright, Columbanus’ Epistolae, in M. Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus. Studies on the Latin Writings, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1997, pp. 29–92.
27 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 176–81.
28 P. Harbison, Pilgrimage in Ireland. The Monuments and the People, Syracuse, NY, 1992, pp. 71–110.
29 M. W. Herren, Gildas and early British monasticism, in A. Bammesberger and A. Wollman (eds.), Britain 400–600. Language and History, Heidelberg, 1990, pp. 65–78.
30 C. Vogel, Composition légale et commutation dans le système de la pénitence tarifiée, Revue de droit canonique 8 (1958): 285–318 and 9 (1959): 1–38 and 341–59.
31 P. Sims-Williams, Thought, word and deed: an Irish triad, Ériu, 29 (1978): 78–111.
32 C. Stancliffe, Red, white and blue martyrdom, in D. Whitelock, R. McKitterick, and D. Dumville (eds.), Ireland in Early Medieval Europe, Cambridge, 1982, pp. 21–46; C. Etchingham, Church Organisation in Ireland A.D. 650–1000, Maynooth, 1999, pp. 291–318.
33 L. Bieler, The Irish Penitentials, Dublin, 1963; J. T. McNeill and H. Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance, New York, 1938 and 1990, pp. 75–178; K. Hughes, Early Christian Ireland: Introduction to the Sources, London, 1972, pp. 82–9.
34 The Penitential of Cummian: transl. Bieler, pp. 108–35; McNeill and Gamer, pp. 99–117.
35 Penitential of Cummian 2.18, Bieler, p. 117; McNeill and Gamer, p. 104.
36 P. Payer, Sex and the Pentitentials, Toronto, 1984; H. Lutterbach, Sexualität im Mittelalter, Cologne, 1999, pp. 64–214.
37 R. Kottje, Studien zum Einfluss des Alten Testaments auf Recht und Liturgie des frühen Mittelalters, Bonn, 1970; B. Jaski, Early Irish kingship and the Old Testament, Early Medieval Europe, 7 (1998): 329–44.
38 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 136–44; F. Kelly, A Guide to Early Irish Law, Dublin, 1988, pp. 125–34.
39 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, p. 107.
40 Bretha Déin Chécht 26, D. Binchy (ed.), Ériu, 20 (1966): 1–65, at p. 39.
41 R. Stacey, The Road to Judgement. From Custom to Court in Medieval Ireland and Wales, Philadelphia, PA, 1994, pp. 27–81.
42 Penitential of Finnian 23, Bieler, pp. 81–2.
43 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 344–90.
44 T. M. Charles-Edwards, The penitential of Columbanus, in Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus, pp. 217–39.
45 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 291–3.
46 C. Stancliffe, Venantius Fortunatus, Ireland, Jerome: the evidence of Precamur Patrem, Peritia, 10 (1996): 91–7.
47 T. M. Charles-Edwards, The social background to Irish Peregrinatio, Celtica, 11 (1976): 43–59.
1 Columbanus, Letter 1.9: transl. G. S. M. Walker, Sancti Columbani Opera, Dublin, 1960, p. 11.
2 H. B. Clarke and M. Brennan, Columbanus and Merovingian Monasticism, Oxford, 1981; D. Bullough, The career of Columbanus, in M. Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus. Studies on the Latin Writings, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1997, pp. 1–28; T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 344–90.
3 Columbanus, Letter 1.4, p. 5.
4 Columbanus, Letter 5.8, p. 45; P. T. Gray and M. Herren, Columbanus and the three chapters controversy, Journal of Theological Studies, NS 45 (1994): 160–70.
5 Columbanus, Instruction [Sermon] 1.3, p. 63; C. Stancliffe, The thirteen sermons attributed to Columbanus, in Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus, pp. 93–202.
6 Columbanus, Instruction 7.1, p. 91.
7 Columbanus, Instruction 3.3, p. 77.
8 Columbanus, Instruction 4.1, p. 79.
9 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 1.12: transl. E. Peters, Monks, Bishops, and Pagans, Philadelphia, PA, 1981, p. 81–2.
10 J. Stevenson, The monastic rules of Columbanus, in Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus, pp. 202–16.
11 Columbanus, Rule for Monks 10, p. 141.
12 Columbanus, Instruction 12.3, p. 115.
13 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 2.13: transl. J. A. McNamara with J. Halborg and E. G. Whatley, Sainted Women of the Dark Ages, Durham, NC, 1992, p. 166.
14 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 2.19, p. 171.
15 G. Muschiol, Famula Dei, Münster, 1994, pp. 222–63.
16 T. M. Charles-Edwards, The penitential of Columbanus, in Lapidge (ed.), Columbanus, pp. 217–39.
17 H. Atsma (ed.), La Neustrie. Les pays au nord de la Loire de 650 à 850, Sigmaringen, 1989; I. N. Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms 450–751, London, 1994, pp. 181–220; P. Fouracre and R. A. Geberding, Late Merovingian France. History and Hagiography 640–720, Manchester, 1996.
18 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 1.11, Peters, p. 80.
19 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 1.32–33, Peters, pp. 94–6.
20 D. Ganz, Bureaucratic shorthand and Merovingian learning, in P. Wormald (ed.), Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, Oxford, 1983, pp. 58–75.
21 E. James, Archaeology and the Merovingian monastery, in Clarke and Brennan (eds.), Columbanus and Merovingian Monasticism, pp. 33–55.
22 R. Le Jan, Convents, violence and competition for power in seventh-century Francia, in M. de Jong and F. Theuws with C. van Rhijn (eds.), Topographies of Power in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2001, pp. 243–69.
23 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 1.50, Peters, p. 106.
24 B. Rosenwein, Negotiating Space. Power, Restraint and Privileges of Immunity in Early Medieval Europe, Ithaca, NY, 1999, pp. 74–96.
25 Diploma of Chlothar III cited in Rosenwein, Negotiating Space, pp. 79–80.
26 Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms, pp. 215–16.
27 Y. Hen, Les authentiques des reliques de la Terre Sainte en Gaule franque, Le Moyen Age, 105 (1999): 71–90.
28 P. Brown, The rise and function of the holy man, Journal of Roman Studies, 61 (1971): 80–101, now in Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity, Berkeley, CA, 1982, pp. 103–52, at pp. 145–6.
29 M. de Jong, Transformations of penance, in F. Theuws and J. L. Nelson, Rituals of Power. From Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2000, pp. 185–224, which substantially revises accepted views, for which see: C. Vogel, La discipline pénitentielle en Gaule des origines à la fin du VIIe siècle, Paris, 1952, and B. Poschmann, Penance and Anointing of the Sick, New York, 1964.
30 Éric Rebillard, In hora mortis. Évolution de la pastorale chrétienne de la mort aux IVe et Ve siècles dans l’Occident latin, Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 283, Rome, 1994, pp. 160–7.
31 Gregory the Great, Moralia in Job 8.6.8–9 and 24.41: M. Adriaen (ed.), Corpus Christianorum 143, Turnhout, 1979, pp. 385–8 and 412; transl. Library of the Fathers, vol. 1, Oxford, 1844, pp. 418–19 and 447–8.
32 Gregory the Great, Dialogues 4.46.9: transl. J. O. Zimmermann, Fathers of the Church 39, New York, 1959, p. 257.
33 C. Etchingham, Church Organisation in Ireland A.D. 650–1000, Maynooth, 1999, pp. 291–318; R. Meens, The frequency and nature of early medieval penance, in P. Biller and A. Minnis (eds.), Handling Sin. Confession in the Middle Ages, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1998, pp. 35–61.
34 P. Brown, Gloriosus obitus: the end of the ancient other world, in W. Klingshirn and M. Vessey (eds.), The Limits of Ancient Christianity, Ann Arbor, MI, 1999, pp. 289–314 at pp. 296–9.
35 Jonas, Life of Columbanus 2.11, McNamara, Sainted Women, pp. 162–3.
36 Gregory, Dialogues 4.43.2, p. 250.
37 Gregory, Dialogues 4.42.1–5, pp. 248–9.
38 P. Brown, The decline of the empire of God: amnesty, penance, and the afterlife from Late Antiquity to the Middle Ages, in C. W. Bynum and P. Freedman (eds.), Last Things. Death and the Apocalypse in the Middle Ages, Philadelphia, 2000, pp. 41–59.
39 C. Carozzi, Le voyage de l’âme dans l’Au-delà, Collection de l’École française de Rome 189, Rome, 1994.
40 Carozzi, Le voyage de l’âme, pp. 99–138.
41 Vision of Fursa [Fursey] 7.1 and 9.9, Carozzi, Le voyage de l’âme, pp. 683–4.
42 Vision of Fursa 8.16, p. 683.
43 Vision of Fursa 16.5, p. 691.
44 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.19.
45 Carozzi, Le voyage de l’âme, pp. 139–86; Y. Hen, The structure and aims of the Visio Baronti, Journal of Theological Studies, NS 47 (1996): 477–97.
46 Vision of Barontus 12: transl. J. N. Hillgarth, Christianity and Paganism 350–750. The Conversion of Western Europe, Philadelphia, PA, 1986, p. 199.
47 Vision of Barontus 22, p. 204.
48 Brown, Gloriosus obitus, pp. 302–3.
49 Brown, Gloriosus obitus, pp. 296–301.
50 Brown, Gloriosus obitus, pp. 312–13, and Decline of the empire of God, pp. 58–9.
51 Carozzi, Le voyage de l’âme, p. 638.
52 F. Paxton, Christianizing Death. The Creation of a Ritual Process in Early Medieval Europe, Ithaca, NY, 1990; P. A. Février, La mort chrétienne, Segni e riti nella chiesa altomedievale occidentale, Settimane di Studio del Centro italiano di studi sull’alto Medioevo 33, Spoleto, 1987, pp. 881–942.
