Arabic Type Is My Type: A Question of Arabic Typography Education
Lama Ajeenah
This article discusses the relationship between type and context. Through history until today there is a strong bond between writing (calligraphy/ typography), function, and content. Words hold meaning; they give life and paint a thousand pictures to express, communicate, and reflect time and place. Communication was a reflective tool of its context. Therefore, the education of typography in specific and graphic design in general should be taught not only as systematic rules but also it should embrace the changes and interact with its social, political, and environmental framework. Typographers and graphic designers live in an environment, which will eventually be reflected in their designs. During the early stages of Arabic calligraphy, Muslim scholars, who were known for their piety and deep knowledge of Islam, wrote the Quran manuscripts. Later on, typing the Quran took many years to be applied because of restricted religious understanding of Islam as Muslims during that era refused writing the holy book through a typing machine. So, the correlation between Arabic type and its context is highly intersected. Consequently, our understanding of typography education should be intertwined with the circumstance it is found in. In this article the evolution of Arabic calligraphy will be highlighted while spotlighting the needs and influences that shaped its progress. Kufic as well as cursive scripts are emphasized in order to link the progression of Arabic calligraphy with today’s development of Arabic typography. Lastly, a critical analysis of graphic design education is discussed to demonstrate the need for a new approach in teaching.
According to Muslims, Arabic is not only a language that expedites everyday communication, it is a lingo that eases their understanding of their religion. Calligraphy is the face of language and Arabic is the language of Islam. As Khatibi, A., Sijelmassi, M. (2001) stated, glorifying the language of Quran means beautifying the unseen face of Allah.1 Calligraphy is among the oldest and most precious arts in Islam. It grew and flourished through different eras during the Islamic civilization. The Arabic writing was in a moderate state before Islam and evolved into astonishing maturity after the rise of Islam. At the time of Quranic revelation, Arabs had a set of well-shaped yet primitive representations of their alphabets. During the rise of Islam, Muslims considered calligraphy as a way to express their appreciation of God’s words. They worshiped God by beatifying his words. So they considered calligraphy as the art of a linear graphic; it restructures ones perception of language. It beautifies the word, and obeys the geometry of the spirit it is created in. According to Muslims, Arabic calligraphy combines the bodily and the spiritual through the knowledge of its proportion2. As the Muslim Arabic scholar Hassan Bin Al- Haitham (965–1039) states, “Calligraphy is not beautiful unless its letters are proportionately arranged in their forms, dimensions, positions and order.”3
The state of Arabic writing evolved radically after the rise of Islam, where there was a new political, religious, and cultural situation and thus created new needs. According to Islam, the Quran was first memorized by the prophet Muhammad through Jibrael (the angel) sent by God, and from the prophet it was memorized by his companions. By then, the Quran was written on leaves, white stones, camel bones, and palm stalks. After the prophet Muhammad’s death, there was the danger of losing the Quran in the chests of Muslims, as 450 of them were dead in the battle of Yamama.4 After the battle, Abu Bakir sent for Zayd Bin Thabet and said Umar came to me and said, “Many Quran reciters were killed at Yamama and I fear that the heavy casualties will cause much of the Quran to be lost. I think that you should collect the Quran.” From that moment, the Muslims’ interest in the writing of the Quran began.
The Development of Arabic Calligraphy through the Early History of Islam
As Muslims started writing the Quran, their attention to the words of God led them to be innovative not only in the decorative feature of design but also to the structure of their alphabet. Additional characters were added to the Arabic writing to match the needs of writing the words of the Quran more legibly. The first was using the diacritical marks; these signs were not manifested in pre-Islamic inscriptions parsimonious. The second development in writing was the introduction of “ta’a” (ta’a marbuta)—final ta. The third advancement was the long sound “a” in the middle of the word. These additions were added to serve the words of the Quran. Hence, the development of the language was still in progress to serve the new function, which is the writing of the Quran. Also, calligraphy witnessed a great improvement in the shape of the letters to serve the historical, political, and ideological thoughts of the period the text was written in. It was also designed to create high legibility with the highest standards of grid system and structure of the letters to facilitate reading according to the style mostly used from the people living in the time.
The first Arabic script was the Meccan and then the Medinian, which were known as the Hejazi writing, then the Basran and Kufan. The difference between the Hejazi and the Kufic script is that the Kufic is more structured while the Hejazi include more individual variables within the same text.
