INTRODUCTION: MOURNING IN AMERICA
1 Gloria Levitas, “No Boundary Is a Boundary: Conflict and Change in a New England Indian Community” (PhD diss., Rutgers University, 1980); David J. Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005); Kevin A. McBride and Suzanne G. Cherau, “Gay Head (Aquinnah) Wampanoag Community Structure and Land Use Patterns,” Northeast Anthropology 51 (1996): 13–39; William A. Starna, “ ‘We’ll All be Together Again’: The Federal Acknowledgement of the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head,” Northeast Anthropology 51 (1996): 3–12; Christine Tracey Gabrowski, “Coiled Intentions: Federal Acknowledgement Policy and the Gay Head Wampanoags” (PhD diss., City University of New York, 1994); Ann Marie Plane and Gregory Button, “The Massachusetts Indian Enfranchisement Act: Ethnic Contest in Historical Context, 1849–1869,” Ethnohistory 40, no. 4 (1993): 587–618.
2 Frank James, “National Day of Mourning,” in Siobhan Senier, ed., Dawnland Voices: An Anthology of Indigenous Writing from New England (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska, 2014), 455.
3 A profile of James can be found in “Wamsutta Frank James Obituary,” Boston Globe, February 23, 2001. On the Federated Eastern Indian League, see Earl H. Mills, Talking with the Elders of Mashpee: Memories of Earl H. Mills, Sr. (Mashpee, MA: self-pub., 2012), 91–93.
4 James W. Baker, Thanksgiving: The Biography of an American Holiday (Lebanon: Univ. of New Hampshire Press, 2009), 14–30.
5 Baker, 13 (“the first Thanksgiving”).
6 Baker, 62–77; Anne Blue Wills, “Pilgrims and Progress: How Magazines Made Thanksgiving,” Church History 72, no. 1 (2003): 138–58.
7 Baker, Thanksgiving, 98–114; Nina Baym, “Early Histories of American Literature: A Chapter in the Institution of New England,” American Literary History 1, no. 3 (1989): 459–88; Christine Arnold-Lourie, “Baby Pilgrims, Sturdy Forefathers, and One Hundred Percent Americanism: The Mayflower Tercentenary of 1920,” Massachusetts Historical Review 17 (December 2015): 35–66; Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876–1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000).
8 William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, ed. Chauncey Ford, 2 vols. (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1912), 1:191.
9 James Deetz and Patricia Scott Deetz, The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony (New York: W. H. Freeman, 2000), 1–29; Jean M. O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2010), 20.
10 Baker, Thanksgiving, 115–28.
11 Plimoth Plantation Wampanoag Homesite staff member, in-person conversation with author, November 22, 2017, Plymouth, MA.
12 Experiences of this sort are treated in Dawn Dove, “Alienation of Indigenous Children in the Public School System,” in Senier, Dawnland Voices, 523–25; Dennis Zotigh, “Do Indians Americans Celebrate Thanksgiving?” Natural Museum of the American Indian (blog), http://
13 “Indian Charges Censorship, Spurns Orator’s Role,” Boston Globe, September 24, 1970.
14 Daniel M. Cobb, Native Activism in Cold War America: The Struggle for Sovereignty (Lawrence: Univ. of Kansas, 2008); Troy R. Johnson, The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Indian Self-Determination and the Rise of Indian Activism (Champaign: Univ. of Illinois Press, 1996); Paul Chaat Smith and Robert Allen Warrior, Like a Hurricane: The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee (New York: The New Press, 1996), esp. 171–268; Peter Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse, new ed. (New York: Viking, 1991); Stephen Cornell, The Return of the Native: American Indian Political Resurgence (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988); and Joane Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996).
15 O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting, 183.
16 James, “National Day of Mourning,” 455.
17 James, 456.
18 James, 456.
19 James, 457–58.
20 “Mourning Indians Dump Sand on Plymouth Rock,” New York Times, November 27, 1970 (“red”; “reclaim”).
21 “Indians Take Over Mayflower II: Stage Plymouth Protest,” Boston Globe, November 27, 1970; “Mourning Indians Dump Sand on Plymouth Rock,” New York Times, November 27, 1970; Russell Means and Marvin Wolf, Where White Men Fear to Tread: The Autobiography of Russell Means (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1995), 175–78.
22 See the discussion of the National Day of Mourning on the website of James’s organization, United American Indians of New England: www
23 Philip J. Deloria, “Historiography,” in Deloria and Neal Salisbury, eds., A Companion to American Indian History (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002), 6–24; Ned Blackhawk, “American Indians and the Study of U.S. History,” in Eric Foner and Lisa McGirr, eds., American History Now (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 2011), 378–401; Susan Sleeper-Smith et al., eds., Why You Can’t Teach United States History without American Indians (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2015); James H. Merrell, “Second Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians,” WMQ 69, no. 3 (2012): 451–512; Patricia Galloway, “How Deep Is (Ethno-)History? Archives, Written History, Oral Tradition,” in Practicing Ethnohistory: Mining Archives, Hearing Testimony, Constructing Narrative (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 2006), 1–33.
24 Kevin Bruyneel, The Third Space of Sovereignty: The Postcolonial Politics of U.S.-Indigenous Relations (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2007).
CHAPTER 1: THE WAMPANOAGS’ OLD WORLD
1 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:156 (“hideous”); Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, ed. Dwight B. Heath (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1963), 21 (“plain ground”), 22 (“basket”).
2 Mourt’s Relation, 34 (“burying place”).
3 Mourt’s Relation, 23 (trap), 27 (“path”), and generally 18–40; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:162–71.
4 Mourt’s Relation, 55–57 (“chain” on 57); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:200–203. On the meaning of “Massasoit,” I am drawing on the insights of Jessie Little Doe Baird, a Wampanoag linguist.
5 Winslow, Good News, 107 (“travels”); Katherine Grandjean, American Passage: The Communications Frontier in Early New England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2015), 3–4. On the storied landscape, see Russell G. Handsman, “Landscapes of Memory in Wampanoag Country—and the Monuments upon Them,” in Patricia E. Rubertone, ed., Archaeologies of Placemaking: Monuments, Memories, and Engagement in Native North America (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008), 161–94; Eva L. Butler, “The Brush or Stone Memorial Heaps of Southern New England,” Bulletin of the Archeological Society of Connecticut 19 (April 1946): 2–12; Stephen Jett, “Cairn and Brush Travel Shrines in the United States Northeast and Southeast,” Northeast Anthropology 48 (Fall 1994): 61–67; Christine M. DeLucia, The Memory Lands: King Philip’s War and the Place of Violence in the Northeast (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2018), 16.
6 Mourt’s Relation, 60–65 (“horse” on 64). On pipe smoking, see Isaack de Rasieres to Samuel Blommaert, ca. 1628, in Sydney V. James, ed., Three Visitors to Early Plymouth (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 1997), 73.
7 Mourt’s Relation, 65–68 (“great speech” on 66); Winslow, Good News, 102–3 (“religion”), 107 (“resort”). On English views of Indian leaders, see Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2000), 90–103. On the “cant of conquest,” see Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1975).
8 Among many works, see Brian Fagan, The Great Journey: The Peopling of Ancient America (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1987); Richard Shutler, ed., Early Man in the New World (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1983); Colin G. Calloway, One Vast Winter Count: The Native American West before Lewis and Clark (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska, 2003); Peter Nabokov, A Forest of Time: American Indian Ways of History (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002).
9 O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting; Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing Indian: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 1982); Philip J. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 2004).
10 For models of how to connect pre- and postcontact history, see Neal Salisbury, “The Indians’ Old World: Native Americans and the Coming of Europeans,” WMQ 53, no. 3 (1996): 435–58; Daniel K. Richter, Before the Revolution: America’s Ancient Pasts (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2011); James F. Brooks, “Women, Men, and Cycles of Evangelism in the Southwest Borderlands, A.D. 750 to 1750,” American Historical Review 118, no. 3 (2013): 738–64; Stephen Warren, The Worlds the Shawnees Made: Migration and Violence in Early America (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2014); Juliana Barr, “There’s No Such Thing as ‘Prehistory’: What the Longue Durée of Caddo and Pueblo History Tells Us about Colonial America,” WMQ 74, no. 2 (2017): 203–40. Generally, see Pekka Hämäläinen, ed., “The Changing Histories of North America before Europeans,” OAH Magazine of History 27, no. 4 (2013): 5–7; Peter R. Schmidt and Stephen A. Mrozowski, eds., The Death of Prehistory (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2013).
11 Winslow, Good News, 103; Roger Williams, A Key into the Language of America (1643), ed. John J. Teunissen and Evelyn J. Hinz (Detroit: Wayne State Univ. Press, 1973), 197; William S. Simmons, Spirit of the New England Tribes: Indian History and Folklore (Lebanon, NH: Univ. Press of New England, 1986), 172–216.
12 Dean R. Snow, The Archaeology of New England (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 102–3; Elizabeth S. Chilton, “New England Algonquians: Navigating ‘Backwaters’ and Typological Boundaries,” in Timothy Pauketat, ed., Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2012), 264; Barbara Blau Chamberlain, These Fragile Outposts: A Geological Look at Cape Cod, Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket (New York: Natural History Press, 1964), 156–57.
13 William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), 51 (“instrumental”); Snow, Archaeology of New England, 183–84; Chilton, “New England Algonquians,” 264–65.
14 Historic and Archaeological Resources of Cape Cod and the Islands: A Framework for Preservation Decisions (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Commission, Office of the Massachusetts Secretary of State, 1986), 9–10, 13; John T. Cumbler, Cape Cod: An Environmental History of a Fragile Ecosystem (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 2014), 16–22; Elena B. Décima and Dena F. Dincauze, “The Boston Back Bay Fish Weirs,” in Kathryn Bernick, ed., Hidden Dimensions: The Cultural Significance of Wetland Archaeology (Vancouver: Univ. of British Columbia Press, 1998), 57–72; Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 122; Chamberlain, These Fragile Outposts, 98; Jonathan K. Patton, “Considering the Wet Homelands of Indigenous Massachusetts,” Journal of Social Archaeology 14, no. 1 (2014): 87–111.
15 Snow, Archaeology of New England, 155–56, 171–72; Chilton, “New England Algonquians,” 265–66; Handsman, “Landscape of Memory,” 170–72; Frank Kemp, “The Coburn Site: A Burial Complex on Cape Cod,” Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society 22, nos. 3–4 (1961): 33–41.
16 Snow, Archaeology of New England, 279–80; James W. Bradley, “Native Exchange and European Trade: Cross-Cultural Dynamics in the Sixteenth Century,” Man in the Northeast 33 (1987): 41.
17 Chilton, “New England Algonquians,” 267–70; Christopher Jazwa, “Temporal Changes in a Precontact and Contact Cultural Landscape along the Southern Rhode Island Coast,” in Ben Ford, ed., The Archaeology of Maritime Landscapes (New York: Springer, 2012), 134; Elizabeth A. Little, “Kautantouwit’s Legacy: Calibrated Dates on Prehistoric Maize in New England,” American Antiquity 67, no. 1 (2002): 109–18; John P. Hart and C. Margaret Scarry, “The Age of Common Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) in the Northeastern United States,” American Antiquity 64, no. 4 (1999): 653–58; Kevin A. McBride, “Native American Cultures in Transition: The Eastern Long Island Sound Culture Area in the Prehistoric and Contact Period,” Connecticut History 55, no. 1 (1994): 5–21; James W. Bradley, Archaeological Investigations at the Carns Site, Coast Guard Beach, Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts (Lowell, MA: Northeast Region Archaeology Program, National Park Service, 2005), 1, 47; Robert J. Hasenstab, “Fishing, Farming, and Finding the Village Sites: Centering Late Woodland New England Algonquians,” in Mary Ann Levine, Kenneth E. Sassaman, and Michael S. Nassaney, eds., The Archaeological Northeast (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000), 139–53.
18 Jazwa, “Temporal Changes,” 134.
19 Lynn Ceci, “Fish Fertilizer: A Native North American Practice?” Science, April 4, 1975, 26–30, doubted that the use of fish fertilizer was a long-standing Wampanoag practice. Rather, she posited that the Wampanoag interpreter, Tisquantum, learned the use of fish fertilizer from European colonists on Newfoundland, which he then taught to the colonists of Plymouth. That theory has since been disproven by archaeological evidence of Wampanoag use of fish fertilizer before the seventeenth century. See Fiske Center for Archaeological Research, “Sandy’s Point, Yarmouth, MA,” http://
20 Salisbury, “Indians’ Old World,” 439–40; Thomas E. Emerson and Timothy R. Pauketat, Cahokia: Domination and Ideology in the Mississippian World (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1997); Pauketat, Cahokia: Ancient America’s Great City on the Mississippi (New York: Viking Press, 2009); Alice Beck Kehoe, “Cahokia, the Great City,” OAH Magazine of History 27, no. 4 (2013): 17–21.
21 Snow, Archaeology of New England, 313–19 (“quantum leap” on 314); Snow, The Iroquois (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 1994), 21–75; Snow, “Evolution of the Mohawk Iroquois,” in David S. Brose, C. Wesley Cowan, and Robert C. Mainfort Jr., eds., Societies in Eclipse: Archaeology of the Eastern Woodland Indians, A.D. 1400–1700 (Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2001), 19–26; Daniel K. Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1992), 19–29; Dena F. Dincauze and Robert J. Hasenstab, “Explaining the Iroquois: Tribalization on a Prehistoric Periphery,” in Tim Champion, ed., Centre and Periphery: Comparative Studies in Archaeology (New York: Routledge, 1995), 67–87.
22 On control of crop production as the key to political centralization, see James C. Scott, Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2017).
23 Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 140–55, 160–61; Gaynell Stone, ed., Native Forts of the Long Island Sound Area, vol. 8 of Readings in Long Island Archaeology and Ethnohistory (Stony Brook, NY: Suffolk County Archaeological Association, 2006).