53 É. Rebillard, Les formes d’assistance funéraire dans l’empire romain et leur évolution dans l’antiquité tardive, Antiquité tardive 7 (1999): 269–82.
54 É. Rebillard, Église et sépulture dans l’antiquité tardive (Occident latin, 3e–6e siècles), Annales, 54 (1999): 1027–46.
55 Y. Duval, Auprès des saints corps et âme. L’inhumation ad sanctos dans la chrétienté d’Orient et d’Occident du IIIe au VIe siècle, Paris, 1988.
56 D. Bullough, Burial, community and belief in the early medieval west, in P. Wormald (ed.), Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, pp. 177–201.
57 G. Ripoll Lopez and I. Velázquez Soriano, El epitafio de Trasemirus, Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, Prehistória y Arqueología, 3 (1990): 273–87.
58 Gregory of Tours, The Glory of the Confessors 64: transl. R. Van Dam, Liverpool, 1988, pp. 70–1.
59 A. Angenendt, Theologie und Liturgie in der mittelalterlichen Toten-Memoria, in K. Schmid and J. Wollasch (eds.), Memoria, Munich, 1984, pp. 70–199.
60 The Rule of Patrick: transl. Ériu, 1 (1904): 216–24.
61 G. Dagron, La perception d’une différence: les débuts de la “Querelle du purgatoire,” in Actes du XVe Congrès international d’études byzantines, Athènes, Septembre 1976 4, Athens, 1980, pp. 84–92; H. G. Beck, Die Byzantiner und ihr Jenseits, Sitzungsberichte der bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Philos.-hist. Klasse 1979 no. 6, Munich, 1979.
62 Life of Gertrude 6: transl. McNamara, Sainted Women of the Dark Ages, p. 227.
63 Life of Gertrude, Preface, p. 223.
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7 Theophylact Simocatta, Histories 4.11.2–3, p. 117.
8 Dialogue between the Calif al-Mahdi and the Catholicos Timothy 167: transl. H. Putman, L’Église et l’Islam sous Timothée I (780–823), Beirut, 1975, p. 249.
9 M. Whitby, Recruitment in Roman armies from Justinian to Heraclius (ca.565–615), and J. Howard-Johnston, The two great powers in Late Antiquity, in A. Cameron (ed.), The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East 3: States, Resources, and Armies, Princeton, NJ, 1995, pp. 61–124 and 157–226.
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13 Severus of Sebokht, cited in Brock, Syrian background, p. 48.
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18 A. E. Redgate, The Armenians, Oxford, 1998, pp. 116–22.
19 N. Garsoian, Armenia between Byzantium and the Sasanians, Aldershot, 1985, and The two voices of Armenian historiography: the Iranian Index, Studia Iranica, 25 (1996): 7–43, now in Church and Culture in Early Medieval Armenia, Aldershot, 1999.
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21 P’awstos Buzand, Epic Histories 6.10, pp. 237–8.
22 J. R. Russell, Zoroastrianism in Armenia, Cambridge, MA, 1987.
23 Elishe Vardapet, History of Vardan and the Armenian War 3: transl. R. W. Thomson, Cambridge, MA, 1982, pp. 105–9.
24 N. Garsoian, L’Église arménienne et le grand schisme d’Orient, Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium 574, Louvain, 1999.
25 R. W. Thomson, The formation of the Armenian literary tradition, in N. Garsoian, T. F. Mathews, and R. W. Thomson (eds.), East of Byzantium. Syria and Armenia in the Formative Period, Washington, DC, 1980, pp. 135–50.
26 S. Brock, The “Nestorian Church”: a lamentable misnomer, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 79 (1996): 23–35.
27 Synod of Ctesiphon (605), cited in S. Brock, The Christology of the Church of the East in the Synods of the fifth to early seventh centuries, in G. Dragas (ed.), Aksum, Thyateira. A Festschrift for Archbishop Methodios, London, 1985, pp. 125–42, at p. 129; also in Studies in Syriac Christianity, Aldershot, 1992.
28 H. J. W Drijvers, The School of Edessa: Greek learning and local culture, in J. W. Drijvers and A. A. MacDonald (eds.), Centres of Learning. Learning and Location in Pre-Modern Europe and the Near East, Leiden, 1995, pp. 49–59.
29 S. Gero, Barsauma of Nisibis and Persian Christianity in the Fifth Century, Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium 426, Louvain, 1981.
30 G. Gropp, Die Pahlavi-Inschrift auf dem Thomas-Kreuz in Madras, Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran, 3 (1970): 267–71.
31 J. M. Fiey, Communautés syriaques en Irak et en Iran, London, 1979; P. Gignoux, Sceaux chrétiens d’époque sasanide, Iranica Antiqua, 15 (1980): 299–314; s.v. Christianity, in E. Yarshater (ed.), Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. 5, Costa Mesa, CA, 1991, pp. 523–44.
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44 Life of Ahudemmeh: Patrologia Orientalis 3:1, pp. 21–6.
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46 P. Pentz, The Inivisible Conquest. The Ontogenesis of Sixth and Seventh Century Syria, Copenhagen, 1992; A. Shboul and A. Walmsley, Identity and self-image in Syria–Palestine in the transition from Byzantine to early Islamic rule, Mediterranean Archaeology, 11 (1998): 255–87.
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62 Ibn Ishaq, Life of Muhammad 821, pp. 552–3.
63 Kaegi, Byzantium and the Islamic Conquests, p. 74.
64 The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos 42: transl. R. W. Thomson, Liverpool, 1999, p. 97.
65 Chronicle of Séert 106: Patrologia Orientalis 13, p. 626.
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6 al-Tabarî, History 2312: transl. Y. Friedmann, The History of al-Tabarî 12, Albany, NY, 1991, pp. 103–4.
7 G. R. Hawting, The First Dynasty of Islam. The Umayyad Caliphate A.D. 661–750, London, 1986.
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9 Brock, Northern Mesopotamia in the late seventh century, p. 61.
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11 A. A. Duri, The Rise of Historical Writing among the Arabs, Princeton, NJ, 1983; F. M. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins. The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Traditions, Princeton, NJ, 1999.
12 S. Bashear, Arabs and Others in Early Islam, Princeton, NJ, 1997, p. 8.
13 Bashear, Arabs and Others in Early Islam, pp. 32 and 44–66.
14 Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, pp. 93–6.
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17 Muqaddasi cited in Grabar, The Formation of Islamic Art, pp. 64–5.
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19 K. A. Cresswell, Early Muslim Architecture, Harmondsworth, 1958, pp. 44–81; O. Grabar, The Formation of Early Islamic Art, pp. 104–38; B. Caseau, Sacred landscapes, in Bowersock, Brown, and Grabar (eds.), Late Antiquity, pp. 21–59, at pp. 47–9.
20 J. Raby and J. Johns, Bayt al-Makdis. ‘Abd al-Malik’s Jerusalem, Oxford, 1992; O. Grabar, The Shape of the Holy. Early Islamic Jerusalem, Princeton, NJ, 1996.
21 Cited in A. Palmer, The Seventh Century in West Syrian Chronicles, Liverpool, 1993, p. xxi.
22 F. Décobert, Le mendiant et le combattant. L’institution de l’Islam, Paris, 1991.
23 R. Hillenbrand, ‘Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism, in G. P. Brogiolo and B. Ward-Perkins (eds.), The Idea and the Ideal of the Town in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 1999, pp. 59–98.
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28 N. Robinson, Christ in Islam and Christianity. The Representation of Jesus in the Qur’ ân and the Classical Muslim Commentaries, London, 1991.
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34 B. Flusin, Démons et sarrasins, Travaux et Mémoires, 11 (1991): 381–409.
35 Dionysius of Tell-Mahre, Chronicle: transl., Palmer, The Seventh Century in West Syrian Chronicles, p. 141.
36 History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria, pp. 122–5.
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38 A. Kazhdan, A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850), Athens, 1999, p. 1.
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40 The Chronicle of Zuqnîn: Parts III and IV, A.D. 485–775: transl. A. Harrak, Toronto, 1999, p. 168.
41 Conrad, Varietas Syriaca, in Reinink and Klugkist (eds.), After Bardaisan, p. 88.
42 Bar Hebraeus, Chronography [413]: transl. E. A. W. Budge, Oxford, 1932, p. 356.
43 Pahlavi Ballad of the End of Times, cited in Hoyland, Islam as Others Saw It, pp. 531–2.
44 John bar Penkâye, Rish Mellê, cited in Brock, Northern Mesopotamia in the late seventh century, p. 58.
45 Thomas of Marga, Book of Governors 5.11: transl. E. A. W. Budge, London, 1893, p. 508.
46 Timothy, Letter 13: Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium 75: Scriptores Syri 31, Rome, 1915, p. 70.
47 Chronicle of Zuqnîn, pp. 260 and 323–6.
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53 S. H. Griffith, Habib ibn Hidmah al Ra’itah, a Christian mutakallim, Oriens Christianus, 64 (1980): 161–201 at p. 171.
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57 Theophanes, Chronographia A.D. 716/17, p. 546.
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59 Adomnán, de locis sanctis 2.12: transl. D. Meehan, Dublin, 1983, p. 83.
