?–3000 B.C.E.
Primitive substratum of cave dwellers and forest tribes who worship ancestors, plants, animals, mountains, lakes, rivers, stones, and forest spirits known as yakshas
3000–2000 B.C.E.
Rise and fall of goddess-worshipping city-states in the Indus River valley that had trade links with Mesopotamia
2000–1200 B.C.E.
Rise in northern India of militaristic and pastoral Vedic culture, which invokes celestial spirits known as devas through the ritual of yagna to satisfy material aspirations
1200–600 B.C.E.
Gradual spread of Vedic culture to eastern and southern India; increasing domination of Vedic society by the priestly class; caste hierarchies formulated; Brahmanical orthodoxy established in Hindu society
800–500 B.C.E.
Ascetic revolution of the Upanishads followed by rise of monastic orders, such as Buddhism and Jainism; intellectual speculation rife as scholars and seers debate on the true nature of cosmos and divinity; ritualism loses ground
800 B.C.E.–200 C.E.
Increasing popularity of hero cults, such as those of Krishna and Rama; composition of epics and legends that have greater mass appeal than erudite philosophical speculation; folk gods, popular rituals, and tribal beliefs gradually make inroads into the classical traditions
500 B.C.E.–400 C.E.
Crystallization of six major schools of Hindu philosophy—Yoga, Samkhya, Vedanta, Mimansa, Nyaya, Vaiseshika; contact with Persia and the Magi sun worshippers; trade links established with Rome over land and sea; sophisticated Sangam culture evolves in the south that patronizes Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism
300 B.C.E.–200 C.E.
Hordes of Indo-Greeks, Scythians, and Parthians from central Asia follow Alexander into northern India and gradually get absorbed in the local culture; introduction of idol worship; spread of Buddhism across India and to China via central Asia; Saint Thomas brings Christianity to India, first to the Indus valley, then to the west coast of Kerala
200–800 C.E.
Classical age of Hindu culture; gradual collapse of Buddhism; rise of theistic schools; establishment of Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions; spread of Hinduism to southeastern Asia; popularization of temple culture
400–600 C.E.
Invasion and absorption of Huns and Gujar tribes from northwest; rise of Rajput militaristic traditions in western and central India; rise of social and religious feudalism
500–900 C.E.
Stranglehold of Brahmanical patriarchal values based on Manu Smriti and Dharmashastras; caste identity becomes inflexible; concepts of ritual purity and untouchability gain ground; stories of gods, kings, and sages compiled in Puranas; Tantrik practices exert influence on popular rituals such as vratas and pujas; Arab trading vessels ply western coast; cultural isolation of India
800–1500 C.E.
Doctrine of devotion spreads from southern to northern India; sophisticated philosophical commentaries on Vedanta written by Shankara—later elaborated on by Ramanuja, Madhava, Vallabha—forms its intellectual bedrock; massive temple complexes built in the east and the south as devotional cults acquire royal patronage; vernacular religious literature fires the imagination of the people
Central Asian Muslim warlords invade India; persecution of Hindus in the north; establishment of Muslim kingdoms; Islam becomes major political and intellectual force in India; belief in heaven, hell, submission, and redemption becomes popular in Hinduism
1500–1800 C.E.
Arrival of Europeans by sea; rise in the economic and political power of Portugal, France, and finally England; introduction of Christian missions and Western education
1700–1900 C.E.
Hindu renaissance in the educated middle class; reappraisal of orthodox customs, beliefs, and rituals; preference for Hindu philosophy
1800–2000 C.E.
Appreciation of Hindu culture in the West; rise in Hindu nationalism and fundamentalism