24 Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions: Nature, Gender, and Science in New England (Chapel Hill, NC: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1989), 72–73; Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1998); Chilton, “New England Algonquians,” 267–70; Elizabeth S. Chilton, “Ceramic Research in New England: Breaking the Typological Mold,” in Levine, Sassaman, and Nassaney, Archaeological Northeast, 97–114; Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 92–95, 115; Marc A. Kelley, T. Gail Barrett, and Sandra D. Saunders, “Diet, Dental Disease, and Transition in Northeastern Native Americans,” Man in the Northeast 33 (1987): 113–25; Marc A. Kelley, Paul S. Sledzik, and Sean P. Murphy, “Health, Demographics, and Physical Constitution in Seventeenth-Century Rhode Island Indians,” Man in the Northeast 34 (1987): 1–25.
25 Williams, Key into the Language, 189 (“any good”).
26 Williams, 190.
27 Henry Whitfield, Strength out of Weaknesse; Or a Glorious Manifestation of the Further Progresse of the Gospel among the Indians in New England (London: printed by M. Simmons for John Blague and Samuel Howes, 1652), in Eliot Tracts, 239 (four spirits); William S. Simmons, “Southern New England Shamanism: An Ethnographic Reconstruction,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Seventh Algonquian Conference, 1975 (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1976), 217–56; Conquests and Triumphs, 11–12; William Wood, New England’s Prospect (1634), ed. Alden T. Vaughan (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 101; Åke Hultkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981).
28 Winslow, Good News, 103; Williams, Key into the Language, 190, 194, 197; Wood, New England’s Prospect, 100 (“fair weather”), 111; William Scranton Simmons, Cautantowwit’s House: An Indian Burial Ground on the Island of Conanicut in Narragansett Bay (Providence, RI: Brown Univ. Press, 1970), 50–58; Simmons, Spirit of the New England Tribes, 45–47 (“garlands”); Simmons, The Narragansett (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989), 26.
29 Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, 75–77; Lynn Ceci, “Watchers of the Pleiades: Ethnoastronomy among Native Cultivators in Northeastern North America,” Ethnohistory 25, no. 4 (1978): 301–13; Susan G. Gibson, ed., Burr’s Hill: A Seventeenth-Century Wampanoag Burial Ground in Warren, Rhode Island (Providence, RI: Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology, 1980); Francis P. McManamon, James W. Bradley, and Ann L. Maggenis, eds., The Indian Neck Ossuary, vol. 5 of Chapters in the Archeology of Cape Cod (Boston: Brown Univ., 1987), 23; William Turnbaugh, The Material Culture of RI-1000: A Mid-Seventeenth Century Narragansett Indian Burial Site in North Kingston, Rhode Island (Kingston, RI: Division of Cultural Resources, North Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984); Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 232; Paul Robinson, Marc Kelley, and Patricia E. Rubertone, “Preliminary Biocultural Interpretations from a Seventeenth-Century Narragansett Indian Cemetery in Rhode Island,” in William Fitzhugh, ed., Cultures in Contact: The European Impact on Native Cultural Institutions in Eastern North America, A.D. 1000–1800 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985), 107–30.
30 Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1982), 31; Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 212–24; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 43–46; Merchant, Ecological Revolutions, 74–83.
31 Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 83; Elizabeth A. Little and Margaret J. Schoeninger, “The Late Woodland Diet on Nantucket Island and the Problem of Maize in Coastal New England,” American Antiquity 60, no. 2 (1995): 351–68; Scott Nixon, “Marine Resources and the Human Carrying Capacity of Coastal Ecosystems in Southern New England before European Contact,” Northeast Anthropology 68 (2004): 1–23; Lucianne Lavin, “Coastal Adaptations in Southern New England and Southern New York,” Archaeology of Eastern North America 16 (1988): 101–20; David J. Bernstein, Prehistoric Subsistence on the Southern New England Coast: The Record from Narragansett Bay (San Diego: Academic Press, 1993); Kevin A. McBride and Robert E. Dewar, “Agriculture and Cultural Evolution: Causes and Effects in the Lower Connecticut River Valley,” in William F. Keegan, ed., Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands (Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1987), 305–28; Elizabeth S. Chilton, “Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Contact Period in the Northeastern United States,” Reviews in Anthropology 29 (2001): 343; Hasenstab, “Fishing, Farming, and Finding the Village Sites,” 139.
32 Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 22–30. See also Daniel Gookin, “Historical Collections of the Indians in New England,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 1 (1792): 147–49.
33 Winslow, Good News, 108 (“sets his bounds”); Elizabeth A. Little, “Three Kinds of Indian Land Deeds at Nantucket, Massachusetts,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Eleventh Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1980), 61–70; Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 100, 137, 143–48. On pnieseosok, see Winslow, Good News, 106–7, 108; Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 189–90, 214–15; R. Todd Romero, Making War and Minting Christians: Masculinity, Religion, and Colonialism in Early New England (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 26–27, 63–64.
34 Winslow, Good News, 111; Ives Goddard, “Eastern Algonquian Languages,” in Bruce G. Trigger, vol. ed., Northeast, vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, gen. ed. William C. Sturtevant (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978), 70–77.
35 Generally, see Marshall Sahlins, Tribesmen (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968), 20–27.
36 Kathleen J. Bragdon, “Island Queens: Women Sachems on Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket in the Colonial Period,” in Elizabeth S. Chilton and Mary Lynne Rainey, eds., Nantucket and Other Native Places: The Legacy of Elizabeth Alden Little (Binghamton: State Univ. of New York Press, 2010), 89; Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1650–1775 (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2009), 112–13; Peter A. Thomas, “In the Maelstrom of Change: The Indian Trade and Cultural Process in the Middle Connecticut River Valley, 1635–1665” (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 1979), 29–39; Chilton, “Archaeology and Ethnohistory,” 345–56.
37 Christopher L. Pastore, Between Land and Sea: The Atlantic Coast and the Transformation of New England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2014), 22.
38 Elizabeth A. Little, “Kautantouwit’s Legacy: Calibrated Dates on Prehistoric Maize in New England,” American Antiquity 67, no. 1 (2002): 115; Lawrence C. Wroth, ed., The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1970), 139 (“fields extend”).
39 Paul Otto, “Henry Hudson, the Munsees, and the Wampum Revolution,” and Jon Parmenter, “Separate Vessels: Hudson, the Dutch, and the Iroquois,” in Jaap Jacobs and Louis Roper, eds., The Worlds of the Seventeenth-Century Hudson Valley (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2014), 91–92, 109; Bragdon, Native People, 1600–1750, 47, 97.
40 Mary Ann Levine, “Determining the Provenance of Native Copper Artifacts from Northeastern North America: Evidence from Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis,” Journal of Archaeological Science 34 (2007): 572–87; McBride, “Native American Culture,” 12; Bradley, “Native Exchange and European Trade,” 41; George R. Hamell, “Wampum: White, Bright, and Light Things Are Good to Think,” in Alexandra van Donegan et al., eds., One Man’s Trash Is Another Man’s Treasure (Rotterdam: Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, 1996), 45; Parmenter, “Separate Vessels,” 109; Stuart A. Reeve and Katerine Forgacs, “Connecticut Radiocarbon Dates: A Study of Prehistoric Cultural Chronologies and Population Trends,” Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 62 (1999): 19–66; William A. Ritchie, The Archaeology of New York State (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1965), 179; Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 35, 47, 97.
41 Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 154 (“such subjection”); Eric S. Johnson, “Community and Confederation: A Political Geography of Contact-Period Southern New England,” in Levine, Sassaman, and Nassaney, Archaeological Northeast, 155–68 (“topic of inquiry” on 158); Johnson, “The Politics of Pottery: Material Culture and Political Process among Algonquians of Seventeenth-Century Southern New England,” in M. S. Nassaney and E. S. Johnson, eds., Interpretations of Native North American Life: Material Contributions to Ethnohistory (Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida, 2003), 119–20; Bragdon, Native People, 1650–1775, 205; Sahlins, Tribesmen, 16.
The sachem Mittark of Aquinnah on the Vineyard descended from Nohtoakset, a “Sachim that came from the Massachusetts Bay” but lived on the Vineyard. See Indian Converts, 161. Likewise, sometime during the 1600s a high-ranking figure named Wannamanut came from Massachusetts Bay to the island sachemship of Takemmy, where he married two “noblewomen.” See DCD, 3:133; Suffolk Files no. 12248, pp. 31–32, Mass. State Archives, Boston.
CHAPTER 2: DANGER ON THE HORIZON
1 On travel accounts, see Peter C. Mancall, Hakluyt’s Promise: An Elizabethan’s Obsession for an English America (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2007). On Tisquantum, see Neal Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxet,” in Ian K. Steele and Nancy L. Rhoden, eds., The Human Tradition in Colonial America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999), 21–36. Andrew Lipman’s forthcoming biography of Tisquantum uses “odyssey” as its framework. On Indians traversing the Atlantic, whether forcibly or voluntarily, see Carolyn Thomas, Indians Abroad, 1493–1938 (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1943); Olive P. Dickason, The Myth of the Savage and the Beginnings of French Colonialism in the Americas (Edmonton: Univ. of Alberta Press, 1991), 203–29; Harold L. Prins, “To the Land of the Mistigoches: American Indians Traveling to Europe in the Age of Exploration,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 17, no. 1 (1993): 175–95; Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006); Jace Weaver, The Red Atlantic: American Indigenes and the Making of the Modern World, 1000–1927 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina, 2014); Coll Thrush, Indigenous London: Native Travelers at the Heart of Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2016).
2 Amelia M. Trevelyan, Miskwabik, Metal of Ritual: Metallurgy in Precontact Eastern North America (Lexington: Univ. Press of Kentucky, 2004), 117–19; Christopher L. Miller and George R. Hamell, “A New Perspective on Indian-White Contact: Cultural Symbols and Colonial Trade,” Journal of American History 73, no. 2 (1986): 325; Nanepashemet and James W. Bradley, “Maps and Dreams: Native Americans and European Discovery,” in One Man’s Trash Is Another Man’s Treasure, 35; Rebecca K. Shrum, In the Looking Glass: Mirrors and Identity in Early America (Baltmore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2017).
3 On the English merchant community in Málaga, see José Ignacio Martinez Ruiz, “ ‘A Towne Famous for Its Plenty of Raisins and Wines’: Málaga en el Comercio Anglo-Español en el Siglo XVII,” Hispania 71, no. 239 (2011): 665–90. On Spanish slavery during this era, see Robin Blackburn, “The Old World Background to European Colonial Slavery,” WMQ 3, no. 1 (1997): 65–102; James H. Sweet, “The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought,” WMQ 3, no. 1 (1997): 143–66; Jarbel Rodriguez, Captives and Their Saviors in the Medieval Crown of Aragon (Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of America Press, 2007); Andrés Resdéndez, The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016).
4 On Spanish slave law, see Resdéndez, Other Slavery, 46–47. On Slaney, see Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World, A New History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 294; Gillian T. Cell, “The Newfoundland Company: A Study of Subscribers to a Colonizing Venture,” WMQ 22, no. 4 (1965): 615.
5 Cell, “Newfoundland Company,” 622; Peter E. Pope, Fish into Wine: The Newfoundland Plantation in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2004), 33, 48–52, 55–56.
6 E. M. Rose, “Did Squanto Meet Pocahontas, and What Might They Have Discussed?” The Junto (blog), https://
7 Camilla Townsend, Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004).
8 Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 57–76; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 86–96.
9 James Phinney Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3 vols. (Boston: Prince Society, 1890), 2:21 (“goodly”); John Smith, The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles (1624), in Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631), in Three Volumes (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1986), 2:403 (“wit”).
10 Nathaniel Morton, New England’s Memorial: Or, A Brief Relation of the Most Remarkable Passages of the Province of God (1669) (Boston: Congregational Board of Publication, 1855), 37 (“sad”).
11 George Parker Winship, Sailor’s Narratives of the Voyages along the Northeast Coast (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company, 1905), 252.
12 Winship, 254–55 (“savage friends”; “strange manner”); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 43.
13 Baxter, Gorges and His Province of Maine, 2:29.
14 Dermer letter from Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:206–9 (all quotes); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 42.
15 Baxter, Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:219; John Smith, New England’s Trials (1620), in Barbour, Complete Works of Smith, 1:428.
16 Phineas Pratt, A Declaration of the Affairs of the English People That First Inhabited New England, ed. Richard Frothingham Jr. (Boston: Press of T. R. Marvin & Son, 1858), 8–9; Wood, New England’s Prospect, 95–96.
17 David B. Quinn, North America from Earliest Discovery to First Settlements: The Norse Voyages to 1612 (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 62–64, 114, 513–32; Harold A. Innis, The Cod Fisheries: The History of an International Economy (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978); Pope, Fish into Wine, 11–44, 73–74; Kathleen L. Ehrhardt, European Metals in Native Hands: Rethinking Technological Change, 1640–1683 (Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2005); Laurier Turgeon, “French Fishers, Fur Traders, and Amerindians during the Sixteenth Century: History and Archaeology,” WMQ 55, no. 4 (1998): 585–610; James Axtell, “At the Water’s Edge: Trading in the Sixteenth Century,” in After Columbus: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988), 144–81; Bruce J. Bourque and Ruth Holmes Whitehead, “Tarrentines and the Introduction of European Goods in the Gulf of Maine,” Ethnohistory 32, no. 4 (1985): 327–41; James W. Bradley, “Native Exchange and European Trade,” Man in the Northeast 33 (1987): 31–46; Calvin Martin, “The Four Lives of a Micmac Copper Pot,” Ethnohistory 22, no. 2 (1975): 111–33.
18 Lawrence C. Wroth, ed., The Voyages of Giovanni da Verrazzano, 1524–1528 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1970), 138–40 (all quotes).
19 On Indian aesthetics as a factor in early trade, see Miller and Hamell, “New Perspective on Indian-White Contact”; William Howard Carter, “Chains of Consumption: The Iroquois and Consumer Goods, 1500–1800” (PhD diss., Princeton University, 2008).