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61 Adomnán, de locis sanctis 3.3, p. 111.
62 Boniface, Letter 19 (27): transl. E. Emerton, New York, 1976 and 2000, p. 56.
63 Hodoeporicon of Willibald 4: transl. C. H. Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries in Germany, London, 1954, p. 162, and T. F. X. Noble and T. Head, Soldiers of Christ, Philadelphia, 1995, p. 153.
64 Hodoeporicon of Willibald 4, Talbot, p. 170, Noble and Head, p. 159.
1 J. Werner, Das Grabfund von Malaja Pereščepina und Kuvrat, Kagan der Bulgaren, Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften: Abhandlungen, NF 91, Munich, 1984.
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8 Córus Béscnai, cited in F. Kelly, Early Irish Law, Dublin, 1998, p. 96.
9 This happened in the case of the Visigoths: R. Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371–1386 A.D., London, 1997, pp. 68–77.
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11 T. M. Charles-Edwards, The social background of Irish peregrinatio, Celtica, 11 (1976): 43–59.
12 Cited in R. Sharpe, Introduction, Adomnán, Life of St Columba, Harmondsworth, 1995, p. 90.
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16 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 308–26.
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27 Cogitosus, Life of Brigit 32: transl. S. Conolly and J. M. Picard, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 117 (1982): 25–6, also in O. Davies, Celtic Spirituality, New York, 1999, pp. 137–8.
28 Muirchú, Life of Patrick 13: transl. A. B. E. Hood, London, 1978, p. 88.
29 Muirchú, Life of Patrick 29, p. 98.
30 F. Kelly, Early Irish Farming, Dublin, 1998.
31 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, p. 526; Seventh Council of Toledo (646), canon 4: J. Vives (ed.), Concilios Visigóticos, Madrid, 1963, p. 255.
32 C. Etchingham, Church Organisation in Ireland, AD 650–1000, Maynooth, 1999, pp. 244–52.
33 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, p. 24.
34 L. M. Bitel, Isle of Saints. Monastic Settlement and Christian Community in Early Ireland, Ithaca, NY, 1990, pp. 124–8; Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 118–19.
35 Etchingham, Church Organisation in Ireland, pp. 291–318.
36 Stokes, The Martyrology of Oengus, pp. 65 and 183.
37 Etchingham, Church Organisation in Ireland, p. 76.
38 Adomnán, Life of Columba 2.41, p. 195.
39 A. MacDonald, Aspects of the monastery and monastic life in Adomnán’s Life of Columba, Peritia, 3 (1984): 271–302, cited at pp. 295–6.
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41 R. Sharpe, Hiberno-Latin laicus, Irish láech and the devil’s men, Ériu, 30 (1973): 75–92.
42 J. N. Radner, Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, Dublin, 1978, pp. 60–3.
43 Life of Enda 2 and Life of Colman 8, C. Plummer (ed.), Vitae Sanctorum Hiberniae, vol. 1, Oxford, 1910, pp. 60 and 261.
44 D. Binchy, The pseudo-historical prologue to the Senchas Már, Studia Celtica, 10–11 (1975–6): 15–28.
45 J. Stevenson, The beginnings of literacy in Ireland, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 100 (1982): 127–65.
46 Tirechán, Collectanea 2.3.1–2: transl. L. Bieler, The Patrician Texts in the Book of Armagh, Dublin, 1979, p. 123.
47 Tirechán, Collectanea 2.3.5, p. 123.
48 Tripartite Life of Saint Patrick: transl. W. Stokes, Rolls Series 89, London, 1887, p. 453.
49 C. Donahue, Beowulf, Ireland and the natural good, Traditio, 7 (1949–51): 263–77.
50 Córus Béscnai cited in Donahue, Beowulf, Ireland and the natural good, p. 268.
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52 A. Ahlqvist, The Early Irish Linguist, Helsinki, 1982, pp. 97–8.
53 W. Stokes and J. Strachan, Thesaurus Palaeohibernicus: A Collection of Old-Irish Glosses, Scholia, Prose, and Verse, vol. 2, Cambridge, 1903, p. 224, cited in O’Cróinín, Early Medieval Ireland, p. 204.
54 K. McCone, Pagan Past and Christian Present in Early Irish Literature, Maynooth, 1990, pp. 1–28 and 54–83 is a challenging if extreme statement of this view; see also D. O’Cróinín, Creating the past: the early Irish genealogical tradition, Peritia, 12 (1998): 177–208.
55 J. Stevenson, Literacy and orality in early medieval Ireland, in D. Edel (ed.), Cultural Identity and Cultural Integration. Ireland and Europe in the Early Middle Ages, Dublin, 1995, pp. 11–23 at pp. 12–16.
56 Kelly, Early Irish Law, pp. 225–41.
57 Bretha Crólige 57, D. Binchy (ed.), Ériu, 12 (1934): 1–77 at p. 44.
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12 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 1.32, p. 113.
13 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 1.25, p. 75.
14 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 1.29, pp. 105–7; Higham, The Convert Kings, pp. 93–6.
15 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 1.32, p. 113.
16 R. A. Markus, Gregory the Great and a missionary strategy, in J. Cuming (ed.), The Mission of the Church and the Propagation of the Faith, Studies in Church History 6, Cambridge, 1970, pp. 29–38; I. N. Wood, Some historical reinterpretations and the Christianization of Kent, in G. Armstrong and I. N. Wood (eds.), Christianizing Peoples and Converting Individuals, Turnhout, 2000, pp. 27–35.
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19 Laws of Ethelbert: transl. D. Whitelock, English Historical Documents 1, Oxford, 1955, pp. 357–61; S. Kelly, Anglo-Saxon lay society and the written word, in R. McKitterick (ed.), The Uses of Literacy in Early Medieval Europe, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 36–62; P. Wormald, The Making of English Law 1: Legislation and its Limits, Oxford, 1999, pp. 29–108.
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26 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 2.16, p. 193.
27 T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 308–26; A. T. Thacker, Bede and the Irish, in L. A. J. R. Houwen and A. MacDonald (eds.), Beda Venerabilis. Historian, Monk and Northumbrian, Groningen, 1996, pp. 31–59.
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29 I. N. Wood, The Most Holy Abbot Ceolfrid, Jarrow Lecture, 1995.
30 G. Bonner, Famulus Christi, London, 1976.
31 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 5.23, p. 561.
32 Wormald, Bede, Bretwaldas and the origin of the Gens Anglorum, in P. Wormald (ed.), Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, Oxford, 1983, pp. 99–129.
33 J. McClure, Bede’s Old Testament kings, in Wormald (ed.), Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society, pp. 76–98.
34 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.2, pp. 217–19.
35 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.14, p. 259.
36 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.6, p. 231.
37 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.12, p. 252.
1 Bede, Life of Cuthbert 8: transl. J. F. Webb, Lives of the Saints, Harmondsworth, 1965, p. 83.
2 Cuthbert, Letter on the Death of Bede: transl. B. Colgrave and R. A. B. Mynors, Bede. Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Oxford, 1969, p. 585.
3 Cuthbert, Death of Bede, p. 583.
4 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 5.25, p. 567.
5 P. Wormald, Bede and Benedict Biscop, in G. Bonner (ed.), Famulus Christi, London, 1976, pp. 141–69.
6 Bede, Lives of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow: transl. D. Farmer, The Age of Bede, Harmondsworth, 1983, p. 183.
7 Well illustrated in P. Wormald, The age of Bede and Aethelbald, in J. Campbell (ed.), The Anglo-Saxons, Harmondsworth, 1991, pp. 70–100, at pp. 74–5; H. Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England, 2nd edn., University Park, PA, 1991, pp. 148–219; P. Meyvaert, Bede and the church paintings at Wearmouth-Jarrow, Anglo-Saxon England 8 (1979): 63–77.
8 I. N. Wood, The Most Holy Abbot Ceolfrid, Jarrow Lecture, 1995.
9 D. Dumville, The importation of Mediterranean manuscripts into Theodore’s England, in M. Lapidge (ed.), Archbishop Theodore. Commemorative Studies on his Life and Influence, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 96–119.
10 T. O’Neill, Book-making in early Christian Ireland, Archaeology in Ireland, 2 (1988): 96–100.
11 P. Meyvaert, Bede, Cassiodorus and the Codex Amiatinus, Speculum, 71 (1996): 827–83.
12 Meyvaert, Bede, Cassiodorus and the Codex Amiatinus, pp. 828–30.
13 Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity, pp. 129–47.
14 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.2, p. 335; Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 47: transl. Webb, Lives of the Saints, p. 181.
15 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 5, pp. 137–8.
16 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 6, p. 138; compare Bede, Ecclesiastical History 5.21, pp. 547–51 (a discussion on the topic with Adomnán of Iona).
17 Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity, pp. 103–13; N. Higham, The Convert Kings, Manchester, 1997, pp. 250–67.
18 E. James, Bede and the tonsure question, Peritia, 3 (1984): 85–98.
19 Bede, Opera de Temporibus, C. W. Jones (ed.), Cambridge, MA, 1943; T. M. Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 381–415.
20 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 10, p. 142; Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.25, p. 307.
21 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.25, p. 301.
22 Cummian, On the Paschal Controversy 107–10: transl. M. Walsh and D. O’Cróinín, Toronto, 1988, p. 72.
23 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 24, p. 156.
24 Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity, pp. 130–9.
25 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 21, 26–8, and 41, pp. 154, 158–60, and 174.
26 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 17, pp. 149–50.