As the script of the earliest Quran evolved, it progressed through age that every script was developed based on the previous text written before where scribes influenced the writing according to their background. The use of geometrical decorations used in the beginning of a new chapter was taken from the Syriac writing before Islam. Furthermore, the Quran included some Christian techniques within the text. According to George, A. (2010), one implication is that some of the famous scribes in the early decades of Islam were Christians.5 Another suggestion would be because some of the Muslim scribes were Christian before they were Muslim and this idea would influence the style of writing of the Quran.
The Birth of the Kufic
The birth of the Kufic during the end of the seventh century created a radical reform in the legibility of Arabic writing. The mature rules of the script were based on precise definitions and they remained the same throughout its lifespan in the eleventh century, whereas the Hejazi script was changing constantly according to the scribe. It included seventeen main Kufic styles, which are based on six broad families. The text box of the Quran during the Kufic writing was laid out with fixed proportions in width and height. It included eleven lines on each page. Each line of text was written based on a base line and seven interlines within the two base lines. The interline system of Kufic does not find a trace in any earlier tradition. It was developed to create systematic proportions to letters. The remarkable characteristics of Kufic script such as the use of consistent text boxes, the absence of visible rulings, and the precise justification of text was not only absent in Hejazi script but also in previous scribal traditions. So the appreciation of Quran helped in shaping the evolution of calligraphy and creation of highly legible scripts.
During the eleventh century, there was a move from Kufic towards proportional cursive handwriting. There was a new need to create scripts that were faster to draw, more legible, and reflective of their time. As the previous development from Hejazi towards Kufic, the new cursive approach was evolving as a groundbreaking evolution rather than a revolution. During the Abbasid period, it was Ibn Muqla who took the Kufic system and brought it to the cursive style, which was usually used for informal purposes. With the spread of Islam, new scripts were required to fit the pace of conversions, and Naskh first appeared in the tenth century. The script was the most ubiquitous among other styles, used in Qurans, official decrees, and private correspondence. It became the basis of modern Arabic scripts.
Fig. 1 Early Kufic Script
Fig. 2 Hejazi Script
As George, A. states in The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy, Ibn Muqla (886–940) was the vizir (minister) of the Abbasid caliph Al-Muqtader. He and his brother Abu Abdallah were famous for their beautiful handwriting. Abu Hayyan Al-Tawhidi, the author of The Risala fi ilm al-kitabat, a source that talks about the story of calligraphy, said about Ibn Muqla:
“He is a prophet in the field of handwriting. It was poured upon his hand, even as it was revealed to the bees to make their honey-cell hexagonal.”6
Ibn Muqla played a great role in setting the rules of Arabic calligraphy. “He codified the six scripts that became the foundation for the practice of calligraphy. Furthermore, he founded a proportional writing system that used a circle with the diameter of the letter Alif as its basis.”7
Fig. 3 Proportioned writing system using dots placed by Ibn Muqla.
The observer of calligraphy through Islamic history would wonder, does the state have any influence on the evolution of calligraphy? In the work of the Sunni revival and its impact on the arts, Yasser Tabbaa argued that the rise of the new style was related to the endorsements of the seven readings of Ibn Mujahid and Ibn Muqla8: the appearance of cursive calligraphy was part of the reassertion of Sunni orthodoxy by the Abbasid, remarkably the caliph al-Qadir; the Fatimids, in turn developed a distinguishing approach which was marked as a rejection of the current trends. The Fatimids’ ideology in their state was to be unique in their approach to their practice of Islam by embracing Greek, Persian, and Indian philosophy. They rejected the application of their previous Abbasid ruling and their philosophy was reflected in their calligraphy as well. The blue Quran created at their ruling was based on writing with gold ink on dark purple paper to reflect their wealth and power in the face of the Byzantine Empire. It was a new approach in writing the Quran that was never done before.
Latin and Arabic Typography Influences
Typography not only reflects context but also its presence may transform the circumstance in which it is found. The existence of Latin typography accelerated the speed of spreading knowledge and especially the religious content of the Bible. People throughout Europe formulated their own interpretations instead of relying on religious leaders as the ultimate truth. The spread of knowledge in Europe led directly to reformation. Consequently, it shattered Christianity into hundreds of sects.