20 Quinn, North America from Earliest Discoveries, 160; “Estevão Gomes,” Dictionary of Canadian Biography, http://
21 On colonial precedents, see Karen Ordahl Kupperman, The Jamestown Project (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2007); Mancall, Hakluyt’s Promise. On Gilbert, see Nathan Probasco, “Researching North America: Sir Humphrey Gilbert’s 1583 Expedition and a Reexamination of Early Modern English Colonization in the North Atlantic World” (PhD diss., University of Nebraska, 2013); Quinn, North America from Earliest Discovery, 387–88; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 86. On the growth of the Newfoundland fishery, see Quinn, North America from Earliest Discovery, 348–68; Jeffrey W. Bolster, The Mortal Sea: Fishing the Atlantic in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2012), 44. On metal remains, see Bradley, “Native Exchange and European Trade,” 35; Robert S. Grumet, Historic Contact: Indian People and Colonists in Today’s Northeastern United States in the Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 110–13.
22 “Gabriel Archer’s Account of Captain Bartholomew Gosnold’s Voyage to ‘North Virginia’ in 1602,” and John Brereton, A Briefe and True Relation of the Discoverie of the North Part of Virginia (1602), in David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1983), 117, 145–46; Matthew R. Bahar, Storm of the Sea: Indians and Empires in the Atlantic’s Age of Sail (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2018).
23 “Archer’s Account,” 124.
24 Here I’m following Quinn and Quinn’s research for the course of Gosnold’s voyage in appendix 2 of English New England Voyages, contrary to the course set out by Warner F. Gookin and Philip L. Barbour, Bartholomew Gosnold (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1963). All quotes from “Archer’s Account” and Brereton, Briefe and True Relation, 125, 149–50, 156.
25 “Archer’s Account,” 130–31.
26 “Archer’s Account,” 134.
27 “Archer’s Account,” 134 (“mustard”); Brereton, Briefe and True Relation, 157–58 (“beards”; “saucy”; “huge cries”).
28 “Archer’s Account,” 135 (“fear”), 136 (“lusty”). On Roanoke, see Michael Leroy Oberg, The Head in Walter Nugent’s Hand: Roanoke’s Forgotten Indians (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2007); Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007).
29 Martin Pring, “A voyage set out from the Citie of Bristoll … in the yeere 1603,” in Quinn and Quinn, English New England Voyages, 221 (“let loose”), 222 (“Io, Ia, Io”), 227–28 (“jest”); David B. Quinn, “Martin Pring at Provincetown in 1603?” NEQ 40, no. 1 (1967): 79–91.
30 James Rosier, “A True Relation of the most prosperous voyage made in this present yeere 1605, by Captain George Waymouth, in the Discovery of the land of Virginia,” in Quinn and Quinn, English New England Voyages, 257n2; “Journal of Samuel de Champlain,” in Charles Herbert Levermore, ed., Forerunners and Competitors of the Pilgrims and Puritans, 2 vols. (Brooklyn: New England Society in the City of Brooklyn, 1912), 121 (all quotes).
31 “Journal of Champlain,” 121; W. Sears Nickerson, Early Encounters: Native Americans and Europeans in New England, ed. Delores Bird Carpenter (East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Press, 1994), 54–58; David Hackett Fischer, Champlain’s Dream (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2008), 189–92.
32 Mark Lescarbot, Nova Francia: A Description of Acadia, 1606, ed. H. P. Biggar, trans. P. Erondelle (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1928), 111–12 (“wolves”); “Journal of Champlain,” 150–54.
33 Christopher J. Bilodeau, “The Paradox of Sagadahoc: The Popham Colony, 1607–1608,” Early American Studies 12, no. 1 (2014): 10–11, 16; Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 58, 65; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 92.
34 Smith, Generall Historie, 2:399 (“sorely wounded”); Quinn and Quinn, English New England Voyages, 480 (“false and malicious”); Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 67; Baxter, Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:210 (“slaughter”).
35 Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 48; John Smith, A Description of New England (1616), in Barbour, Complete Works of Smith, 1:340 (all quotes); Smith, Generall Historie, 2:418.
36 Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 70 (“worthless”; “silly”); Weaver, Red Atlantic, 57–60; Baxter, Gorges and His Province of Maine, 1:211 (“war”); Mourt’s Relation, 52 (“incensed”), 70 (“weeping”).
37 Johan De Laet, “New World,” in J. Franklin Jameson, ed., Narratives of New Netherland, 1609–1664 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1909), 41 (“somewhat shy”), 43 (“enemies”). Block’s claim that the “Wapanoos” were enemies of the Pequots probably refers to the Wappingers of the Housatonic River valley rather than the Wampanoags. I am grateful to William Starna for this clarification in email correspondence of October 23, 2017.
38 Smith, Description of New England, 1:323–24; Pratt, Declaration, 8–9 (“dogs”); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 44 (“make sport”). See also Dermer’s account in Winship, Sailor’s Narratives, 252.
39 Pratt, Declaration, 8–9 (“We think”); John Smith, “Advertisements: Or, the Pathway to Experience to erect a Plantation,” in Barbour, Complete Works of Smith, 3:275–76; Morton, New England’s Memorial, 44.
40 Pratt, Declaration, 8–9.
CHAPTER 3: GOLGOTHA
1 Jennings, Invasion of America, 15; Thomas Morton, The New English Canaan, ed. Charles Francis Adams Jr. (Boston: Prince Society, 1883), 133.
2 Raymond D. Fogelson, “The Ethnohistory of Events and Nonevents,” Ethnohistory 36, no. 2 (1989): 143–44.
3 Smith, Description of New England, 1:330.
4 Smith, 1:329 (“language”); Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 148 (“amity”).
5 Smith, Generall Historie, 2:418 (“Bashabes”); Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 60–72, 76–77; Bahar, Storm of the Sea, 56–58.
6 Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 148.
7 Smith, Description of New England, 1:330.
8 Thomas Dermer, 1619, quoted in Winship, Sailor’s Narratives, 251 (“utterly void”); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 37–38 (“great mortality”; “twentieth”; “sad spectacles”), 44 (“never heard”); Mourt’s Relation, 63 (“thousands”).
9 Alfred W. Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America,” WMQ 33, no. 2 (1976): 289–99; Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 600–1900 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1986); William H. McNeil, Plagues and Peoples (New York: Anchor Books, 1977), 86–88; Suzanne Austin Alchon, A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in Global Perspective (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 2003).
10 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 194.
11 Bruce G. Trigger, The Children of Aataentsic: A History of the Huron People to 1660 (Kingston, ON: McGill-Queen’s Univ Press, 1976), 499–50, 526–28, 588–89. See also Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1972), 42–43, 49; John Smith, Advertisements for the Unexperienced Planters of New England (1631), in Barbour, Complete Works of Smith, 3:275 (“three plagues”). In addition to the citations in note 8, see William A. Starna, “The Biological Encounter: Disease and the Ideological Domain,” American Indian Quarterly 16, no. 4 (1992): 512; Catherine C. Carson, George J. Armelagos, and Ann L. Magennis, “Impact of Disease on the Precontact and Early Historic Populations of New England and the Maritimes,” in John W. Verano and Douglas H. Ubelaker, eds., Disease and Demography in the Americas (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992), 144–45.
12 David S. Jones, “Virgin Soils Revisited,” WMQ 60, no. 4 (2003): 703–42; Paul Kelton, Epidemics and Enslavement: Biological Catastrophe in the Native Southeast (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 2009); Catherine M. Cameron, Paul Kelton, and Alan C. Swedlund, eds., Beyond Germs: Native Depopulation in North America (Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, 2015).
13 Sir Ferdinando Gorges, A Brief Narration of the Originall Undertakings of the Advancement of Plantations into the Parts of America (1658), in James Phinney Baxter, ed., Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine, 3 vols. (Boston: Prince Society, 1890), 2:19 (“cabins”; “sore”); Dermer, quoted in Winship, Sailor’s Narratives, 251 (“remnant”); Timothy L. Bratton, “The Identity of the New England Indian Epidemic of 1616–19,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 62, no. 3 (1988): 366–70.
14 Edward Johnson, Johnson’s Wonder-Working Providence, 1628–1651, ed. J. Lawrence Jameson (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1910), 41 (“consumption”); Paul J. Lindholdt, ed., John Josselyn, Colonial Traveler: A Critical Edition of Two Voyages in New-England (Hanover, NH: Univ. Press of New England, 1988), 89 (“great mortality”); John Eliot, The Day-Breaking, If Not The Sun-Rising of the Gospel With the Indians in New-England (1647), in Eliot Tracts, 94 (“plague and pox”); Wood, New England’s Prospect, 63–64 (“sweeping”); Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 148 (“pestilential”); Arthur E. Speiss and Bruce D. Speiss, “New England Pandemic of 1616–1622: Cause and Archaeological Implication,” Man in the Northeast 34 (1987): 74.
15 Noble David Cook, Born to Die: Disease and New World Conquest, 1492–1650 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998), 172–73 (smallpox and measles). Bratton, “Identity of the New England Indian Epidemic,” contains a thorough discussion of the earlier literature and advances the smallpox argument. On the new theory that lice and ticks from humans spread bubonic plague, see Michael Greshko, “Maybe Rats Aren’t to Blame for the Black Death,” National Geographic, January 15, 2018, news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/01/rats-plague-black-death-humans-lice-health-science/ (accessed 01/18/2019).
16 John S. Marr and John T. Cathey, “New Hypothesis for Cause of Epidemic among Native Americans, New England, 1616–1619,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 16, no. 2 (2010), www
17 On the cycle of smallpox, see Elizabeth A. Fenn, Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2002), 15–18; Elizabeth A. Fenn, “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffery Amherst,” Journal of American History 86, no. 4 (2000): 1561.
18 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:194.
19 Winslow, Good News, 103–5 (“undoubted” on 105); Eliot, Day-Breaking, 92 (“fall into”), 97 (“two days”); Conquests and Triumphs, 17 (“immediate”), 18 (“observing”); Whitfield, Strength out of Weakness, 186, 239; Henry Whitfield, The Light appearing more and more towards the perfect Day or a farther discovery of the present state of the Indians in New England (1651), in Eliot Tracts, 178 (“37”); Williams, Key into the Language, 190. This discussion is informed broadly by William S. Simmons, “Southern New England Shamanism: An Ethnographic Reconstruction,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Seventh Algonquian Conference, 1975 (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1976), 217–56; and Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 203–14.
20 Wood, New England’s Prospect, 101 (“bear”; “bellowing”); Williams, Key into the Language, 192; Winslow, Good News, 81.
21 Winslow, Good News, 103 (“Kiehtan”; “conceived anger”; “calling”), 105 (“Skooke”); Williams, Key into the Language, 108 (in this case, “the sun” appears to represent Kiehtan); Conquests and Triumphs, 19–20 (“leather”), 21; John Eliot and Thomas Mayhew Jr., Tears of Repentance: Or, A Further Narrative of the Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New-England (1653), in Eliot Tracts, 253–54 (“notable”).
22 Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, 41.
23 Whitfield, Light appearing, 177 (“strange”); Williams, Key into the Language, 125 (“bewailing”), 247; David E. Stannard, The Puritan Way of Death: A Study in Religion, Culture, and Social Change (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1977).
24 Williams, Key into the Language, 116 (“affections”), 125 (“profane”), 189 (“lamenting”).
25 Winslow, Good News, 108–9 (“bury”; “mourn”); Williams, Key into the Language, 248 (“dead sachem”); Wood, New England’s Prospect, 111.
26 Winslow, Good News, 79; Williams, Key into the Language, 243.
27 Conquests and Triumphs, 14–15 (“many families”); Christina Snyder, Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2010), 5–6.
28 The paucity of excavated precolonial southern New England Indian cemeteries, and the subsequent lack of studies about what the remains tell us about human health, means this assertion is open to question, but see the following: Ann L. Magennis, “The Physical Anthropology of the Indian Neck Ossuary,” in McMannamon, Bradley, and Magennis, Indian Neck Ossuary, 49–143; Carlson, Armelagos, and Magennis, “Impact of Disease”; Marc A. Kelley, T. Gail Barrett, and Sandra D. Saunders, “Diet, Dental Disease, and Transition in Northeastern Native Americans,” Man in the Northeast 33 (1987): 113–25; and Marc A. Kelley, Paul S. Sledzik, and Sean P. Murphy, “Health, Demographics, and Physical Constitution in Seventeenth-Century Rhode Island Indians,” Man in the Northeast 34 (1987): 1–25.
29 Conquests and Triumphs, 17–20, 49–50 (“his god”); Eliot, Day-Breaking, 92; Whitfield, Light appearing, 181 (“power”); Trigger, Children of Aataentsic, 537.
30 Morton, New English Canaan, 130–34 (“angry”); Benjamin Basset, “Fabulous Traditions and Customs of the Indians of Martha’s Vineyard,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 1 (1792): 139–40 (“sprightly”).
31 Morton, New England’s Memorial, 37–38 (“ancient”); Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, 39–40 (“befell a great mortality”); Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 16–19; Roger Williams to John Winthrop, early June 1638, in Williams Correspondence, 160 (“earthquake”).
32 Winslow, Good News, 106; Paul Alden Robinson, “The Struggle Within: The Indian Debate in Seventeenth-Century Narragansett Country” (PhD diss., State University of New York at Binghamton, 1990), 76–77, 81–82, 88–89.
33 Smith, New England’s Trials, 1:428 (“God”); Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, 40 (“Christ”); John Winthrop, Generall Considerations of the Plantation in New England (1629), in Winthrop Papers, vol. 2, ed. Stewart Mitchell (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1931), 120 (“miraculous”). Generally, see Christobal Silva, Miraculous Plagues: An Epidemiology of Early New England Narrative (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2011), 24–61.
34 James H. Merrell, “The Indians’ New World: The Catawba Experience,” WMQ 41, no. 4 (1984): 543.
35 Cushman’s Discourse (November 1621), quoted in Alexander Young, ed., Chronicles of the Pilgrim Fathers of the Colony of Plymouth, from 1602 to 1628 (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1841), 258 (“courage”); Kai Erikson, A New Species of Trouble: The Human Experience of Modern Disasters (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 228 (“scan”), 233 (“blow”), 242 (“at its worst”). See also Jack Saul, Collective Trauma, Collective Healing: Promoting Community Resilience in the Aftermath of Disaster (New York: Routledge, 2014), esp. 1–29; Daya Somasundaram, “Addressing Collective Trauma: Conceptualisations and Interventions,” Intervention 12, suppl. 1 (2014): 43–60.