27 Charles-Edwards, Early Christian Ireland, pp. 416–40.
28 Eddius Stephanus, Life of Wilfrid 22, pp. 154–5.
29 Illustrated in Wormald, The age of Bede, in Campbell (ed.), The Anglo-Saxons, fig. 82, p. 84.
30 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.5, pp. 227–9; W. Goffart, The Narrators of Barbarian History, Princeton, NJ, 1988, ch. 4: “Bede and the ghost of Bishop Wilfrid,” pp. 235–328.
31 Barhadbshaba, The Foundation of the Schools, Patrologia Orientalis 4, p. 64.
32 J. Mahé, Quadrivium et cursus d’études au VIIe siècle en Arménie, Travaux et Mémoires, 10 (1987): 159–206, at pp. 159 and 166–70.
33 J. Fontaine, Isidore de Séville et la culture classique dans l’Espagne wisigothique, 2nd edn., Paris, 1983.
34 Braulio of Saragossa, Renotatio, Patrologia Latina 81: 61D
35 R. Collins, Early Medieval Spain. Unity in Diversity, London, 1983, pp. 59–145; J. Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, Princeton, NJ, 1987, pp. 220–47; G. Ripoll and I. Velázquez, La Hispania visigoda, Madrid, 1997; P. Diaz and M. R. Valverde, The theoretical strength and practical weakness of the Visigothic monarchy of Toledo, in F. Theuws and J. L. Nelson (eds.), Rituals of Power. From Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2000, pp. 59–94.
36 Laws of Recceswinth 12.2.3: J. Zeumer (ed.), Leges Visigothorum Antiquiorum, Leipzig, 1894, p. 301; H. Sivan, The invisible Jews of Visigothic Spain, Revue des études juives, 159 (2001): 369–85.
37 Laws of Recceswinth 8.4.16, p. 248.
38 I. Velázquez and G. Ripoll, Toletum, la construcción de una sedes regia, in G. Ripoll and J. M. Gurt (eds.), Sedes Regiae (ann. 400–800), Barcelona, 2000, pp. 521–78.
39 Tenth Council of Toledo (655), J. Vives (ed.), Los Concilios visigóticos, Madrid, 1963, p. 309.
40 Fourth Council of Toledo (633), canon 3, p. 188.
41 Fourth Council of Toledo, canon 41, p. 207.
42 Fourth Council of Toledo, canon 75, p. 218.
43 Chronicle of 754: transl. K. Wolf, Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain, Liverpool, 1990, p. 130.
44 Bede, On Genesis 4, C. W. Jones (ed.), Corpus Christianorum 118A, Turnhout, 1967, p. 201.
45 The Táin: transl. T. Kinsella, Oxford, 1970, p. 2.
46 M. Lapidge, The career of archbishop Theodore, in Lapidge (ed.), Archbishop Theodore, pp. 1–29.
47 Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, pp. 210–11.
48 Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, pp. 206–19 and 250–84; H. Chadwick, Theodore, the English Church and the Monothelite controversy, in Lapidge (ed.), Archbishop Theodore, pp. 88–95.
49 Third Council of Constantinople, cited in Lapidge, The career of archbishop Theodore, p. 23.
50 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 3.25, p. 295.
51 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.3, p. 337.
52 B. Bischoff and M. Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School of Theodore and Hadrian, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 133–89.
53 T. M. Charles-Edwards, The Penitentials of Theodore and the Iudicia Theodori, in Lapidge (ed.), Archbishop Theodore, pp. 141–74.
54 Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries.
55 Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries, pp. 243–66.
56 Commentary on the Pentateuch I 413, in Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries, pp. 374–5.
57 G. Henderson, Vision and Image in Early Christian England, Oxford, 1999.
58 Aethelwulf, De abbatibus 8.210–15: transl. A. Campbell, Oxford, 1967, p. 18.
59 G. Henderson, From Durrow to Kells. The Insular Gospel Books, New York, 1987, pp. 131–98; D. O’Corráin, The historical and cultural background to the Book of Kells, in F. O’Mahoney (ed.), The Book of Kells, Aldershot, 1994, pp. 1–32; M. Werner, Works on the Book of Kells, Peritia, 11 (1997): 250–326.
60 Gerald of Wales, Topography of Ireland 2.71: transl. J. O’Meara, Harmondsworth, 1982, p. 84.
61 Bede, Letter to Egbert: transl. J. McClure and R. Collins, Oxford, 1994, p. 352.
62 A. Thacker, Monks, preaching and pastoral care in early Anglo-Saxon England, and J. Blair, Anglo-Saxon minsters: a topographical review, in J. Blair and R. Sharpe (eds.), Pastoral Care before the Parish, Leicester, 1992, pp. 136–70 and 226–66, and the ensuing debate in Early Medieval Europe, 4 (1995): 87–104 and 193–212.
63 P. Wormald, Bede, “Beowulf,” and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, in R. T. Farrell (ed.), Bede and Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford, 1978, pp. 32–95, at pp. 49–58.
64 Boniface, Letter 2 [10]: transl. E. Emerton, Letters of Boniface, New York, 1976 and 2000, p. 27.
65 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.11, p. 364.
66 Cuthbert, Letter on the Death of Bede, p. 583.
67 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 5.12, pp. 489–99.
68 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.24, pp. 415–19.
69 Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity, pp. 149–52.
70 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.23, pp. 409–11.
71 Bede, Ecclesiastical History 4.24, p. 417.
72 The Dream of the Rood: transl. S. A. J. Bradley, Anglo-Saxon Poetry, London, 1982, pp. 160–3.
73 B. Cassidy (ed.), The Ruthwell Cross, Princeton, NJ, 1992; É. O’Carragáin, The necessary distance: Imitatio Romae and the Ruthwell Cross, in J. Hawks and S. Mills (eds.), The Golden Age of Northumbria, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1999, pp. 191–203.
74 R. I. Page, The Bewcastle Cross, Nottingham Medieval Studies, 4 (1960): 36–57.
75 Adomnán, De locis sanctis 3.3.7–8, D. Meehan (ed.), Dublin, 1983, p. 111.
76 É. O’Carragáin, The Ruthwell crucifixion poem in its iconographic and liturgical contexts, Peritia, 6–7 (1987–8): 1–71.
77 M. Thierry and N. Thierry, La cathédrale de Mrèn et sa décoration, Cahiers archéologiques, 21 (1971): 43–77.
1 The Regions of the World 42: transl. V. Minorsky, Oxford, 1937, p. 157.
2 J. F. Haldon, Byzantium in the Seventh Century. The Transformation of a Culture, Cambridge, 1990; M. Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025, London/Berkeley, CA, 1993, pp. 96–193; A. P. Kazhdan, A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850), Athens, 1999, pp. 137–65; see also L. Brubaker and J. Haldon, Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era (ca. 680–850). The Sources, an Analytic Survey, Aldershot, 2001.
3 Averil Cameron and J. Herrin, Constantinople in the Early Eighth Century, Leiden, 1984.
4 Averil Cameron, The language of images: the rise of icons and Christian representation, in D. Wood, (ed.), The Church and the Arts. Studies in Church History 28, Oxford, 1992, pp. 1–42.
5 T. F. Mathews, The Clash of Gods. A Reinterpretation of Early Christian Art, Princeton, NJ, 1999, 2nd edn., pp. 177–90; L. Robert, Le serpent Glycon d’Abônoutheichos à Athènes et Artémis d’Ephèse à Rome, Opera Minora Selecta, 5, Amsterdam, 1989, pp. 747–69.
6 Life of Symeon the Younger 118: transl. C. Mango, The Art of the Byzantine Empire, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1972, p. 134.
7 H. Belting, Bild und Kult. Eine Geschichte des Bildes vor dem Zeitalter der Kunst, Munich, 1990: transl. Likeness and Presence. A History of the Image before the Era of Art, Chicago, 1994, p. 38 with fig. 38 and pp. 115–43; Averil Cameron, Images of authority: elites and icons in late sixth-century Byzantium, Past and Present, 84 (1979): 3–35.
8 V. Déroche, Léontios de Néapolis, Apologie contre les Juifs, Travaux et Mémoires, 12 (1994): 43–104.
9 O. Grabar, Mediation of Ornament, Princeton, NJ, 1992; R. Schick, The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule, Princeton, NJ, 1995, pp. 180–224.
10 Horos (Definition) of the Council at Hiereia (754), cited in Second Council of Nicaea, G. D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova collectio 13: 345A: transl. D. J. Sahas, Icon and Logos, Toronto, 1988, p. 161.
11 The Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, A.M. 6218: transl. C. Mango, Oxford, 1997, p. 560 and in Art of the Byzantine Empire, p. 152.
12 J. Moorhead, Iconoclasm, the Cross and the imperial image, Byzantion, 55 (1985): 165–79.
13 G. Dagron, Empereur et Prêtre. Étude sur le “césaropapisme” byzantin, Paris, 1996, pp. 169–200.
14 The Horos (Definition) of the Council of Hiereia is partially translated in Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, pp. 165–8; Vie d’Étienne le Jeune par Étienne le diacre: transl. M. F. Auzépy, Aldershot, Hampshire, 1997, pp. 21–42.
15 A. Grabar, L’iconoclasme byzantin. Le dossier archéologique, Paris, 1984, pp. 175–6.
16 F. Boespflug and N. Lossky, Nicée II, Paris, 1987; J. Herrin, Women in Purple, London, 2001, pp. 51–129.
17 Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, pp. 262–98.
18 Life of Leo V, Patrologia Graeca 108: 1028 and 1032: transl. Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, p. 157.