As Latin typography evolved at the end of the fifteenth century, Arabic typography was encountered with a progression of political, religious, and technical constraints. The Ottoman sultans did not allow printing in Arabic as it was considered a threat to their power. The second reason was religious as it was debatable for a long period of time to have the Quran printed rather than written by hand. Furthermore, some technical problems, like the ligature used in Arabic to connect letters, was an additional difficulty to design movable type. The delay of typing in Arabic caused Latin typographers to work with Arabic typography, which lead to legibility problems caused by cultural barriers. According to Kampman,9 in 1706, the first printer in the Middle East was found in Aleppo. The first printed books included difficulties in Arabic typography as the fonts designed were assimilating calligraphic writing as Latin type but the outcomes were bad in quality. A lot of designers tried to simplify Arabic type by creating several solutions by limiting ligatures or working with limited ascenders and descenders.
The evolution of Arabic calligraphy and typography was strongly related to religion and politics. From the style of script to the appearance of type, religion offered the reason behind the word appreciation and therefore aesthetics and the state played a great role in shaping the guidelines of the style as well as the framework the type would be used in. Using the geometric Kufic versus the cursive script reflects the need for new scripts that serve new needs. As the highly clear rules of kufic were created to document the Quran using a more legible approach than the Hejazi script, the cursive scripts were customized to simplify the writing as well as the reading of the text. The design was simplified by Muslim calligraphers to ease the reading of text by new believers who converted to Islam. Besides, cursive script was also used to reflect the prosperity that the Islamic states reached after the spread of Islam.
Today’s Challenge: The Need for New Typography Education
As the Arab philosopher Ibn Khaldun stated, calligraphy can only flourish when a civilization is at the peak of its cultural activities and prosperities.10 Thus, calligraphy/ typography, like any other form of art/design, is a reflection of its context. Therefore, writing in the shape of calligraphy and typography can be effective mostly when it is reflecting the context within different liberal arts subjects. Aristotle first introduced the concept of liberal arts. He made a “distinction between liberal and illiberal subjects,” the latter being those that would make “the learner mechanical.” Previously, Muslim scholars excelled in various fields. Muslims’ understanding of Islam and their methodology of applying Islam were always reflected in their arts, science, literature, and philosophy. A scholar could be great in understanding religion, geometry, philosophy, calligraphy, and even Islamic ornamentation. There was no division among different fields, which allowed for a coherent understanding application of knowledge.
The role in Arabic typography today is still primitive to design fonts for a contemporary need. It stopped following the methodological development of the Muslim ancestors in calligraphy and the progression of Latin type. Today, Arabic fonts are created in isolation of their context, as typography education is creating a barrier between graphic design rules and liberal subjects. So Arabic type is either adaptable to old historical scripts or Latin fonts. They are designed based on an old ideology that matches a historical script or a western structure rather than creating a strong methodology that matches the contemporary needs. What Ibn Muqla did in his time was considered a revolution in Arabic calligraphy as he set guidelines based on the state’s needs and people’s necessities. Today, when students design Arabic typography posters, they still place the dots and circle that Ibn Muqla set centuries ago without understanding the historical meaning behind it. It is used as a decorative element to appeal to the greatness of old Arabic calligraphy without touching the essence of it.
One of the main aims of graphic design education is to find a link between design skills and general knowledge that will benefit the student during university studies and throughout their professional career. According to Swanson,11 today “graphic design education is not, for the most part, education. It is vocational training, and rather narrow specialized training at that.” Typography is taught as a separate field to learn how to kern, justify, track, and set in a layout. But what a graphic designer will eventually need is not only that. A graphic designer will work in various subjects, such as sustainability, education, poverty, racism, economics, politics, or fashion. He/she will work with producers, advertisers, copywriters, salespeople, musicians, and TV makers. A basic knowledge of those fields should be considered gradually in design education before students become exposed to them suddenly. As Bruinsma, M. (1998) says, a “graphic designer’s main contribution to the affectivity of communication products is today more a matter of ‘conceptual functionalism’ than of formal virtuosity.”
The second aspect to graphic design education is the reader and end user. Designers and clients will produce magazines, books, and TV shows that will be received ultimately by the audience. It could be written or pictorial, an artistic piece or a consumer product, the viewer will read the design into his or her own context. Noise will be the factor that will affect their perception of the design outcome. The designer and typographer is not only responsible for delivering good design that looks good in terms of grid and layout but rather the design that will be understood well. And the designer’s understanding of the subject matter will be reflected in the visual outcome.