36 Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, 41 (“fear”). The challenges of such adjustments are skillfully treated in Merrell, “Indians’ New World,” 543–49. See also Heidi Bohaker, “Nindoodemag: The Significance of Algonquian Kinship Networks in the Eastern Great Lakes Region, 1600–1701,” WMQ 63, no. 1 (2006): 23–52.
37 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:211 (“strong”); Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, 41; John R. Bartlett, ed., Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England, 10 vols. (Providence, RI: A. C. Greene and Brothers, 1856–65), 1:25–26 (“destitution”); Howard M. Chapin, Documentary History of Rhode Island, 2 vols. (Providence, RI: Preston & Rounds, 1916), 1:54–55 (“subject”; “subdued”). See also testimony of Roger Williams relative to the purchase of lands at Seekonk and Providence, Dec. 13, 1661, Publications of the Narragansett Club, 1st ser., vol. 6 (Providence, RI: Providence Press, 1874), 316–17.
38 Smith, New England’s Trials, 1:428.
39 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:228–29 (“Tarrentines”); John Lee Daly, “No Middle Ground: Pennacook–New England Relations in the Seventeenth Century” (MA thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1997), 25–57; David Stewart-Smith, “The Pennacook Indians and the New England Frontier, circa 1604–1733” (PhD diss., Union Institute, 1998), 61–67, 95, 97–98; Bahar, Storm of the Sea, 56–58; The Journal of John Winthrop, 1630–1649, ed. Richard S. Dunn, James Savage, and Laetitia Yeandle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1996), 55; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 176 (“walls”), 184; Morton, New English Canaan, 163–65.
40 For instructive cautions against making disease the prime mover of European expansion at Native Americans’ expense, see Cameron, Kelton, Swedlund, Beyond Germs; Reséndez, The Other Slavery.
CHAPTER 4: REACHING OUT TO STRANGERS
1 Among a voluminous literature informing this and the following paragraphs, see Edmund S. Morgan, Visible Saints: The History of a Puritan Idea (New York: New York Univ. Press, 1963), 1–63; Stephen Bracklow, The Communion of Saints: Radical Puritan and Separatist Ecclesiology, 1559–1625 (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988).
2 For the best recent studies, see Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon; Joke Kardux and Eduard van de Bilt, Newcomers in an Old City: The American Pilgrims in Leiden, 1609–1620, 3rd ed. (Leiden: Burgersdijk & Niermans, 2007); Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Strangers and Pilgrims, Travellers and Sojourners: Leiden and the Foundations of Plymouth Plantation (Plymouth, MA: General Society of Mayflower Descendants, 2009); and Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (New York: Penguin Books, 2006). The following paragraphs also draw on these works. Bangs makes a compelling case that most of the Mayflower passengers were Separatists or their friends, not Church of England men (pp. 178–80, 227–79, 614–16), contrary to the influential argument that Separatists were the minority, as posited by George F. Willison, Saints and Strangers: Being the Lives of the Pilgrim Fathers and Their Families, with Their Friends and Foes (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945). On the business terms of the colony, see Ruth A. McIntyre, Debts Hopeful and Desperate: Financing the Plymouth Colony (Plymouth, MA: Plimoth Plantation, 1963).
3 Mourt’s Relation, 20–21 (“odious”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:191; Christopher Heaney, “A Peru of Their Own: English Grave-Opening and Indian Sovereignty in Early America,” WMQ 73, no. 4 (2016): 609–46.
4 Mourt’s Relation, 27–28.
5 Mourt’s Relation, 27–28 (“remains”); Caleb Johnson, “The True Origin of Stephen Hopkins of the Mayflower: With Evidence of His Earlier Presence in Virginia,” American Genealogist 73, no. 3 (1998): 161–71.
6 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:56–57 (“savage”); Quinn, “Martin Pring,” 79–91.
7 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:165 (“baskets”), 166–67 (“God’s good providence”); Mourt’s Relation, 26, 29 (“bowls”; “best things”).
8 Mourt’s Relation, 32 (“cold”), 35 (“company”).
9 Mourt’s Relation, 35–37 (all quotes); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:168–72.
10 Mourt’s Relation, 31 (“Thievish Harbor”), 39 (“Indian house”), 41 (“land cleared”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:173; Morton, New England’s Memorial, 37 (“first plantation”).
11 Russell G. Handsman, “Landscapes of Memory in Wampanoag Country—and the Monuments upon them,” in Patricia E. Rubertone, ed., Archaeologies of Placemaking: Monuments, Memories, and Engagement in Native North America (Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2008), 174; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:193.
12 Morton, New England’s Memorial, 44 (“God was angry”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:211–12; William Hubbard, A General History of New England, from the Discovery to 1680, MHSC, 2nd ser., vols. 5, 6 (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1848), 5:54–55.
13 Mourt’s Relation, 42 (“cry”), 43 (“smokes”), 48 (deer killed), 49 (stalking fowl), 49 (hill; “noise”). See also Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:198.
14 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:211–12 (“swamp”); Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 192–93; Kevin A. McBride, “Prehistoric and Historic Patterns of Wetland Use in Eastern Connecticut,” Man in the Northeast 43 (Spring 1992): 10–24.
15 Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 92, 266n15; Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 57–58, 60–65, 75–76; Mourt’s Relation, 51–52 (“boldly”; “saluted”), 53; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:199 (“marveled”).
16 Mourt’s Relation, 51–52.
17 Mourt’s Relation, 51–52.
18 Mourt’s Relation, 53–54.
19 Mourt’s Relation, 53–54. On the symbolism of black, see Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 173, 222–24.
20 Mourt’s Relation, 54.
21 James Phinney Baxter, Christopher Levett of York: The Pioneer Colonist in Casco Bay (Portland, ME: printed for the Gorges Society, 1893), 102 (“Somerset”), 103, 108–9, 111, 112.
22 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:202–3.
23 Winslow, Good News, 106–7 (“courage”; “discreet”); Mourt’s Relation, 55; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:202–20. Neal Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxet,” in Ian K. Steele and Nancy L. Rhoden, eds., The Human Tradition in Colonial America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999), 21–32, raises the possibility that Tisquantum was a pniese. Kupperman, Indians and English, 190, calls attention to Tisquantum as one of the Wampanoag names for the god of the dead.
24 Mourt’s Relation, 58 (“great chain”; “strong”). On color symbolism, see Miller and Hamell, “New Perspective on Indian-White Contact,” 325; Hamell, “Wampum.”
25 Mourt’s Relation, 55–56.
26 Mourt’s Relation, 58. On pipes, see Gibson, Burr’s Hill, 42–45; Williams, Key into the Language, 126–27.
27 The English versions of the treaty appear in Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:201–2; Mourt’s Relation, 56–57; and Morton, New England’s Memorial, 40. On jurisdictional disputes over murder leading to war, see Alfred A. Cave, The Pequot War (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1996); James Drake, King Philip’s War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676 (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1999); Evan Haefeli, “Kieft’s War and the Systems of Violence in Colonial America,” in Michael A. Bellesiles, ed., Lethal Imagination: Violence and Brutality in American History (New York: New York Univ. Press, 1999), 17–40; Paul Otto, The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006), 113–26.
28 Mourt’s Relation, 56, 58 (“willing”), 60 (“greatest”). On the Powhatans and Jamestown, see J. Frederick Fausz, “An ‘Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides’: England’s First Indian War, 1609–1614,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98, no. 1 (1990): 3–56.
29 On English impressions of sachem authority, see Kupperman, Indians and English, 77–109.
30 Mourt’s Relation, 58. On this issue, see also Jeffrey Glover, Paper Sovereigns: Anglo-Native Treaties and the Law of Nations, 1604–1664 (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 118–57.
31 On the contested meanings of subjecthood between Indians and colonists, see Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2005).
32 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:219 (“gratuity”); Robert A. Williams Jr., Linking Arms Together: American Indian Treaty Visions of Law and Peace, 1600–1800 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1999); Russel L. Barsh, “The Nature and Spirit of North American Political Systems,” American Indian Quarterly 10, no. 3 (1986): 181–98; Colin G. Calloway, Pen and Ink Witchcraft: Treaties and Treaty Making in American Indian History (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2013).
33 Mourt’s Relation, 62–64.
34 Mourt’s Relation, 65 (“pacified”); Williams, Key into the Language, 158, 234; Joan M. Vastokas and Roman K. Vastokas, Sacred Art of the Algonkians (Petersborough, ON: Mansard Press, 1973), 93–94; Bragdon, Native People, 1500–1650, 187–88, 212; Thomas Harriot, A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia (1588), in David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The First Colonists: Documents on the Planting of the First English Settlements in North America, 1584–1590 (Raleigh: North Carolina Dept. of Cultural Resources, Division of Archives and History, 1982), 72 (“kill and slay”).
35 Mourt’s Relation, 65.
36 Mourt’s Relation, 66 (“King James”). On these speeches, see Kathleen J. Bragdon, “Emphatical Speech and Great Action: An Analysis of Seventeenth Century Native Speech Events Described in Early Sources,” Man in the Northeast 33 (1987): 101–11.
37 Mourt’s Relation, 66.
38 Mourt’s Relation, 66.
39 Mourt’s Relation, 69 (“special friend”), 70 (“personable”; “grievous”).
40 Mourt’s Relation, 70–71 (all quotes); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:222–24.
41 Mourt’s Relation, 73 (“spoiled”; “draw”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:225; Pratt, Declaration, 14.
42 Mourt’s Relation, 74 (“lost their tongue”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:225–27.
43 Mourt’s Relation, 74.
44 Mourt’s Relation, 75–76 (“revenged”), 77–78 (“threatened”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:228–29.
45 W. Sears Nickerson, “Some Lower Cape Indians” (unpub. ms., 1933), MS 52, Sturgis Library, Barnstable, MA, 10, 12; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 120–21. On Weetamoo and Wootonekanuske, see Milton A. Travers, The Wampanoag Indian Federation: Indian Neighbors of the Pilgrims (New Bedford, MA: Reynolds-De Walt, 1957), 101–6; Gina M. Martino-Trutor, “ ‘As Potent a Prince as any Around about Her’: Rethinking Weetamoo of the Pocasset and Native Female Leadership in Early America,” Journal of Women’s History 27, no. 3 (2015): 37–60.
46 Winslow, Good News, 517–20 (all quotes); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:240–41, 242, 244.
47 Mourt’s Relation, 82, 84; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:230–31; and, generally, Deetz and Deetz, Times of Their Lives, 2–9. The next several paragraphs also draw on these sources.
48 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:230–31; John Josselyn, New-Englands Rarities Discovered (London: printed for G. Widdowes, 1675), 52–53.
49 Mourt’s Relation, 84; Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 299. See also the following interviews with Plimoth Plantation’s Foodways Culinarian, Kathleen Wall: Erin Blasco, “Five Questions with a Colonial Culinarian,” O Say Can You See? (blog), National Museum of American History, November 9, 2012, http://
50 Mourt’s Relation, 82.
51 Mourt’s Relation, 82; Baker, Thanksgiving, 14–30; Deetz and Deetz, Times of Their Lives, 1–30; “Wampanoag on Thanksgiving,” Many Hoops, http://
CHAPTER 5: OUSAMEQUIN’S POWER PLAY
1 McIntyre, Debts Hopeful and Desperate, 21–24 (quotes on 22); Michelle Burnam, “Merchants, Money, and the Politics of ‘Plain Style’ in William Bradford’s Plymouth Plantation,” American Literature 72, no. 4 (2000): 695–720; George D. Langdon, Pilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth, 1620–1691 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1966), 26–37; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 76–78, Daly, “No Middle Ground,” 25–57; Stewart-Smith, “Pennacook Indians.”
2 Winslow, Good News, 61–62.
3 Winslow, Good News, 63–64; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:252–53.
4 Winslow, Good News, 64. On other cases of rumor and power play in Native southern New England, see Robinson, “Struggle Within”; Michael Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2003), 34–40; Eric S. Johnson, “Uncas and the Politics of Contact,” in Robert S. Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816 (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 29–47; Julie A. Fisher and David J. Silverman, Ninigret, Sachem of the Niantics and Narragansetts: Diplomacy, War, and the Balance of Power in Seventeenth-Century New England and Indian Country (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2014).
5 Winslow, Good News, 66. For other, similar cases, see Jeffrey Ostler, “ ‘To Extirpate the Indians’: An Indigenous Consciousness of Genocide in the Ohio Valley and Lower Great Lakes, 1750s–1810,” WMQ 72, no. 4 (2015), 387–622; Gregory Evans Dowd, Groundless: Rumors, Legends, and Hoaxes on the Early American Frontier (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2015), 38–62.
6 Morton, New English Canaan, 255 (“another sachem”); Roger Williams to Henry Vane and John Winthrop, May 1, 1637, in Williams Correspondence, 72 (“accused the English”); Winslow, Good News, 66 (“God of the English”).
7 This line of interpretation is inspired by Anna Brickhouse, The Unsettlement of America: Translation, Interpretation, and the Story of Don Luis de Velasco (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2014), 44. Willison, Saints and Strangers, notes that Tisquantum had traveled more widely than any of the colonists. The most thorough examinations of Tisquantum are Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxet,” 21–32; and Neal Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxets,” in David Sweet and Gary B. Nash, eds., Struggle and Survival in Colonial America (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1981), 228–46. See also John H. Humins, “Squanto and Massasoit: A Struggle for Power,” NEQ 60, no. 1 (1987): 54–70; Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 70–74; Weaver, Red Atlantic, 57–62; Thrush, Indigenous London, 33–61; Caleb Johnson, “Tisquantum (‘Squanto’),” http://
8 Winslow, Good News, 65. On the pattern among Native New Englanders of severing the heads and hands of enemies, see Andrew Lipman, “ ‘A Meanes to Knitt Them Togeather’: The Exchange of Body Parts in the Pequot War,” WMQ 65, no. 1 (2008): 3–28, esp. 11–13.