19 Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, pp. 157–65 and 168–9; W. Treadgold, The Byzantine Revival, 780–842, Stanford, CA, 1988; D. E. Afinogenov, Konstantinopoľskiĭ Patriarkhat i ikonoborcheski ĭ krizis v Vizantij, Moscow, 1997.
20 P. Lemerle, Le premier humanisme byzantin, Paris, 1971: transl. Byzantine Humanism, the First Phase, Canberra, 1986.
21 Mango, Art of the Byzantine Empire, pp. 169–77; Byzantine Defenders of Images. Eight Saints’ Lives: transl. A. M. Talbot, Washington, DC, 1998; St. Theodore the Studite on the Holy Icons: transl. C. P. Roth, Crestwood, NY, 1981; Nicéphorus. Discours contre les iconoclastes: transl. M. J. Mondzain-Baudinet, Paris, 1989; K. Parry, Depicting the Word. Byzantine Iconophile Thought in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries, Leiden, 1996; L. Brubaker, Vision and Meaning in Ninth-Century Byzantium, Cambridge, 1999, pp. 19–58; Kazhdan, History of Byzantine Literature (650–850), pp. 169–259 and 381–407.
22 John of Damascus, On Divine Images: transl. D. Anderson, Crestwood, NY, 1980; M. F. Auzépy, De la Palestine à Constantinople (VIIIe-IXe siècle): Étienne le Sabaïte et Jean Damascène, Travaux et Mémoires, 12 (1994): 183–218; A. Louth, Palestine under the Arabs 650–750: the crucible of Byzantine orthodoxy, in S. N. Swanson (ed.), The Holy Land, Holy Lands, and Christian History, Studies in Church History 36, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 2000, pp. 67–77.
23 John of Damascus, On Divine Images 3.17, Anderson, p. 74.
24 John of Damascus, On Divine Images [1.32], Testimonies, Anderson, p. 34, citing Pseudo-Dionysius, The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy 1.2: transl. C. Luibheid, London, 1987, p. 197.
25 Second Council of Nicaea, ed. Mansi, 240C and 252C: transl. Sahas, pp. 75 and 84.
26 Photius, Homily 17.6: transl. C. Mango, Washington, DC, 1958, p. 295, and Art of the Byzantine Empire, p. 190.
27 John of Damascus, On Images [1.47], Testimonies, Anderson, p. 39.
28 H. Maguire, Earth and Ocean. The Terrestrial World in Early Byzantine Art, University Park, PA, 1987; B. Caseau, Christian bodies: the senses and early Byzantine Christianity, in Liz James (ed.), Desire and Denial in Byzantium, Aldershot, 1999, pp. 101–9.
29 H. Maguire, The Icons of their Bodies. Saints and their Images in Byzantium, Princeton, NJ, 1996, pp. 137–45.
30 Belting, Likeness and Presence, pp. 164–83; L. Brubaker, Icons before iconoclasm?, in Morfologie sociali e culturali in Europa fra Tarda Antichità e Alto Medioevo, Settimane di Studio sull’Alto Medioevo 45, Spoleto, 1998, pp. 1215–54.
31 Maguire, The Icons of their Bodies, pp. 100–45.
32 Steven of Novgorod: transl. G. P. Majeska, Russian Travelers to Constantinople in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, Washington, DC, 1984, p. 36; R. Cormack, Painting the Soul, London, 1997, pp. 59–61; A. Lidov (ed.), Chudotvornaia Ikona v Vizantii i drevneï Rusi, Moscow, 1996.
33 Zosima the Deacon, Majeska, Russian Travelers, p. 182.
34 D. Obolensky, The Byzantine Commonwealth, London, 1971; I. Ševčeko, Byzantium and the Slavs, Cambridge, MA, 1991; S. Franklin and J. Shepard, The Emergence of Rus, 750–1200, London, 1996.
35 Epifanij the Wise, cited in Cormack, Painting the Soul, p. 188.
36 J. Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, Princeton, NJ, 1987, pp. 344–444.
37 Libri Carolini, A. Freeman and P. Meyvaert (eds.), Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Concilia 2: Supplement 1, Hanover, 1998: selected transl. C. Davis-Weyer, Early Medieval Art, Toronto, 1986, pp. 99–103, reprinted in P. Dutton, Carolingian Civilization. A Reader, Peterborough, Ontario, 1993, pp. 84–87.
38 W. von Steinen, Karl der Grosse und die Libri Carolini, Neues Archiv, 39 (1931): 207–80, at pp. 250–1.
39 Capitulary of Frankfurt (794), 2: transl. P. King, Charlemagne. Translated Sources, Kendal, Cumbria, 1987, p. 224; Das Frankfurter Konzil von 794, R. Berndt (ed.), Mainz, 1997.
40 John C. Cavadini, The Last Christology of the West. Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820, Philadelphia, 1993.
1 P. Fouracre, The Age of Charles Martel, Harlow, Essex, 2000; Shoichi Sato, The Merovingian accounting documents of Tours: form and function, Early Medieval Europe, 9 (2000): 141–61.
2 Gottschalk, Responsa 168–9, C. Lambot (ed.), Louvain, 1945, p. 168.
3 Fouracre, The Age of Charles Martel, pp. 99–120; J. L. Nelson, The Frankish World, London, 1996, pp. xviii–xxxi; I. Wood, Before or after mission: social relations across the middle and lower Rhine in the seventh and eighth centuries, in I. L. Hansen and C. Wickham (eds.) The Long Eighth Century. Production, Distribution and Demand, Leiden, 2001, pp. 149–66.
4 Arbeo of Freising, Life of Saint Emmeran 41, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum 6, Hanover, 1913, p. 518.
5 J. Werner, Das alemannische Fürstengrab in Wittislingen, Munich, 1960; F. Damminger, Dwellings, settlements and settlement patterns in Merovingian south-west Germany and adjacent areas, in I. Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period. An Ethnographic Perspective, San Marino, CA, 1998, pp. 33–106; S. Burnell and E. James, The archaeology of conversion in the sixth and seventh centuries, in R. Gameson (ed.), St. Augustine and the Conversion of England, Stroud, Gloucestershire, 1999, pp. 83–106, at pp. 96–102.
6 Life of Saint Corbinian 16 and 29, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum 6, pp. 579 and 595.
7 Aethicus Ister, Cosmographia 2, O. Prinz (ed.), Munich, 1993, pp. 115–16.
8 R. Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371–1386 A.D., London, 1998, pp. 1–33; I. Wood, The Missionary Life. Saints and Evangelization of Europe 400–1050, London, 2001, pp. 25–53, and Missionaries and the Christian frontier, in W. Pohl, I. Wood, and H. Reimitz (eds.), The Transformation of Frontiers. From Late Antiquity to the Carolingians, Leiden, 2001, pp. 209–18.
9 Alcuin, Life of Willibrord: transl. C. H. Talbot, in T. F. X. Noble and T. Head (eds.), Soldiers of Christ, University Park, PA, 1995, pp. 191–211, and C. H. Talbot, The Anglo-Saxon Missionaries in Germany, London, 1954, pp. 3–22; Wood, The Missionary Life, pp. 79–99.
10 J. Herrin, The Formation of Christendom, Princeton, NJ, 1987, pp. 3–6.
11 S. Lebecq, Marchands et navigateurs frisons du haut Moyen Âge, Lille, 1983.
12 Life of Wulfram of Sens 8–9, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum 5, p. 607, and Annals of Xanten, anno 718, B. De Simson (ed.), Hanover, 1909, p. 36; S. Lebecq, Les Frisons entre paganisme et christianisme, Christianisation et déchristianisation, Angers, 1986, pp. 19–45.
13 F. Theuws, Landed property and manorial organization in North Austrasia, in W. Roymans and F. Theuws (eds.), Images of the Past, Amsterdam, 1991, pp. 299–401; M. Costambeys, An Austrasian aristocracy on the northern Frankish frontier, Early Medieval Europe, 3 (1994): 39–62.
14 Boniface, De grammatica, R. Rau (ed.), Darmstadt, 1968, pp. 360–8. On Boniface, see especially: J. M. Wallace-Hadrill, The Frankish Church, Oxford, 1983, pp. 150–61; Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe, pp. 193–227; Fouracre, The Age of Charles Martel, pp. 126–37; Wood, The Missionary Life, pp. 55–78; T. F. X. Noble, Introduction to E. Emerton, The Letters of Saint Boniface, New York, 1976, reprint 2000, pp. vii-xxxv.
15 Boniface, Letters 22 [30], 53 [65] and 62 [78]: transl. E. Emerton, The Letters of Saint Boniface, New York, 1976, pp. 60, 121, and 136; many, but not all, of Boniface’s letters are also translated in Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries.
16 Boniface, Letter 36 [46], p. 76. The citation echoes the plea of Israel to be reunited to Judah, after the victories of king David – 2 Samuel 5:1. Significantly, the Saxon appeal also followed a punitive raid by Charles Martel in 738.
17 Boniface, Letter 85 [105], p. 178.
18 Boniface, Letter 15 [23], pp. 48–50.
19 N. Brooks, Canterbury, Rome and the construction of English identity, in J. M. H. Smith (ed.), Early Medieval Rome and the Christian West. Essays in Honour of Donald A. Bullough, Leiden, 2000, pp. 221–46.
20 Boniface, Letter 70 [86], pp. 158–9.
21 Boniface, Letter 16 [24], p. 120.
22 Boniface, Letter 54 [68] and 64 [80], pp. 122 and 144.
23 Willibald, Life of Boniface 6, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 134, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, p. 42.