New Typography Follows New Context
Typography generally can serve to create and reflect an identity, character, emotion, and even class. The typographer and graphic designer Jonathan Barnbrook designed typefaces of Bastard, Torette, Mason, and many others to reflect an ideology in society, politics, or religion. When talking about Arabic type, not only are we talking about beliefs, but Arabic type can also express the dialect of the country or the culture of a certain region in the Arab and Muslim world. It can manifest a conflict in the Middle East or the Arab world to reflect its own philosophy, the same as what the Fatimids tried to portray of their religious belief through calligraphy. To them, the script they used was a reflection of their rejection of the past. They wanted to design calligraphy that was radical to what had been used before. Today, the Arab world is witnessing a change in its nature. There is a clash between the past obedient older generation and the younger youth who initiated manifestations in the region. Their ideas are progressive and innovative, yet the ground is still fragile.
The new spirit of change and innovative, open ideas reflect society, and therefore typographers should apply the same. The Arab/Muslim context is very different than that of the West through its history, language, culture, and political nature. However, graphic design education is mostly imported from the West. Therefore, there must be a restructured study of graphic design education to match our contemporary challenges and different cultural needs.
Today, when designers choose a typeface, they consider history, the current connotation as well as the visual qualities.12 Their aim is to find a link between the design of the visual communication and the intended message to serve the audience and the intended function. Bilingual communication is becoming an important need in everyday interactions. Some Arab type designers like Nadin Shahin worked on Arab-izing Latin type like Helvetica Arabic, but the problem with her adaptation is that Arabic type looks Westernized. And questions will rise: Does modernizing Arabic type mean Westernization? Likewise, how far will the Arabic type adapt to the Latin while still preserving the Arabic characteristics? And is it acceptable for Arab designers to start forming unique Arabic typefaces that have an Eastern origin and start adapting the Latin accordingly? Will the Latin type in that case look more Eastern than the way it looks?
Fig. 4 Thuraya Project is designed as an adaptation to Diwani script, designed by Kristyan Sarkis.
Adapting calligraphy into type design could be an initial stage to develop typography, which occurred in the history of Latin and Arabic typography. This may lead, though, to limiting the aesthetics of calligraphy because of the rigidity of typography vs. the fluidity of the brush stroke in calligraphy. It is not enough for Arabic type to be ruminative to its calligraphic origin like the Thuraya font or the contemporary Latin typography like the Fresco project. What Arabic type education needs today is to search for groundbreaking, evolutionary ideas that reflect context, whether it is designed for documentation or conceptualization. Graphic design educators should interact with their context and needs, as the best education is the interactive education. As form follows function, and function follows context, it is vital to consider context and content while designing in order to have an effective functional design.
Fig. 5 The Fresco project is designed based on collaboration between the renowned Dutch type designer Fred Smeijers, and the Arab type designer Lara Assouad-Khoury.
Notes
1. Khatibi, A. , Sijelmassi, M. (2001). The Splendour of Islamic Calligraphy. New York: Thames & Hudson.
2. See note 1 above.
3. George, A. (2010). The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy: The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy. London: Saqi. Hejazi Script image: http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/islamic-art-history/deck/6959437
4. Ibn Kathir’s Al-Bidaya wa al-Nibaya. Retrieved from: http://www.faithdefenders.com/articles/worldreligions/The_compilation_of_the_Quran.html
5. See note 3 above.
6. Ibid.
7. Islamic Art Team, ( 2011). “Ibn Muqla—Master Calligrapher.” Islamic Art and Architecture. Retrieved from: http://islamic-arts.org/2011/ibn-muqla/.
8. See note 3 above.
9. Kampman, F. (2011). “Arabic Typography, its past and its future.” (BA, Thesis). Retrieved from: http://www.islamicmanuscripts.info/reference/books/Kampman-2011-Typography-Bachelor-Thesis-Arabic-Frerik-Kampman-20120823-download.pdf
10. Smitshuizen AbiFares, H. (2001). Arabic Typography: A Comprehensive Book. London: Saqi.
11. Swanson, G. (1998). “Graphic Design Education as a Liberal Art: Design and Knowledge in the University and the ‘Real World’”. In Heller, S. The Education of a Graphic Designer (13) New York: Allworth Press.
Baines, P., Haslam, A. (2002). Type & Typography: London: Laurence King.
Bruinsma, M. Design Interactive Education. In Heller, S. The Education of A Graphic Designer (57) New York: Allworth Press.