9 Winslow, Good News, 68.
10 Winslow, Good News, 68 (“cast forth”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:255.
11 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:286.
12 Pratt, Declaration, 11.
13 Pratt, 8 (“great plague”; “half”); Winslow, Good News, 72 (“not unlike”), 74; Cook, Indian Population of New England, 36; Records of the Council for New England (Cambridge, MA: Press of J. Wilson & Son, 1867), 30 (“robbed”).
14 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:270.
15 J. Frederick Fausz, “The Powhatan Uprising of 1622: A Historical Study of Ethnocentrism and Cultural Conflict” (PhD diss., College of William and Mary, 1977).
16 Winslow, Good News, 70–72; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:276 (“continual”), 281–83. On Plymouth’s response to the news from Jamestown, see Cynthia J. Van Zandt, Brothers among Nations: The Pursuit of Intercultural Alliances in Early America, 1580–1660 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2008), 86–87. On fears of poisoning among southern New England Indians, see Simmons, Spirit of the New England Tribes, 92; Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 12, 91. Philbrick, Mayflower, 138, raises the possibility that Tisquantum was poisoned.
17 Winslow, Good News, 73 (“smart”).
18 Winslow, 73–74.
19 Winslow, 77–78; Bragdon, “ ‘Emphatical Speech and Great Action,’ ” 101–11.
20 Winslow, Good News, 77–78.
21 Winslow, 79 (“gentleman”), 80 (“loving sachem”).
22 Winslow, 79–81.
23 Winslow, 81–82.
24 Winslow, 82–83.
25 Winslow, 83.
26 Winslow, 83. Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 327, raises the shaman comparison.
27 Winslow, Good News, 84.
28 Winslow, 86. On p. 87, Winslow specifies that Hobbamock shared this intelligence when they were west of Nemasket.
29 Winslow, 86.
30 Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 154.
31 Winslow, Good News, 90, 91 (“traps”).
32 Pratt, Declaration; Winslow, Good News, 91–93 (“encouragement”), 97.
33 Winslow, Good News, 93–95.
34 Winslow, 95–96.
35 Emanuel Altham to Sir Edward Altham, September 1623, James, Three Visitors, 29 (flag); Cave, Pequot War, 46–47 (cutthroats); Winslow, Good News, 97–98 (“manifold”; “God”).
36 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:367–68.
37 Mourt’s Relation, 83 (“walk”); Plymouth Records, 1:7; Morton, New England’s Memorial, 87; Journal of John Winthrop, 51; Wood, New England’s Prospect, 89–90; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:367–99 (“more glorious”); Winslow, Good News, 55 (“loose”).
38 Matthew Mayhew, A Brief Narrative of the Success which the Gospel Hath Had, among the Indians, of Martha’s-Vineyard (and the Places Adjacent) in New-England (Boston: printed by Bartholomew Green, 1694), 32–33; Elizabeth A. Little, “Three Kinds of Indian Land Deeds at Nantucket, Massachusetts,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Eleventh Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1980), 64–65; Mourt’s Relation, 83 (“great peace”); Emanuel Altham to Sir Edward Altham, September 1623, in James, Three Visitors, 29; Gibson, Burr’s Hill.
39 Journal of John Winthrop, 64–65. Generally on the point that the Wampanoags found the English “preferable to the Narragansetts,” see Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 116.
40 Pratt, Declaration, 14 (“wonders”); Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:353; Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 300, 361.
41 Williams, Key into the Language, 97, 99, 104, 106; Wood, New England’s Prospect, 88; Morton, New English Canaan, 137; Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 153; Mourt’s Relation, 92 (“what place”).
42 Wood, New England Prospect, 88.
CHAPTER 6: A GREAT MAN AND A LITTLE CHILD
1 Franklin B. Hough, ed., Narrative of the Causes which Led to Philip’s Indian War, of 1675 and 1676, by John Easton of Rhode Island (Albany: J. Munsell, 1858), 12.
2 Winslow, Good News, 106; Robinson, “Struggle Within,” 76–77, 81–82, 88–89.
3 Williams, Key into the Language, 193; Roger Williams to John Winthrop, August 20, 1637, in Williams Correspondence, 113.
4 Gibson, Burr’s Hill, 14, 16, 17–21, 96; Elsie M. Brenner, “Sociopolitical Implications of Mortuary Ritual Remains in Seventeenth-Century Native Southern New England,” in Mark P. Leone and Parker B. Potter Jr., eds., The Recovery of Meaning: Historical Archaeology in the Eastern United States (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988), 172; James Axtell, “The First Consumer Revolution: The Seventeenth Century,” in his Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial North America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1992), 125–51.
5 Miller and Hamell, “New Perspective on Indian-White Contact,” 311–28 (“trading in metaphors” on 326); Nanepashemet and James W. Bradley, “Maps and Dreams: Native Americans and European Discovery,” in van Donegan et al., One Man’s Trash, 35; Williams, Key into the Language, 158, 234; Bragdon, Native People … 1500–1650, 187–88, 212; David J. Silverman, Thundersticks: Firearms and the Violent Transformation of Native America (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press, 2016), 11–12.
6 Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 116–17, 129; Darrett B. Rutman, Husbandmen of Plymouth: Farms and Villages in the Old Colony, 1620–1692 (Boston: published for Plimoth Plantation by Beacon Press, 1967); Daniel H. Usner Jr., Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy: The Lower Mississippi Valley before 1783 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1992); Plymouth Records, 2:4 (“small things”). Suggestive evidence of these exchanges can also be found in Plymouth Records, 2:20, 89, 4:183, 190; Mourt’s Relation, 62; Winslow, Good News, 148–49; Morton, New English Canaan, 162; Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 434.
7 Kevin A. McBride, “The Source and Mother of the Fur Trade: Native-Dutch Relations in Eastern New Netherland,” in Laurie Weinstein, ed., Enduring Traditions: The Native Peoples of New England (Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, 1994), 31–52; Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2015), 105–12; Francis X. Maloney, The Fur Trade in New England, 1620–1676 (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1967), 41–42.
8 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:343–45 (“few beads”); Emmanuel Altham to Sir Edward Altham, March 1623–24, in James, Three Visitors, 36; William I. Robert, “The Fur Trade of New England in the Seventeenth Century” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1958), 27, 34–35; Carl Bridenbaugh, Fat Mutton and Liberty of Conscience: Society in Rhode Island, 1636–1690 (Providence, RI: Brown Univ. Press, 1974), 23; Roger H. King, Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony in the Seventeenth Century (Lanham, MD: Univ. Press of America, 1993), 30.
9 Robert, “Fur Trade,” 32; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 145.
10 Langdon, Pilgrim Colony, 31–32, 36; Eugene Aubrey Stratton, Plymouth Colony: Its History and People (Salt Lake City: Ancestry Publishing, 1986), 27–28; James, Three Visitors, 74–75 (“house”); Willison, Saints and Strangers, 284; King, Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony, 34. Percival Hall Lombard, The Aptucxet Trading Post: The First Trading Post of the Plymouth Colony, with an Account of Its Restoration on the Original Foundations (Bourne, MA: Bourne Historical Society, 1934), 26, makes a convincing case that this stout post replaced an insubstantial structure at the same site.
11 Cronon, Changes in the Land, 95; M. J. Becker, “Wampum Use in Southern New England: The Paradox of Bead Production without the Use of Political Belts,” in Chilton and Rainey, Nantucket and Other Native Places, 137–58; Lois Scozzari, “The Significance of Wampum to Seventeenth Century Indians in New England,” Connecticut Review 17, no. 1 (1995): 59–69; Frank G. Speck, “The Functions of Wampum Among the Eastern Algonkian,” Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 6, no. 1 (1919): 3–71; Hamell, “Wampum,” 45–46; William Engelbrecht, Iroquoia: The Development of a Native World (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 2003), 156. On the evolving terminology of these beads, see Paul Otto, “ ‘This is that which … they call Wampum’: Europeans Coming to Terms with Native Shell Beads,” Early American Studies 15, no. 1 (2017): 1–36.
12 James W. Bradley, Before Albany: An Archaeology of Native-Dutch Relations in the Capital Region, 1600–1664 (Albany: Univ. of the State of New York, State Education Dept., 2006), 128; Engelbrecht, Iroquoia, 156; Martha M. Sempowski, “Fluctuations through Time in Use of Marine Shell at Seneca Iroquois Sites,” in Charles F. Hayes, Lynn Ceci, and Connie Cox Bodner, eds., Proceedings of the 1986 Shell Bead Conference (Rochester, NY: Research Division of the Rochester Museum and Science Center, 1986), 83, 86; Paul Otto, “Henry Hudson, the Munsees, and the Wampum Revolution,” in Jaap Jacobs and Louis Roper, eds., The Worlds of the Seventeenth Century Hudson Valley (Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2014), 91–92; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 151; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 95–97; Wood, New England’s Prospect, 81.
13 McBride, “Source and Mother”; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 42–43; James, Three Visitors, 63. On later manifestations of the Dutch-Chesapeake trade, see James R. Perry, Formation of a Society on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1615–1655 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1990), 14; April Lee Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations in the Seventeenth Century (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 77, 103.
14 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 2:190, 226–27, 2:26 (“at our doors”), 43–44 (“scarce”); Langdon, Pilgrim Colony, 31–32, 36; Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon, 233; William B. Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1884), esp. 22–25; Alden T. Vaughan, New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675, 3rd ed. (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1995), 220; Lynn Ceci, “Native Wampum as a Peripheral Resource in the Seventeenth-Century World-System,” in Laurence M. Hauptman and James D. Wherry, eds., The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an American Indian Nation (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1990), 48–64; Mary W. Herman, “Wampum as Money in Northeastern North America,” Ethnohistory 3, no. 1 (1956): 21–33.
15 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 2:43–44 (“none or very little”; “drug”); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 89; Gibson, Burr’s Hill, 118–19, 158–59, 160. On the assumption of Narragansett and Pequot dominance, see, for example, Drake, King Philip’s War, 22; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 96. A notable exception to this trend is Ceci, “Wampum as a Peripheral Resource,” 48–49. On the actual distribution of the shells, see Clyde L. MacKenzie Jr. et al., “Quahogs in Eastern North America: Part I, Biology, Ecology, and Historical Uses,” Marine Fisheries Review 64, no. 2 (2002): 3; Bhae-Jin Peemoeller and Bradley G. Stevens, “Age, Size, and Sexual Maturity of Channeled Whelk (Busycotypus canaliculatus) in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts,” Fishery Bulletin 111, no. 3 (2013): 265–78; Frank G. Speck and Ralph W. Dexter, “The Utilization of Marine Life by the Wampanoag Indians of Massachusetts,” Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 38, no. 8 (August 1948): 257–65.
16 Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 2:52–53 (“mad”), 56–57; William Bradford to Sir Ferdinando Gorges, June 15, 1627, and Bradford to Council for New England, June 9, 1628, in Governor William Bradford’s Letter Book (Bedford, MA: Applewood Books, 2001), 36, 41–44; Morton, New England’s Memorial, 91–93. Other historians are more skeptical of Plymouth’s rationales for the mission. See Michael Zuckerman, “Pilgrims in the Wilderness: Community, Modernity, and the Maypole at Merry Mount,” NEQ 50, no. 2 (1977): 255–77; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 157–62.
17 Elizabeth S. Chilton and Dianna L. Doucette, “Archaeological Investigation at the Lucy Vincent Beach Site,” 19, MS in the author’s possession; personal correspondence with Holly Herbster of Public Archaeological Laboratory; Franklin B. Hough, ed., Papers Relating to the Island of Nantucket, with Documents Relating to the Original Settlement of the Island, Martha’s Vineyard and Other Islands Adjacent, Known as Dukes County, While under the Colony of New York (Albany: [J. Munsell], 1865), 108; New York Colonial MS, 3:68–71, quoted in Charles E. Banks, ed., History of Martha’s Vineyard, Dukes County, Massachusetts, 3 vols. (Boston: George H. Deans, 1911), 1:150 (“sewan”).
18 On Plymouth’s population, Robert Charles Anderson, The Pilgrim Migration: Immigrants to Plymouth Colony, 1620–1633 (Boston: New England Historical Genealogical Society, 2004), xxxix; Stratton, Plymouth Colony, 50. On the Great Migration, Virginia DeJohn Anderson, New England’s Generation: The Great Migration and the Formation of Society and Culture in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991); Robert Charles, “A Note on the Changing Pace of the Great Migration,” NEQ 59, no. 3 (1986): 406–7. On demographic growth, see John M. Murrin, “Review Essay,” History and Theory 11 (1972): 226–75; Murrin, “Beneficiaries of Catastrophe: The English Colonies in America,” in Eric Foner, ed., The New American History (Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press, 1997), 3–30; Gloria L. Main, Peoples of Spacious Lands: Families and Cultures in Colonial New England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2001). On the Indian population, see Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 108, 170n56.
19 Stratton, Plymouth Colony, 70; Samuel Hugh Brockunier, The Irrepressible Democrat, Roger Williams (New York: Ronald Press, 1940), 82–100; Sydney V. James, Colonial Rhode Island: A History (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975), 13–32.
20 Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 191; Dean R. Snow and Kim M. Lanphear, “European Contact and Indian Depopulation in the Northeast: The Timing of the First Epidemics,” Ethnohistory 35, no. 1 (1988): 23; Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1:193–94 (“mortality”); John Winthrop to Nathaniel Rich, May 22, 1634, in Allyn B. Forbes, ed., Winthrop Papers, 5 vols. (Boston, 1929–45), 3:167 (“near all dead”); Stratton, Plymouth Colony, 46.
21 Whitfield, Light appearing, 177 (“strange disease”), 178 (“universal”); Indian Converts, 171 (“sore Distemper”; “many of them”); Dane Morrison, A Praying People: Massachusett Acculturation and the Failure of the Puritan Mission, 1600–1690 (New York: P. Lang, 1995), 6. On the blackface mourning ritual, see Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 153; Morton, New English Canaan, 170; Williams, Key into the Language, 115–16, 247–50; John Josselyn, 95.