24 Boniface, Letter 64 [80], p. 147; J. Carey, Ireland and the antipodes, Speculum, 64 (1989): 1–10.
25 Boniface, Letter 54 [68], p. 122.
26 Roman Synod of 745, in Boniface, Letter 47 [59], pp. 101–2; M. de Jong, An unresolved riddle: early medieval incest legislation, in Wood (ed.), Franks and Alamanni, pp. 107–40.
27 Roman Synod of 745, p. 103; Jonas, Life of Columbanus 1.6: transl. E. Peters, Monks, Bishops, and Pagans, Philadelphia, 1981, p. 75.
28 Roman Synod of 745, pp. 103–4.
29 Roman Synod of 745, p. 101; Hodoeporicon of Willibald 1, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 146, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, p. 155.
30 Roman Synod of 745, p. 101; Bede, Life of Cuthbert 9: transl. J. Webb, Harmondsworth, 1965, p. 84.
31 Roman Synod of 745, p. 101.
32 Boniface, Letter 40 [50], p. 82.
33 Boniface, Letter 51 [63], p. 115.
34 Boniface, Letter 51 [63], p. 116.
35 Boniface, Letter 52 [62], p. 120.
36 Willibald, Life of Boniface 8, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 136, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, pp. 57–8.
37 Rudolf of Fulda, Life of Leoba 12, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, pp. 267–9, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, pp. 216–18.
38 Rudolf of Fulda, Life of Leoba 16, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 272, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, p. 221.
39 R. McKitterick, Nuns’ scriptoria in England and France in the 8th century, Francia, 19/1 (1992): 1–35; R. A. Markus, From Caesarius to Boniface: Christianity and paganism in Gaul, in J. Fontaine and J. N. Hillgarth (eds.), The Seventh Century. Change and Continuity, London, 1992, pp. 154–72.
40 Index Superstitionum: transl. J. T. McNeill and H. A. Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance, New York, 1990, pp. 419–21.
41 D. Harmening, Superstitio, Munich, 1979, is the most thorough treatment of this theme.
42 R. Meens, Willibrords boeteboek?, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, 106 (1993): 163–78.
43 E. von Steinmeyer (ed.), Die kleinen althochdeutschen Sprachdenkmäler, Berlin, 1916.
44 M. Garrison, The Collectanea and medieval florilegia, in M. Bayless and M. Lapidge (eds.), Collectanea Pseudo-Bedae, Dublin, 1998, pp. 42–83.
45Hodoeporicon of Willibald, pref., Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 44, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, p. 153.
46 J. Nelson, The Lord’s anointed and the people’s choice, in D. Cannadine and S. Price (eds.), Rituals of Royalty. Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies, Cambridge, 1987, pp. 137–80, now in The Frankish World, pp. 99–132; M. Garrison, The Franks as the new Israel? Education for an identity from Pippin to Charlemagne, in Y. Hen and M. Innes (eds.), The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 114–61.
47 P. Delogu, The papacy, Rome and the wider world in the seventh and eighth centuries, in J. M. H. Smith (ed.), Early Medieval Rome and the Christian West, pp. 197–220, and La storia economica di Roma nell’alto Medioevo, in L. Paroli and P. Delogu (eds.), La storia economica di Roma nell’ alto Medioevo alla luce dei recenti scavi archeologici, Florence, 1993, pp. 11–29, with R. Hodges, The riddle of St. Peter’s Republic, pp. 353–63; R. Krautheimer, Rome. Profile of a City, Princeton, NJ, 1980, pp. 89–142.
48 R. S. Valenzani, Residential building in early medieval Rome, in J. M. H. Smith (ed.), Early Medieval Rome and the Christian West, pp. 101–12; Pope Hadrian to Charles (776), Codex Carolinus no. 59, Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Epistolae 3, Berlin, 1892, p. 585: transl. P. D. King, Charlemagne, Kendal, Cumbria, 1987, p. 286.
49 N. Purcell, The population of Rome in late antiquity: problems of classification and historical description, in W. V. Harris (ed.), The Transformations of Vrbs Roma in Late Antiquity, Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 33, Portsmouth, RI, 1999, pp. 135–61, at pp. 135–7.
50 Inscriptiones christianae urbis Romae, NS 4, Rome, 1964, no. 9524; A. Thacker, In search of saints: the English Church and the cult of Roman apostles and martyrs in the seventh and eighth centuries, and J. M. H. Smith, Old saints, new cults: Roman relics in Carolingian Francia, in Smith (ed.), Early Medieval Rome and the Christian West, pp. 247–77 and 317–39.
51 Willibald, Life of Boniface 6, Noble and Head, Soldiers of Christ, p. 125, and Talbot, Anglo-Saxon Missionaries, pp. 43–4.
52 A. Angenendt, Das Frühmittelalter, Stuttgart, 2nd edn., 1995, pp. 327–36; Y. Hen, Unity and diversity: the liturgy of Frankish Gaul before the Carolingians, in R. Swanson (ed.), Unity and Diversity in the Church, Studies in Church History 32, Oxford, 1996, pp. 19–29.
53 M. Enright, Iona, Tara and Soissons, Berlin, 1985.
54 Mayr-Harting, Charlemagne, the Saxons and the imperial coronation of 800, English Historical Review, 111 (1996): 1113–33.
55 Liber Pontificalis 97.35–44: transl. R. Davis, Liverpool, 1992, pp. 138–42; R. Schieffer, Charlemagne and Rome, in Smith (ed.), Early Medieval Rome and the Christian West, pp. 279–95; T. F. X. Noble, The making of papal Rome, in M. de Jong and F. Theuws with C. Van Rhijn (eds.), Topographies of Power in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2001, pp. 45–91.
56 W. Lammers (ed.), Die Eingliederung der Sachsen in das Frankenreich, Wege der Forschung 185, Darmstadt, 1970; M. Becher, Rex, Dux und Gens. Untersuchungen zur Entstehung des sächsischen Herzogtums im 9. und 10. Jahrhundert, Husum, 1996.
57 Capitulary concerning the Parts of Saxony 7, 8, and 11: transl. H. R. Loyn and J. Percival, The Reign of Charlemagne, London, 1975, p. 52; B. Effros, De partibus Saxoniae and the regulation of mortuary custom: a Carolingian campaign of Christianization or the suppression of Saxon identity?, Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, 75 (1995): 267–86.
58 Wood, The Missionary Life, pp. 83–90.
59 Translatio Sancti Liborii 5, G. H. Pertz (ed.), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 4, Hanover, 1841, p. 151.
1 P. Fouracre, Frankish Gaul to 814, in R. McKitterick (ed.), The New Cambridge Medieval History 2: c.700–c.900, Cambridge, 1995, pp. 85–109; R. Collins, Charlemagne, London, 1998, pp. 43–101.
2 Einhard, Life of Charlemagne 13: transl. L. Thorpe, Harmondsworth, 1969, p. 67.
3 Alcuin, Letter 8 [121]: transl. S. Allott, Alcuin of York, York, 1974, p. 11; J. L. Nelson, Aachen as a place of power, in M. de Jong and F. Theuws, Topographies of Power in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden, 2001, pp. 217–41.
4 Liber Pontificalis 98.23–24: transl. R. Davis, Liverpool, 1992, pp. 190–1, and H. R. Loyn and J. Percival, The Reign of Charlemagne, London, 1975, pp. 24–6; Royal Annals, in Loyn and Percival, pp. 41–4; R. Folz, The Coronation of Charlemagne, London, 1974.
5 P. E. Dutton, Charlemagne’s Courtier. The Complete Einhard, Peterborough, Ontario, 1998, pp. xvii–xxiv; M. Innes, The classical tradition in the Carolingian renaissance: ninth-century encounters with Suetonius, International Journal of the Classical Tradition, 3 (1997): 265–82.
6 Einhard, Life of Charlemagne 22 and 31, Thorpe, pp. 76–7 and 84.
7 M. McCormick, The liturgy of war in the early Middle Ages: crisis, liturgies and the Carolingian monarchy, Viator, 15 (1984): 1–23 at p. 4; R. Hodges, Light in the Dark Ages. The Rise and Fall of San Vincenzo al Volturno, London, 1997, pp. 29–34.
8 Capitulary of Herstal (779) c.16, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Legum Sectio 2: Capitularia 1, Hanover, 1883, p. 51: transl. P. D. King, Charlemagne, Kendal, Cumbria, 1987, p. 204; Capitulary of the Missi at Aachen (810), cc.11 and 17, Capitularia 1, p. 153.
9 J. Nelson, Kingship and empire in the Carolingian world, in R. McKitterick (ed.), Carolingian Culture. Emulation and Innovation, Cambridge, 1994, pp. 88–107.
10 Alcuin, Letter 26 [20], Allott, p. 37.
11 Royal Annals (Vienna Manuscript) Ad 802, in Loyn and Percival, p. 45.
12 Admonitio Generalis (789), praef., Capitularia 1, p. 54, King, p. 209.
13 R. McKitterick, Introduction, New Cambridge Medieval History, pp. 3–17, at pp. 14–17.
14 J. Fleckenstein, Die Hofkapelle der deutschen Könige 1, Stuttgart, 1959; C. Hammer, Country churches, clerical inventories and the Carolingian Renaissance in Bavaria, Church History, 49 (1980): 5–17; Y. Hen, Knowledge of canon law among rural priests: the evidence of two Carolingian manuscripts of around 800, Journal of Theological Studies, NS 50 (1999): 117–34.