22 On these developments, see Cave, Pequot War, 69–121; Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 32–38; Andrew Lipman, “Murder on the Saltwater Frontier: The Death of John Oldham,” Early American Studies 9, no. 2 (2011): 268–94.
23 Cave, Pequot War; Oberg, Uncas.
24 John Mason, A Brief History of the Pequot War (Boston: S. Kneeland and T. Green, 1736), in Charles Orr, ed., History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardener (Cleveland: Helman-Taylor, 1897), 84 (“Lord judge”); Mass. Bay Recs., 1:200.
25 Michael J. Fickes, “ ‘They Could Not Endure That Yoke’: The Captivity of Pequot Women and Children After the War of 1637,” NEQ 73, no 1. (2000): 58–81; Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2015), 17–42; Clinton Alfred Weslager, The English on the Delaware, 1610–1682 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1967), 96; Daragh Grant, “The Treaty of Hartford (1638): Reconsidering Jurisdiction in Southern New England,” WMQ 72, no. 3 (2015): 461–98.
26 Journal of John Winthrop, 256; Plymouth Records, 1:133 (“against all”); Morton, New England’s Memorial, 141–42. That these were Mohicans is indicated by Ousamequin’s identification of their homeland as lying “beyond Connecticut [River] and Pakontuckett.” Pakontuckett probably meant Pocumtuck, or modern Deerfield, Massachusetts. Both the Connecticut River and Pocumtuck were west of Mohegan territory. “Beyond,” which is to say, west of those places, were the Mohicans of the Housatonic and Hudson Rivers.
27 John Underhill, Newes from America; Or, A New and Experimentall Discoverie of New England (1638), in Orr, History of the Pequot War, 84 (“machit”); Cave, Pequot War; Oberg, Uncas.
28 Papers and Biography of Lion Gardiner, 1599–1663, ed. Curtiss C. Gardiner (St. Louis, MO: Levison & Blythe, 1883), 29–30; Michael Leroy Oberg, “ ‘We Are all Sachems from East to West’: A New Look at Miantonomi’s Campaign of Resistance,” New England Quarterly 77, no. 4 (2004): 478–99.
29 Journal of John Winthrop, 399 (“attended”), 406–7 (“terror”); United Colonies Records, 1:10 (“labor”).
30 William Hubbard, A General History of New England, from the Discovery to 1680, 2nd ed., MHSC, 2nd ser., vols. 5, 6 (Boston, 1848), 33 (“some have said”); Journal of John Winthrop, 494, 497, 498–99.The Wampanoag sachem’s relationship to the Nipmucs has confused historians for more than a century because a Nipmuc sachem had a similar name, Woosamequin, and Pokanoket claimed the Nipmuc community of Quabaug as a protectorate. Yet Ousamequin and Woosamequin were undoubtedly two different people because Ousamequin was dead by June 13, 1660, whereas the Nipmuc sachem, Woosamequin, was not. Nine months later, the Nipmuc figure changed his name to Matchippa before helping Quabaug to fend off attacks by Uncas and the Mohegans. On this question, see John Eliot to John Endicott, March 28, 1661, Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, vol. 3 (1855–58): 312–13; Samuel G. Drake, Biography and History of the Indians of North America, from Its First Discovery, 11th ed. (Boston: Benjamin B. Mussey & Company, 1851), 105–6; J. H. Temple, History of North Brookfield, Massachusetts (North Brookfield, MA: The Town of North Brookfield, 1887), 28, 45–46; Dennis A. Connole, The Indians of the Nipmuck Country in Southern New England, 1630–1750: An Historical Geography (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2001), 66, 77; and Richard W. Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission to the Indians before King Philip’s War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999), 275n23.
31 United Colonies Records, 1:10–11; Winthrop Journal, 471–73; Vaughan, New England Frontier, 163–66; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 234–35; Oberg, Uncas, 87–109.
32 John Brown to John Winthrop, June 26, 1644, and William Coddington to John Winthrop, August 5, 1644, in Winthrop Papers, 4:465, 491 (“one heart”); Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 59–65.
33 Howard M. Chapin, ed., Documentary History of Rhode Island, 2 vols. (Providence, 1916–19), 1:2 (“spared”), 14, 15.
34 Roger Williams to the Assembly of Commissioners, Nov. 17, 1677, in Williams Correspondence, 751–52.
35 Among the first historians to realize that the Wampanoags and Narragansetts were using the English as a buffer was Thomas Williams Bicknell, Sowams: With Ancient Records of Sowams and Parts Adjacent—Illustrated (New Haven, CT: Connecticut Associated Publishers of American Records, 1908), 26–27. On other themes, see Chapin, Documentary History of Rhode Island, 1:2 (“gratuity”), 52, 2:40; James, Colonial Rhode Island, 8; Robinson, “Struggle Within,” 123; Rhode Island Records, 1:22 (“monies,” “peaceable”), 47 (“carriage”); Anne Keary, “Retelling the History of the Settlement of Providence: Speech, Writing, and Cultural Interaction on Narragansett Bay,” NEQ 69, no. 2 (1996): 250–86.
36 Chapin, Documentary History of Rhode Island, 1:240–42. See also Rhode Island Records, 1:32, 33–34.
37 Chapin, Documentary History of Rhode Island, 1:239–40 (“could not”); The Early Records of the Town of Portsmouth (Providence, RI: E. L. Freeman, 1901), 29; Rhode Island Records, 1:81; Roger Williams to the Massachusetts General Court, Nov. 1, 1655, in Williams Correspondence, 445 (“dangers”). Generally, Allan Greer, Property and Dispossession: Natives, Empires, and Land in Early Modern North America (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2018), 81–95.
38 The documents for these sales appear in Jeremy Duperituis Bangs, ed., Indian Deeds: Land Transactions in Plymouth Colony, 1620–1691 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2002), 260, 263–64 (“annoyed”), 269–70. See also Bicknell, Sowams, 27–28.
39 On Brown, see Robert Charles Anderson, The Great Migration Begins: Immigrants to New England, 1620–1633 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 1995), 420–29; Plymouth Colony Records, 2:120, 3:21 (“damage”), 3:133–34; Bangs, Indian Deeds, 250, 256, 269–70, 387–88; John Frederick, Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1991), 81–82; Richard Lebaron Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in This Plymouth Colony Township, vol. 1 (Rehoboth, MA: privately printed [by the Rumford Press], 1945), 25–26.
40 On Willet, see Anderson, Great Migration Begins, 1997–2002; Martin, Profits in the Wilderness, 80–81; Rhode Island/Massachusetts Boundaries, 1:46, Rhode Island State Archives, Providence; Bangs, Indian Deeds, 269–70, 297, 301–2, 310, 319, 326, 327 (“loving friend”), 344, 356–57, 371–73, 382, 387, 391–92; Plymouth Colony Records 3:167, 180, 192, 4:8, 18, 31, 51, 54, 109–10, 5:24.
41 On gun-related issues, see Plymouth Colony Records, 2:8, 99 (“affray”), 135, 3:2. On liquor, see Plymouth Colony Records, 3:61, 5:159, 339, 40, 81, 107, 148. Generally, see Peter C. Mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1995), esp. 105.
42 Lion Gardiner, “Relation of the Pequot Warres” (1660), in Charles Orr, ed., History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardener (Cleveland: Helman-Taylor, 1897), 142–43.
43 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 260, 263–64.
44 The sales can be traced in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 252–54, 255, 271–72, 277, 277–78, 284, 299–301, 332–24, 346, 362–63, 364, 401, 432–34. On English expansion on the Cape, see Plymouth Colony Records, 1:79, 95, 148, 255, 2:5, 9, 11; King, Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony. On area resources, Anne E. Yentsch, “Farming, Fishing, Whaling, Trading: Land and Sea as Resource on Eighteenth-Century Cape Cod,” in Marcy C. Beaudry, ed., Documentary Archaeology in the New World (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1988), 138–60; Susan M. Ouellette, “Divine Providence and Collective Endeavor: Sheep Production in Early Massachusetts,” NEQ 69, no. 3 (1995): 355–80; Patricia E. Rubertone, “Changes in Coastal Wilderness: Historical Land Use Patterns on Outer Cape Cod, 17th–19th Centuries,” in Francis P. McManamon, ed., The Historic Period and Historic Period Archeology, vol. 3 of Chapters in the Archeology of Cape Cod (Boston: Division of Cultural Resources, North Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1986), 83–87.
45 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 252–54; Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, ed., The Town Records of Eastham during the Time of Plymouth Colony, 1620(43)–1692 (Leiden: Leiden American Pilgrim Museum, 2012), 3. See also pp. 43, 47, 53, 89–90. On George, see W. Sears Nickerson, “Some Lower Cape Indians” (1933), MS 52, p. 12, Sturgis Library, Barnstable, MA. On English authorities’ insistence on respecting reserved Indian rights, see Plymouth Court Records, 3:84 (“not cause”), 85, 123, 175, 181, 4:18.
46 On Nepoyetum, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 257; Plymouth Colony Records, 2:22. On Seeknout, see Testimony of James Pease, Sarah Natick, and Thomas Mayhew, Suffolk Files, no. 14047, MA Archives.
47 William Bradford to John Winthrop, Dec. 10, 1646, Winthrop Papers, 5:57 (“not to pay”); Roger Williams to John Winthrop Jr., May 23, 1650, in Williams Correspondence, 314 (“sturgeon”). On horses: Bangs, Eastham Town Records, 3, 110–11; Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, ed., The Town Records of Sandwich during the Time of Plymouth Colony (Leiden: Leiden American Pilgrim Museum, 2014), 80, 82–84, 90, 214–15.
48 Generally, see William Kellaway, The New England Company, 1649–1776 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1961); Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission; Silverman, Faith and Boundaries.
49 Silverman, Faith and Boundaries; Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission. Generally, see Edward E. Andrews, Native Apostles: Black and Indian Missionaries in the British Atlantic World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 2013).
50 Anonymous, New England’s First Fruits (1643), in Eliot Tracts, 61 (“mosquito”); John Eliot, “A Breif [sic] History of the Mashepog Indians” (1666), ed. J. Patrick Cesarini, WMQ 65, no. 1 (2008): 129 (“angry”), 131 (“deliver”). On disease, see Whitfield, Light appearing, 148–50, 177; Whitfield, Strength out of Weakness, 221; Edward Winslow, The Glorious Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians of New England (1649), in Eliot Tracts, 77–78; James Naeher, “Dialogue in the Wilderness: John Eliot and the Indians’ Exploration of Puritanism as a Source of Meaning, Comfort, and Ethnic Survival,” NEQ 62, no. 3 (1989): 346–68.
51 Thomas Shepard, The Clear Sun-shine of the Gospel breaking forth upon the Indians in New-England (1648), in Eliot Tracts, 119 (“forefathers,” “moosquantum”); Winslow, Glorious Progress, 78 (“wise men”); William S. Simmons, “Of Large Things Remembered: Southern New England Indian Legends of Colonial Encounters,” in Anne Elizabeth Yentsch and Mary C. Beaudry, eds., The Art and Mystery of Historical Archaeology: Essays in Honor of James Deetz (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992), 322–23; Thomas Mayhew Jr. to John Winthrop, August 15, 1648, Mayhew Papers, Muger Library Special Collections, Boston University.
52 John Eliot, A Further Account of the progress of the Gospel Amongst the Indians in New England (1660), in Eliot Tracts, 370, 375 (“might kill”); Roger Williams to Massachusetts General Court, Oct. 5, 1654, in Williams Correspondence, 409 (“high sachems”); Henry M. Ward, The United Colonies of New England, 1643–1690 (New York: Vantage Press, 1961); Kellaway, New England Company.
53 Winslow, Glorious Progress, 83 (“distribute”); Shepard, Clear Sun-shine, 134 (“mattocks”); Lisa Brooks, Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2018), 72–106.
54 Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 196–98; Kathleen J. Bragdon, “Vernacular Literacy and Massachusett Worldview, in Peter Benes, ed., Algonkians of the Northeast: Past and Present (Boston: Boston University, 1993), 26–34; E. Jennifer Monaghan, “ ‘She loved to read in good Books’: Literacy and the Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1643–1725,” History of Education Quarterly 30, no. 4 (1990): 492–521; Kristina Bross and Hillary Wyss, eds., Early Native Literacies in New England: A Documentary and Critical Anthology (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 2008); Silverman, Faith and Boundaries, 93, 117, 161; Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission, 121–24, 219–23; Kellaway, New England Company, 122–65; Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998), 28–41. Gookin’s figures were that 142 of 461 Christian Wampanoags (adults and children) from the Cape could read Wampanoag and 72 of 461 could write it.
55 On Massachusetts praying towns, see Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission, 105–46; Jean M. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997), 31–64. On Mashpee, see Plymouth Records, 6:159 (“forever”); MA Archives, 33:149–50; Jack Campisi, The Mashpee Indians: Tribe on Trial (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 1991), 77–78. On Bourne’s land speculation, see Plymouth Records, 3:85, 193–94, 201, 208, 216–17, 4:4.
56 Len Travers, ed., “The Missionary Journal of John Cotton, Jr.,” Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, 3rd ser., vol. 109 (1997): 77 (“righteous”). On Christiantown, see Ayer MS 589, Newberry Library, Chicago; Suffolk Files nos. 953, 3068, 4974, p. 12, Mass. State Archives. Histories commonly date the formation of this town to 1659 based on a vague statement made in 1699 that it had been founded “about forty years ago.” The formal grant was made in 1669–70. See DCD, 1:357, 378, 402, 2:142.
57 Henry W. Bowden and James P. Ronda, eds., John Eliot’s Indian Dialogues: A Study in Cultural Interaction (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 122; Whitfield, Light appearing, 202 (“plainly see”), 203–4; John Eliot to the New England Company, October 10, 1652, NEHGR (1882), 294–95 (“professed”).
58 William Hubbard, A Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New England (1677), in Samuel G. Drake, ed., The History of the Indian Wars in New England, from the First Settlement to the Termination of the War with King Philip, in 1677, 2 vols. (Roxbury, MA: printed for W. E. Woodward, 1865), 1:47; Indian Converts, 116–17; Conquests and Triumphs, 23, 39 (“prince”); Thomas Prince, Some Account of those English Ministers who have Successfully Presided Over the Work of Gospelizing the Indians on Martha’s Vineyard and the Adjacent Islands, appendix to Experience Mayhew, Indian Converts: Or, Some Account of the Lives and Dying Speeches of a Considerable Number of the Christianized Indians of Martha’s Vineyard (London: printed for Samuel Gerrish, 1727), 293–94; Eliot and Mayhew, Tears of Repentance, 258 (“great enemy”).
59 Weeden, Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization, 19–20, 25–29; William B. Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789, 2 vols. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1890), 1:40–44.
60 Williams to John Winthrop, Aug. 20, 1637, in Williams Correspondence, 113.
61 Samuel D. Drake, The Old Indian Chronicle: Being a Collection of Exceedingly Rare Tracts, Written and Published in the Time of King Philip’s War (Boston: printed by the author, 1867), 31.
CHAPTER 7: UNGRATEFUL
1 Plymouth Records, 3:192. On the practice of subtle threats, see Seth Mallios, The Deadly Politics of Giving: Exchange and Violence at Ajacan, Roanoke, and Jamestown (Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2006).
2 Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 107–8, 170n56; Bridenbaugh, Fat Mutton and Liberty of Conscience, 27–42; Wendy Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York: Liverlight, 2016), 49–82; Martin, Profits in the Wilderness; Cronon, Changes in the Land, 127–57; Pastore, Between Land and Sea, 1–49.
3 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 286–87 (“I Wamsutta”), 291–93, 298, 301–2 (“plant”); DCD, 3:12–13; MA Archives, 30:102.
4 Plymouth Records, 4:8 (“in case”).
5 Plymouth Records, 4:18; William Read Staples, ed., Annals of the Town of Providence: From Its First Settlement to the Organization of the City Government (Providence, RI: printed by Knowles and Vose, 1843), 574–75; Suffolk Deeds, 7:161–63, Mass. State Archives; Plymouth Records, 4:8, 16–17, 18; Martino-Trutor, “ ‘As Potent a Prince,’ ” 43.
6 Increase Mather, A relation of the troubles which have happened in New-England (Boston: printed by John Foster, 1677), 70–72; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:49–51; John Cotton Jr. to Increase Mather, March 19–20, 1677, in Sheila McIntyre and Len Travers, eds., The Correspondence of John Cotton Junior (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2009), 188 (“report”).
7 Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:49–51 (“dead man” on 50); Mather, Relation of the Troubles, 70–71; Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana: Or, The Ecclesiastical History of New England, 2 vols. (Hartford, CT: published by Silas Andrus; Roberts & Burr, printers, 1820), 2:485; Cotton to Mather, March 19–20, 1677, in Cotton Correspondence, 188 (“freely”); Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 12–13 (“forced”); Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 50–52. Historians accepting the pistol story include Jennings, Invasion of America, 289; Russell Bourne, The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England, 1675–1678 (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1990); Philbrick, Mayflower, 203.
8 Mather, Relation, 72 (“Fuller”); Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 12–13 (“judged”).
9 Plymouth Records, 4:25. On Sonkanuhoo, see Ebenezer Pierce Weaver, Indian History, Biography, and Genealogy: Pertaining to the Good Sachem Massasoit of the Wampanoag Tribe (North Abington, MA: Z. G. Mitchell, 1878), 211; Bangs, Indian Deeds, 388.
10 On the Quabaug dispute, see United Colonies Records, 2:269; Temple, History of North Brookfield, 45–46. On Namumpum’s marriage to Quequegunent, see Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 58–59. On Pumetacom’s disagreement with Namumpum, see Plymouth Records, 4:24–25; Thomas Prince to Josiah Winslow, October 8, 1663, Winslow Family Papers II, 1638–1760, MHS; Martino-Trutor, “ ‘As Potent a Prince,’ ” 58.
11 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 330–31, 387–88, 392–93. On evidence of public consent, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 330–31, 353–55, 355–56, 382, 387–88, 392–93, 406–7, 444–47.
12 Mattapoisett Indians to Thomas Prince, August 9, 1667, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“afraid”); Roger Williams to John Winthrop Jr., May 28, 1664, in Williams Correspondence, 528 (“God Land”); Bangs, Indian Deeds, 406–7, 444–47. See also Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, ed., The Seventeenth-Century Town Records of Scituate Massachusetts, 3 vols. (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 1997), 3:70.
13 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 308–9, 381, 400 (“neither Tispaquin”), 408–10, 415–16, 436–37, 461–63, 468, 482–84; Curwen Family Mss., box 1, folder 2, AAS. On Buzzards Bay sales, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 302, 316–18, 319, 324–25, 335–36, 340, 350–51, 353, 355–56, 379–80, 425–26. On Narragansett and Nipmuc sales, see Connole, Indians of Nipmuck Country, 138–58; James, Colonial Rhode Island, 82–87; Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 89–93.
14 Plymouth Records, 4:34–35 (“long practiced”). On timber, Plymouth Records, 4:54. On livestock, Plymouth Records, 3:21, 89–90, 91, 106, 119–20, 132, 167, 192, 200, 222, 4:17, 53–54, 68, 92–93, 109, 191; Bangs, Town Records of Eastham, 109.
15 Plymouth Records, 4:66, 5:6, 11–12, 22, 85; Rhode Island Records, 2:172–73; The Early Records of the Town of Portsmouth (Providence, RI: Freeman & Sons, 1901), 149–50; Winslow, Good News, 81. Generally on these points, see Virginia DeJohn Anderson, “King Philip’s Herds: Indians, Colonists, and the Problem of Livestock in Early New England,” WMQ 51, no. 4 (1994): 601–24; Anderson, Creatures of Empire: How Domestic Animals Transformed Early America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2004).
16 Plymouth Records, 4:168 (“several Indians”); Bangs, Indian Deeds, 391 (“a cheat”).
17 Plymouth Records, 4:185–86; Petition of Josias Wampatuck and Weetama, June 3, 1668, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“preserve her interest”).
18 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 328–29 (“peaceably”), 332–33, 358–59, 361–62, 464–65, 468, 469–70, 473–74; Silverman, Faith and Boundaries, 125–26; DCD, 1:6, 12; Plymouth Records, 4:115; Barnstable Town Records, 1:85–86, microfilm, MA Archives.
19 Records of the Court of Trials of the Colony of Providence Plantations, 1647–1670, 2 vols. (Providence: Rhode-Island Historical Society, 1920–22), 1:57; Newell, Brethren by Nature, 108, 125; Langdon, Pilgrim Colony, 203. Generally, see Katherine A. Hermes, “ ‘Justice Will Be Done Us’: Algonquian Demands for Reciprocity in the Courts of European Settlers,” in Christopher L. Tomlins and Bruce H. Mann, eds., The Many Legalities of Early America (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, 2001), 123–49; Brian P. Owensby and Richard J. Ross, eds., Justice in a New World: Negotiating Legal Intelligibility in British, Iberian, and Indigenous America (New York: New York Univ. Press, 2018). On harsh punishments, Lyle Koehler, “Red-White Power Relations and Justice in the Courts of Seventeenth-Century New England,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 3, no. 4 (1979): 11–14; Plymouth Records, 4:136–37, 167, 5:106.
20 Plymouth Records, 3:179; Rhode Island Records, 2:295–97; Rhode Island to Plymouth, General Assembly and Court, October 25, 1671, John Davis Papers, MHS; Joshua Micah Marshall, “ ‘A Melancholy People’: Anglo-Indian Relations in Early Warwick, Rhode Island, 1642–1675,” NEQ 68, no. 3 (1995): 421, 427.
21 Plymouth Records, 5:156; Harris to Williamson, August 12, 1676, Collections of the Rhode Island Historical Society, vol. 10 (1902): 167; Rhode Island Records, 2:519–21; Colonial State Papers Online, 9:442–43, CO 1/37, No. 47; Rhode Island General Court of Trials, 1671–1704 (Boxford, MA: Jane Fletcher Fiske, 1998), 37–38; Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2000), 84–85.
22 Rhode Island Records, 2:51.
23 Marshall, “Melancholy People”; Rhode Island Records, 1:343; Roger Williams to Massachusetts General Court, May 12, 1656, and Williams to Robert Carr, March 1, 1666, in Williams Correspondence, 451, 550–51 (“promise”); Rhode Island Records, 2:136; Robinson, “Struggle Within,” 76–77, 116–19, 182.
24 King Philip to the Chief Officer of the town of Long Island, May 7, 1666, Colonial State Papers Online, 1/20, no. 68.
25 Plymouth Records, 4:151, 164–66 (“recover” on 164); Emerson Woods Baker II, “New Evidence on the French Involvement in King Philip’s War,” Maine Historical Society Quarterly 28, no. 2 (1988): 85–91; Daniel K. Richter, “Dutch Dominos: The Fall of New Netherland and the Reshaping of Eastern North America,” Trade, Land, Power: The Struggle for Eastern North America (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 97–112.
26 Rhode Island Records, 2:192–93 (“deportments”; “hazarded”), 194; Plymouth Records, 4:164–65 (“first reporter”).
27 Charles Banks Papers Relating to Martha’s Vineyard, pp. 48, 50, MHS (“his people”); Plymouth Records, 4:164–66 (“vile”; “disclaimed”; “tongue”).
28 Thomas Stanton to John Mason, July 8, 1669, Yale Indian Papers, 1669.07.08.00; Oberg, Uncas; Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret; Shawn G. Wiemann, “Lasting Marks: The Legacy of Robin Cassacinamon and the Survival of the Mashantucket Pequot Nation” (PhD diss., University of New Mexico, 2011).
29 Rhode Island Records, 2:264–65, 269–74 (“bark”).
30 Deposition of John Gallup and John Stanton, July 1669, Yale Indian Papers, 1669.07.00.01 (“must go”); Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 68, 73–78, 111–12.
31 John Mason to John Allyn, July 4, 1669, Yale Indian Papers, 1669.07.04.00 (“meddle”); Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 102–4; Jon Parmenter, Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534–1701 (East Lansing: Michigan State Univ. Press, 2010), 122–27; Jeriah Bull, Susquench, and Ninigret to John Winthrop Jr., July 29, 1672, and Tobias Sanders to Fitz John Winthrop, July 3, 1675, MHSC, 5th ser., vol. 1 (1871): 426; Thomas Stanton to John Winthrop Jr., September 22, 1675, Winthrop Family Papers, MHS.
32 Daniel Gookin to Thomas Prince, April 12, 1671, and Prince to Gookin, April 26, 1671, MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 199–201; Anderson, Creatures of Empire, 222–23, 232; Hugh Cole Deposition, March 8, 1670/71, Misc. Bound Ms., MHS. Also in MHSC 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 211 (“better armed”).
33 Bellingham to Thomas Prince, March 24, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“multitudes”); Thomas Hinckley and Nathaniel Bacon to Thomas Prince, April 6, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“why”); Rhode Island Records, 2:370 (“continuous”).
34 Josiah Winslow to Thomas Prince, undated, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“one wiser”); John Richards to John Winthrop Jr., April 18, 1671, Winthrop Family Transcripts, MHS (“foul weather”).
35 Plymouth Records, 5:63–64 (“preparation”); Thomas Prince to Richard Bellingham, May 8, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“six score”).
36 John Pynchon to John Winthrop Jr., May 10, 1671, in The Pynchon Papers, vol. 1, Letters of John Pynchon, 1654–1700, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1982), 87 (“industriously”); Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:44; Grandjean, American Passage, 150–52.
37 Plymouth Records, 5:63–64 (“compliance”), 69; Thomas Prince to Rhode Island General Assembly, June 16, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“scarce”).
38 Plymouth Records, 5:73–74, 75 (“help her”; “incendiaries”); Articles of Agreement with Awashunks, July 24, 1671, Boston Athenaeum; Plymouth General Court to John Cotton Jr., in Cotton Correspondence, 81–82 and editors’ note; Awashonks to Prince, Aug. 11, 1671, Davis Papers, oversize box, MHS; Awashonks pledge of fidelity, Aug. 31, 1671, Misc. Bound Ms., MHS; Thomas Prince, Submission of Indians at Dartmouth, September 4, 1671, Boston Athenaeum.
39 Plymouth Records, 5:76 (“reducement”; “unkind”); James Walker to Thomas Prince, September 1, 1671, MHS Misc. Bound Ms., and MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 197–98; Rhode Island Records, 2:408 (“treacherously”), 410; Thomas Prince to Rhode Island, Aug. 23, 1671, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS.
40 Lindholdt, John Josselyn, 101 (“coat”); Instructions to William and Anthony from John Eliot on behalf of the church at Natick, Aug. 1, 1671, MHS Misc. Bound Ms., and MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 201–3; Richard Bellingham to Thomas Prince, September 5, 1671, Davis Papers, oversize, MHS; Plymouth Records, 5:79–80 (“neighborly”); Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 96–98; Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission, 200–206.
41 Plymouth Records 5:76 (“common enemy”; “professed”), 78–79 (“humble”; “amend”; “smart”).
42 Plymouth Records 5:76–80; Jon T. Coleman, Vicious: Wolves and Men in America (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 2004), 62–64; Jonathan Perry, in person conversation with author, Providence, RI, May 2018.
43 On Pumetacom’s sales, see Plymouth Records, 5:97, 98, 101, 102; Philbrick, Mayflower, 219. On Awashonks’s sales, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 434; Rhode Island Land Evidence (Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society 1921), 1:49, 53. On Mamaneway and his sales, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 460–61, 463, 465–67, 474–75, 477–79; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 119–21; Ann Marie Plane, “Putting a Face on Colonization: Factionalism and Gender Politics in the Life History of Awashunkes, the ‘Squaw Sachem’ of Saconet,” in Robert Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816 (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 144–45; John Cotton Jr. to Daniel Gookin, September 14, 1674, Cotton Correspondence, 98–99; Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 199–200.