15 M. Innes, State and Society in the Early Middle Ages. The Middle Rhine Valley, 400–1000, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 42–3; M. de Jong, Carolingian monasticism: the power of prayer, in R. McKitterick (ed.), New Cambridge Medieval History 2, pp. 622–53.
16 Alcuin, Letter 29 [19] and 128 [295], Allott, pp. 40 and 134.
17 M. Driscoll, Alcuin et la pénitence à l’époque carolingienne, Münster in Westfalen, 1999.
18 M. Garrison, The social world of Alcuin: nicknames at York and at the Carolingian court, in L. Houwen and A. MacDonald (eds.), Alcuin of York. Scholar at the Carolingian Court, Groningen, 1998, pp. 59–79.
19 D. Ganz, The preconditions of Carolingian minuscule, Viator, 18 (1987): 23–43.
20 Alcuin, On Scribes: transl. P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance, London, 1985, p. 139.
21 D. Ganz, Book production in the Carolingian empire and the spread of Caroline minuscule, in McKitterick (ed.), New Cambridge Medieval History 2, pp. 786–808.
22 S. Rankin, Carolingian music, in McKitterick (ed.), Carolingian Culture. Emulation and Innovation, pp. 274–316; K. Levy, Gregorian Chant and the Carolingians, Princeton, NJ, 1998.
23 J. Mitchell, Literacy displayed: the uses of inscriptions at the monastery of San Vicenzo al Volturno in the early ninth century, in R. McKitterick (ed.), The Uses of Literacy in Early Mediaeval Europe, Cambridge, 1990, pp. 186–222.
24 R. Wright, Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France, Liverpool, 1982, pp. 104–22; M. Banniard, Viva voce. Communication écrite et communication orale du IVe au IXe siècle en Occident latin, Paris, 1992, pp. 305–422.
25 Dutton, Charlemagne’s Courtier, pp. xxv–xli, 68–130 and 168–71; R. McKitterick, The Carolingians and the Written Word, Cambridge, 1989, pp. 211–70; J. Nelson, Literacy in Carolingian government, in McKitterick (ed.), The Uses of Literacy, pp. 258–96; M. Garrison, “Send more socks”: on mentality and the preservation context of medieval letters, in M. Mostert (ed.), New Approaches to Medieval Communication, Turnhout, 1999, pp. 69–99.
26 Dhuoda, Liber Manualis, P. Riché (ed.), Manuel pour mon fils, Sources chrétiennes 225b, Paris, 1991: transl. C. Neel, Handbook for William. A Carolingian Noblewoman’s Counsel for her Son, Lincoln, NE, 1991, and M. Thiébaux, Dhuoda. Handbook for her Warrior Son, Cambridge, 1998; J. M. H. Smith, Gender and ideology in the early Middle Ages, in R. Swanson (ed.), Gender and Christianity, Studies in Church History 34, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1998, pp. 51–71.
27 Admonitio Generalis (789), c.72, Capitularia 1, p. 59, King, p. 217.
28 Admonitio Generalis, pref., Capitularia 1, p. 54, King, p. 209.
29 Admonitio Generalis, pref., Capitularia 1, p. 54, King, p. 209.
30 Admonitio Generalis c.78, Capitularia 1, p. 60, King, p. 218. The letter enjoyed a very different fate outside the Carolingian empire in Ireland: J. G. O’Keefe, Cáin Domnaig, Ériu, 2 (1905): 189–214.
31 Annals of Fulda A.D. 847: transl. T. Reuter, Manchester, 1992, pp. 26–7.
32 Council of Tours (813) c.17, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Concilia 2, Hanover, 1906, p. 288.
33 D. H. Green, Medieval Literacy and Reading. The Primary Reception of German Literature 800–1300, Cambridge, 1994, p. 43.
34 General Capitulary of the Missi (802) c.3, Loyn and Percival, p. 75.
35 Frankish and Old Saxon Baptismal Oaths, H. D. Schlosser (ed.), Althochdeutsche Literatur, Frankfurt am Main, 1970, p. 212.
36 D. H. Green, The Carolingian Lord, Cambridge, 1965; C. Edwards, German vernacular literature: a survey, in McKitterick (ed.), Carolingian Culture. Emulation and Innovation, pp. 141–70; A. Angenendt, Das Frühmittelalter, 2nd edn., Stuttgart, 1995, pp. 438–40.
37 E. J. Goldberg, The Stellinga revisited, Speculum, 70 (1995): 467–501; C. Carroll, The bishops in Saxony in the first century after Christianization, Early Medieval Europe, 8 (1999): 219–45.
38 G. Constable, Monastic Tithes from their Origins to the Twelfth Century, Cambridge, MA, 1964, p. 2.
39 Ghaerbald of Liège, Capitula 5, P. Brommer (ed.), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Capitula Episcoporum 1, Hanover, 1984, p. 16; A. Dierkens, La christianisation des campagnes dans l’empire de Louis le Pieux: l’exemple du diocèse de Liège sous l’épiscopat de Walcaud (c.809–c.831), in P. Godman and R. Collins (eds.), Charlemagne’s Heir. New Perspectives on the Reign of Louis the Pious (814–830), Oxford, 1990, pp. 309–29.
40 Ghaerbald of Liège, Second Diocesan Statute, C. de Clercq (ed.), Louvain, 1936, pp. 357–62.
41 Council on the Danube (796), Concilia 2, pp. 172–6 (on the Avars); Alcuin, Letter 56 [99], Allott, pp. 72–4 (on the Saxons).
42 Charlemagne to Ghaerbald of Liège, Capitularia 1, p. 241.
43 J. H. Lynch, Godparents and Kinship in Early Medieval Europe, Princeton, NJ, 1986, pp. 285–332; B. Jussen, Patenschaft und Adoption im frühen Mittelalter, Göttingen, 1991.
44 Agobard of Lyons, On Hail and Thunder, Patrologia Latina 104: 147–58, and L. Van Acker (ed.), Corpus Christianorum: series medievalis 52, Turnhout, 1981: transl. P. E. Dutton, Carolingian Civilization. A Reader, Peterborough, Ontario, 1993, pp. 189–91; P. E. Dutton, Thunder and hail over the Carolingian countryside, in D. Sweeney (ed.), Agriculture in the Middle Ages, Philadelphia, 1995, pp. 111–37.
45 Agobard, On the Illusion of Certain Miracles 11, Van Acker (ed.), p. 242.
46 C. Chazelle, Matter, spirit and image in the Libri Carolini, Recherches augustiniennes, 21 (1986): 163–84; T. F. X. Noble, Tradition and learning in search of an ideology, in R. E. Sullivan (ed.), “The Gentle Voices of Teachers.” Aspects of Learning in the Carolingian Age, Columbus, OH, 1995, pp. 227–60, and Images, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians, Philadelphia, PA, 2009; M. McCormick, Textes, images et iconoclasme dans le cadre des relations entre Byzance et l’Occident carolingien, in Testo e immagine nell’ alto Medioevo, Settimane di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo 41, Spoleto, 1994, pp. 95–162; C. Chazelle, The Crucified God in the Carolingian Era. Theology and Art of Christ’s Passion, Cambridge, 2001, pp. 39–52.
47 H. von Steinen, Karl der Grosse und die Libri Carolini, Neues Archiv, 39 (1931): 246.
48 Libri Carolini 1.15, A. Freeman with P. Meyvaert (eds.), Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Concilia 2: Supplementum 1, Hanover, 1998, pp. 169–75.
49 Libri Carolini 4.21, Freeman (ed.), p. 540.
50 V. R. Jeck, Die frühmittelalterliche Rezeption der Zeittheorie Augustins in den “Libri Carolini” und die Temporalität des Kultbildes, in R. Berndt (ed.), Das Frankfurter Konzil von 794, Mainz, 1997, vol. 2, pp. 861–84.
51 Theodulph, First Capitulary cc.5, 6, 8, 18, and 23, Brommer (ed.), Capitula Episcoporum, pp. 107–8, 115, and 120: transl. Dutton, Carolingian Civilization, pp. 94–105; see also A. Freeman and P. Meyvaert, The meaning of Theodulph’s apse at Germigny-des-Prés, Gesta, 40 (2001): 125–39.
52 Libri Carolini 3.16 and 4.3, Freeman (ed.), pp. 409 and 495.
53 P. Brown, Images as a substitute for writing, in E. Chrysos and I. Wood (eds.), East and West. Modes of Communication, Leiden, 1999, pp. 15–34.
54 Libri Carolini 2.30, Freeman (ed.), p. 305.
55 The Wish of Manchán of Liath: transl. K. Jackson, A Celtic Miscellany, Harmondsworth, 1971, p. 280.
56 Libri Carolini 1.1, Freeman (ed.), p. 105.
57 Libri Carolini 4.5, Freeman (ed.), p. 497.
58 H. Maguire, The Icons of their Bodies. Saints and their Images in Byzantium, Princeton, NJ, 1996, p. 46: the reaction of Gregory Melissenos in 1438.
1 S. Coupland, Money and coinage under Louis the Pious, Francia, 17:1 (1990): 23–34.
2 P. Sawyer, Kings and Vikings, London, 1982, pp. 39–77; R. Hodges, Towns and Trade in the Age of Charlemagne, London, 2000.
3 K. Hauck, Zum Problem der “Götter” im Horizont der völkerwanderungzeitlichen Brakteaten, in G. Althoff (ed.), Person und Gemeinschaft im Mittelalter, Sigmaringen, 1988, pp. 73–98.
4 I. N. Wood, The Missionary Life. Saints and the Evangelization of Europe 400–1050, London, 2001, pp. 250–3, and in P. Sawyer, B. Sawyer, and I. Wood (eds.), The Christianization of Scandinavia, Alingsås, 1987, pp. 64–6.
5 Sawyer, Kings and Vikings, plate IV.
6 S. Franklin and J. Shepard, The Emergence of Rus, 750–1250, London, 1996.
7 The Russian Primary Chronicle: transl. S. H. Cross and O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Cambridge, MA, p. 111; I. Ševčenko, Religious missions seen from Byzantium, Harvard Ukrainian Studies, 22/3 (1988/9): 6–27.
8 G. Jones, The Norse Atlantic Saga, Oxford, 1986, pp. 115–38; C. Keller, Vikings in the West Atlantic: a model of Norse Greenland medieval society, Acta Archeologica, 61 (1991): 126–41.
9 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A.D. 1010: transl. D. Whitelock, London, 1965, p. 90.
10 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle A.D. 1070, p. 151.
11 P. Wormald, Viking studies: whence and whither?, in R. T. Farrell (ed.), The Vikings, London, 1982, pp. 128–53; Sawyer, Kings and Vikings, pp. 113–30; G. Jones, The Vikings, Oxford, 1984, pp. 204–40; S. S. Hansen and K. Randsborg (eds.), The Vikings in the West, Acta Archaeologica, 71: Supplement 2, Copenhagen, 2000.
12 Greenlanders’ Saga 4: transl. Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 196.
13 Norges Inskrifter 6, no. 449, Oslo, 1960, cited in Sawyer (ed.), Christianization of Scandinavia, pp. 73–4.
14 Ermold Nigellus, On the Paintings at Ingelheim: transl. P. Godman, Poetry of the Carolingian Renaissance, London, 1985, p. 225; K. Hauck, Der Missionsauftrag Christi und das Kaisertum Ludwigs des Frommen, in R. Collins and P. Godman (eds.), Charlemagne’s Heir, Oxford, 1990, pp. 275–96.
15 Wood, The Missionary Life, pp. 123–4.
16 Rimbert, Life of Anskar 30: transl. C. H. Robinson, London, 1921, pp. 98–100.
17 R. Fletcher, The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity, 371–1386 A.D., London, 1998, pp. 369–416.
18 Fletcher, Conversion of Europe, pp. 404–7.
19 K. Hastrup, Culture and History in Medieval Iceland, Oxford, 1985.
20 Snorri Sturluson, Saga of Olaf Tryggvason 53–69: Heimskringla: transl. L. M. Hollander, Austin, TX, 1964, pp. 195–208; S. Bagge, Society and Politics in Snorri Sturluson’s Heimskringla, Berkeley, CA, 1991.
21 Ari Thorgilsson, Book of the Icelanders 7: transl. Viking Society of America, Ithaca, NY, 1930, p. 66.
22 Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson, Under the Cloak, Uppsala, 1978.
23 N. L. Wicker, Selective female infanticide as partial explanation of the dearth of women in Viking Age Scandinavia, in G. Halsall (ed.), Violence and Society in the Early Medieval West, Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1998, pp. 205–21.
24 J. Jochens, Late and peaceful: Iceland’s conversion through arbitration in 1000, Speculum, 74 (1999): 621–55; R. Karras, God and man in medieval Scandinavia: writing – and gendering – the conversion, in J. Muldoon (ed.), Varieties of Religious Conversion in the Middle Ages, Gainesville, FL, 1997, pp. 100–14.
25 O. Vésteinsson, The Christianization of Iceland. Priests, Power and Social Change 1000–1300, Oxford, 2000, pp. 17–57.
26 Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda: transl. A. Faulkes, London, 1987.
27 D. Dumville, The Anglian collection of royal genealogies, Anglo-Saxon England, 5 (1976): 23–50.
28 A. Gurevich, Saga and history: the “historical concept” of Snorri Sturluson, Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages, Chicago, 1992, pp. 103–15.
29 Lebor Gabála Erenn: The Book of the Taking of Ireland: transl. R. A. S. McAlister, Dublin, 1970, p. 165.
30 K. McCone, Pagan Past and Christian Present in Early Irish Literature, Maynooth, 1991, pp. 54–83; J. Carey, Native elements in Irish pseudo-history, in D. Edel (ed.), Cultural Identity and Cultural Integration. Ireland and Europe in the Early Middle Ages, Dublin, 1995, pp. 45–60.
31 P. Wormald, Bede, “Beowulf,” and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, in R. T. Farrell (ed.), Bede and Anglo-Saxon England, Oxford, 1978, pp. 32–95.
32 Gurevich, Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages, pp. 124–73.
33 D. Bullough, Friends, Neighbours and Fellow-Drinkers. Aspects of Community and Conflict in the Early Medieval West, H. M. Chadwick Lectures 1, Cambridge, 1990; Alcuin, Letters 5 and 125: transl. I. Allott, York, 1974, pp. 8 and 132; Council of Clovesho (747), canon 28, A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland 3, Oxford, 1964, p. 374.
34 Einhard, Life of Charlemagne 29: transl. L. Thorpe, Harmondsworth, 1969, p. 82.
35 D. Whitelock, The Audience of Beowulf, Oxford, 1951.
36 Wormald, Bede, “Beowulf,” and the conversion of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, pp. 49–58; P. A. Booth, King Alfred vs. Beowulf: the re-education of the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 99 (1997): 41–66.
37 R. Frank, Germanic legend in Old English literature, in M. Godden and M. Lapidge (eds.), Cambridge Companion to Old English Literature, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 88–106; M. Innes, Memory, orality and history in an early medieval society, Past and Present, 158 (1998): 3–36, and Teutons or Trojans? The Carolingians and the Germanic past, in Y. Hen and M. Innes (eds.), The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 227–49.
38 Rudolf of Fulda, Translatio Sancti Alexandri, Monumenta Germaniae Historica: Scriptores 2, Berlin, 1829, p. 673.
39 M. Enright, Lady with a Mead Cup. Ritual, Prophecy and Lordship in the European Warband from La Tène to the Vikings, Dublin, 1996, pp. 68–168.
40 Sturlunga Saga 31: transl. J. McGrew, New York, 1970, p. 108.
41 Snorri Sturluson, Saga of Olaf Tryggvason 64: Heimskringla, p. 204.
42 Merseburg Spells: H. D. Schlosser (ed.), Althochdeutsche Literatur, Frankfurt, 1970, pp. 251–60.
43 Erik the Red’s Saga 3, Jones, Norse Atlantic Saga, p. 214.
44 Burchard of Worms, The Corrector 5.65: transl. J. T. McNeill and H. Gamer, Medieval Handbooks of Penance, New York, 1938, p. 330.
45 Vienna Spell, Schlosser, p. 260.
46 Aecerbot: For Unfruitful Land: transl. S. A. J. Bradley, London, 1982, pp. 545–7.
47 Gurevich, Historical Anthropology of the Middle Ages, pp. 200–9; Hastrup, Culture and History in Medieval Iceland, pp. 140–51.
48 Midhir’s [the lord of the fairies’] Invitation to the Earthly Paradise: transl. K. H. Jackson, A Celtic Miscellany, Harmondsworth, 1971, p. 172.
49 The Táin: transl. T. Kinsella, Oxford, 1970, p. 2.
50 Táin Bó Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster, C. O’Rahilly (ed.), Dublin, 1970, p. 272.
51 Beowulf 1347–52: transl. M. Alexander, Harmondsworth, 1973, p. 93. See also the bilingual transl. of Seamus Heaney, New York, 2000.
52 Book of Monsters, M. Haupt (ed.), Opuscula, Leipzig, 1879, p. 223, cited in Whitelock, The Audience of Beowulf, p. 46.
53 F. P. Magoun, The pilgrim diary of Nikulas of Munkathvera, Mediaeval Studies, 6 (1944): 314–54, at p. 347.
54 Beowulf 104–10, p. 54; J. R. R. Tolkien, Beowulf: the monsters and the critics, Proceedings of the British Academy, 22 (1936): 1–53; R. Mellinkoff, Cain’s monstrous progeny in “Beowulf,” Anglo-Saxon England, 8 (1979): 143–62 and 9 (1980): 183–97.
55 Ananias of Shirak in J. R. Russell, Dragons in Armenia, Journal of Armenian Studies, 5 (1990/1): 3–19.
56 Moses Korenats’i, History of the Armenians 1.61: transl. R. W. Thomson, Cambridge, MA, 1978, p. 204.
57 A. Sheratt, The emergence of elites: earlier Bronze Age Europe, 2500–1300 B.C., in B. Cunliffe (ed.), Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe, Oxford, 1994, pp. 244–70.
58 Lorsch Bee Spell: Schlosser, Althochdeutsche Literatur, p. 260.
59 P. Carelli, Thunder and lightning, magical miracles: on the popular myth of thunderbolts and the presence of Stone Age artefacts in medieval deposits, in Visions of the Past. Trends and Traditions in Swedish Medieval Archaeology, Lund Studies in Medieval Archaeology 19, Lund, 1997, pp. 393–417 (I owe this reference and information on San Vincenzo in Volturno to the kindness of Professor R. Hodges); M. van Vlierden, Willibrord en het begin van Nederland, Utrecht, 1995, pp. 93 and 102.
60 Revue des études anciennes, 3 (1901): 273.
61 F. Harmer, Documents of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, Cambridge, 1914, pp. 13–15.