44 Bangs, Indian Deeds, 474–75; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 119–21; John Easton to Josiah Winslow, May 26, 1675, NEHGS (“dependence”); Martino-Trutor, “As Potent a Prince,” 45–46.
45 1672 Deed, Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, MA, http://
46 Plymouth Records, 8:180, 190–91.
47 Plymouth Records, 4:80 (“homage”); Prince, Some Account of those English Ministers, 293–94.
48 DCD, 1:211; New York Deeds 1:78, quoted in Charles Banks Papers, vol.: 1600–1699, pp. 80–85, MHS; Prince, Some Account of those English Ministers, 293–94; Plane, Colonial Intimacies, 41–66; Elizabeth A. Little, “Three Kinds of Indian Land Deeds at Nantucket, Massachusetts,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Eleventh Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1980), 63 (“council”); Elizabeth A. Little, “Sachem Nickanoose of Nantucket and the Grass Contest,” Historic Nantucket 23 (1976): 19–20; Little, “Indian Politics on Nantucket,” in Cowan, ed., Papers of the Thirteenth Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1982), 286, 288–89; NCR, 2:70 verso; Bangs, Eastham Town Records, 118; Henry W. and James P. Ronda, eds., John Eliot’s Indian Dialogues: A Study in Cultural Interaction (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980), 71 (“English men”). There is a Nantucket oral tradition extending from an unreliable eighteenth-century source that Pumetacom traveled to the island to execute the Wampanoag preacher Assassamough, or John Gibbs, for violating taboo by speaking the name of Ousamequin. See Nathaniel Philbrick, Abram’s Eyes: The Native American Legacy of Nantucket Island (Nantucket, MA: Mill Hill Press, 1998), 118–22. No contemporary accounts make any such statement.
49 For a sampling of such occasions, see Whitfield, Strength out of Weakness, 230–31; Eliot, “A Breif [sic] History of the Mashpeog Indians,” 110n7, 122; Morton, New England’s Memorial, 208; John Eliot, “Brief Narrative” (1671), in Eliot Tracts, 400–401; Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 204.
50 Sheila McIntyre, “John Cotton, Jr.: Wayward Puritan Minister?” in Ian K. Steele and Nancy L. Rhoden, eds., The Human Tradition in Colonial America (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999), 119–40.
51 Whitfield, Strength out of Weakness, 152 (“young Ousamequin”); John Eliot to the Commissioners of the United Colonies, Aug. 24, 1664, NEHGR 9 (1885): 131–33 (we know the son was John Jr. because he received salary as a missionary from the New England Company during these years); Eliot, Indian Dialogues, 121 (“you praying Indians”); Gookin, “Historical Collections,” 200 (“chief men”). Historians frequently quote Cotton Mather’s claim that Pumetacom once took a button off Eliot’s coat and declared “that he cared for his gospel, just as much as he cared for that button.” Given that Mather was writing decades after the fact, that no statement of this sort appears in contemporary documents, and that he wished to attribute Pumetacom’s loss in King Philip’s War to providential judgment, his provocative claim carries less weight than the accounts of Eliot himself and Gookin. See Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana, 514.
52 Plymouth Records, 5:70; Thomas Mayhew Sr. to Thomas Prince, Aug. 19, 1671, MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799), 196 (“subject themselves”).
53 James Walker to Thomas Prince, September 1, 1671, MHS Misc. Bound Ms., and MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 197–98 (“reporting”); Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 4. Several historians have wrongly understood Pumetacom’s charge that Sassamon deliberately mistranslated his “will” to mean that Sassamon forged a documentary will, in the sense of a personal list of final instructions. The actual meaning is that Sassamon mischaracterized Pumetacom’s wishes, probably in a land deed (of which we have many by him) or a letter (of which we have one) rather than in a will (of which we have none).
54 Lepore, Name of War, 21–47; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 63–64, 122–24; United Colonies Records, 2:362 (“endeavoring”).
55 Plymouth Records, 5:159, 167–68.
56 Jennings, Invasion of America, 288–97; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 50–53, 68–71, 118–21, 131–37.
CHAPTER 8: RUINING THANKSGIVING
1 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 4.
2 Hough, 6.
3 Hough, 7–8.
4 Hough, 8–9.
5 Hough, 9–10. On Andros, see Mary-Lou Lustig, The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, 1637–1714 (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 2002). On Pumetacom’s talk as a lament, see Drake, King Philip’s War, 72.
6 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 12–13.
7 Hough, 14–15.
8 Hough, 11 (“mischievous”; “lying”), 13 (“testified”).
9 Hough, 4.
10 Hough, 15.
11 Josiah Winslow and Thomas Hinckley, “Narrative shewing the manor of the beginning of the present Warr with the Indians of Mount hope and Pocasett,” United Colonies Records, 2:362–64 (“dismissed”); Mather, Relation of the Troubles, 74–75 (“twisting”); Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas, 2001), 99–100; Robert P. Brittain, “Cruentation in Legal Medicine and Literature,” Medical History 9, no. 1 (1965): 82–88.
12 Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 102–12; James P. Ronda and Jeanne Ronda, “The Death of John Sassamon: An Exploration in Writing New England Indian History,” American Indian Quarterly 1, no. 2 (1974): 91–102; Lepore, Name of War, 21–47; James Drake, “Symbol of a Failed Strategy: The Sassamon Trial, Political Culture, and King Philip’s War,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 19, no. 2 (1995): 111–41. On Indian reactions to imprisonment, see Ian Steele, “Shawnee Origins of Their Seven Years’ War,” Ethnohistory 53, no. 4 (2006): 657–87. On legal culture, see John M. Murrin, “Magistrates, Sinners, and a Precarious Liberty: Trial by Jury in Seventeenth-Century New England,” in David D. Hall, John M. Murrin, and Thad Tate, eds., Saints and Revolutionaries: Essays on Early American History (New York: Norton, 1984), 152–206.
13 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 5 (“confessed they three”); Increase Mather, A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New-England (1676), in Richard Slotkin and James K. Folsom, eds., So Dreadful a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War, 1676–1677 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1978), 87 (“that his father”); Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:63; Plymouth Records, 5:167 (“shot”).
14 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 4 (“hide”), 10–11 (“lying”; “prosecute”).
15 Hough, 4 (“their law”; “please”), 11 (“mischievous”); instructions from the Church at Natick to William and Anthony, August 1, 1671, MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 6 (1799): 201–3; Lepore, Name of War, 40.
16 Winslow and Hinckley, “Narrative” (“gather strangers”); United Colonies Records, 2:363 (“blow over”). See also Roger Williams to John Winthrop Jr., June 13, 1675, and Williams to Winthrop, June 27, 1675, in Williams Correspondence, 691, 699; Josiah Winslow to Leverett, July 6, 1675, Davis Papers, MHS.
17 John Brown, Swansea, to Gov. Winslow, June 15, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS.
18 Benjamin Church, Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip’s War (1716), ed. Martyn Dexter (Boston: printed by B. Green, 1865), 6–7 (“custom”).
19 Church, Entertaining Passages, 8–11.
20 Church, 12–14 (“rifle”); Martino-Trutor, “ ‘As Potent a Prince,’ ” 45–46; Josiah Winslow to Mr. Freeman, June 28, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS (“undoubted”).
21 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 24 (“priests”); Edward Rawson, The Present State of New England with Respect to the Indian War (1675), in Samuel D. Drake, ed., The Old Indian Chronicle: Being a Collection of Exceedingly Rare Tracts, Written and Published in the Time of King Philip’s War (Boston: printed by the author, 1867), 111 (“God’s day”), 126 (“caution”); Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958), 37.
22 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 17.
23 Josiah Winslow to Massachusetts, June 21, 1675, MA Archives, 67:202 (“few days”).
24 Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 50–54.
25 Leach, 62–67; Plymouth Records, 5:201–3; Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 17 (“fury”); Church, Entertaining Passages, 47; Martino-Trutor, “ ‘As Potent a Prince.’ ”
26 Church, Entertaining Passages, 50 (“many people”); John Freeman to Josiah Winslow, July 3, 1675, Winslow Family Papers II; Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 66; Daniel R. Mandell, King Philip’s War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian Sovereignty (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2010), 59, 70; Eric B. Schultz and Michael J. Tougias, King Philip’s War: The History and Legacy of America’s Forgotten Conflict (Woodstock, VT: Countryman Press, 1999), 146–47; Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., July 25, 1675, and August 2, 1675, in McIntyre and Travers, Cotton Correspondence, 111, 112–13.
27 James Cudworth to Josias Winslow, July 20, 1675 (“never”), Cudworth to Josiah Winslow, July 9/10, 1675, and John Freeman to Josiah Winslow, July 18, 1675, Winslow Papers II, MHS; William Bradford, A Letter from Major William Bradford to the Reverend John Cotton: Written at Mount Hope on July 21, 1675 (Providence: Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Rhode Island, 1914), 15–16.
28 Richard Greenwood et al., “The Battles of Nipsachuck: Research and Documentation,” National Park Service, August 2011, 51–53, Ms. in author’s possession; Nathaniel Thomas, “Account of the Fight with the Indians,” August 10, 1675, John Davis Papers, MHS.
29 Brian D. Carroll, “From Warrior to Soldier: New England Indians in the Colonial Military, 1675–1763” (PhD diss., University of Connecticut, 2009), 41, 44–45; Oberg, Uncas, 174–77; Roger Williams to John Leverett, Oct. 11, 1675, in Williams Correspondence, 705 (“long grass”); Thomas, “Account of the Fight with the Indians”; Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 75–77; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 166–68; Greenwood et al., “Battles of Nipsachuck.”
30 Wait Winthrop to John Winthrop Jr., July 9, 1675, Colonial War Series, Connecticut State Archives, Hartford (“Bay and Plymouth”); Rawson, Present State of New England, 131–32, 152–53 (“Eliot’s”); Newell, Brethren by Nature, 141–42.
31 Church, Entertaining Passages, 45–46 (“terms”); Rawson, Present State of New England, 131–32 (“perpetual”); Newell, Brethren by Nature, 158, 175–80; Linford D. Fisher, “ ‘Why Shall Wee Have Peace to Bee Made Slaves’: Indian Surrenderers during and after King Philip’s War,” Ethnohistory 64, no. 1 (2017): 91–114. On the Eells garrison, see Schultz and Tougias, King Philip’s War, 118.
32 Church, Entertaining Passages, 45–56 (“fairly” on 45–46); Newell, Brethren by Nature, 150 (“prolongation”).
33 Oberg, Uncas, 145–50; Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 69–70, 80–84; Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., November 18, 1675, in Cotton Correspondence, 119 (“innocent”); Solomon Stoddard, “An Account of the Reasons Alledged for Demanding the Armes of the Indians of Northampton and Hadley,” Yale Indian Papers, 1675.09.15.00; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:92 (“discover”), 111, 121–33 (“devil” on 120); Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 85–91; Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 114–16; Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 194; Richard Melvoin, New England Outpost: War and Society in Colonial Deerfield (New York: Norton, 1989), 99–105.
34 Daniel Gookin, “An Historical Account of the Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians in New England in the Years 1675, 1676, 1677,” Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society 2 (1836): 450.
35 Gookin, 504; Jenny Hale Pulsipher, “Massacre at Hurtleberry Hill: Christian Indians and English Authority in Metacom’s War,” WMQ 53, no. 3 (1996): 459–86.
36 Gookin, “Historical Account,” 474 (“fear”), 476 (“two evils”); Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 228 (“all the praying Indians”).
37 “The Examination and Relation of James Quannapaquait,” in Neal Salisbury, ed., The Sovereignty and Goodness of God, Together with the Faithfulness of His Promises Displayed: Being a Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson and Related Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1997), 121 (“somewhat”).
38 Gookin, “Historical Account,” 434 (“jealous”).
39 NCR, 2:4 verso (“disown”); Letter of Thomas Macy, May 9, 1676, in Peter R. Christoph and Florence A. Cristoph, eds., Files of the Provincial Secretary of New York during the Administration of Governor Sir Edmund Andros, 3 vols. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 1989), 1:365–67; Plymouth Records, 5:177–78 (“strange Indians”); Barnstable Town Records, 1:56–58, microfilm, MA Archives.
40 Simon Athearn to Governor Edmund Andros, 1675, in Charles Edward Banks, Papers Relating to Martha’s Vineyard, pp. 105–7, MHS; Conquests and Triumphs, 34–36 (“mostly”); DCD, 6:369–73 (Wampanoag version); translation in Ives Goddard and Kathleen Bragdon, eds., Native Writings in Massachusett, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988), 1:82–89.
41 Conquests and Triumphs, 34–36.
42 Indian Converts, 141–42 (“preservation”), 370; Thomas Mayhew Sr. to John Winthrop Jr., October 7, 1675, MHSC, ser. 4, vol. 7 (1865): 43 (“temporal”).
43 Frederick Freeman, The History of Cape Cod: The Annals of Barnstable County, Including the District of Mashpee, 2 vols. (Boston: printed for the author, by Geo. C. Rand & Avery, 1858), 293; Plymouth Records, 5:183, 187 (“not to depart”); Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., April 17, 1676, in Cotton Correspondence, 144–45 (“some hope”).
44 William S. Simmons, “Narragansett,” in Trigger, Northeast, 196.
45 Hough, Narrative of the Causes, 23.
46 Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 143 (“threatening”), 156; Roger Williams to John Winthrop Jr., June 27, 1675, in Williams Correspondence, 698–99.
47 Fisher and Silverman, Ninigret, 122–24; Richard Smith to John Winthrop Jr., September 3, 1675, in Daniel Berkeley Updike, Richard Smith, First English Settler of the Narragansett Country (Boston: Merrymount Press, 1937), 110–11 (“take notice”); William Harris to Joseph Williamson, Aug. 12, 1676, in Harris Papers, Collections of the Rhode Island Historical Society, vol. 10 (Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1902), 167–68.
48 Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 237; Martino-Trutor, “As Potent a Prince,” 47; Patrick M. Malone, The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1991), 99; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:58, 136.
49 Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 118–44.
50 Malone, Skulking Way of War, 67–98; “A Reinterpretation of the Attack on the Clark Garrison/RM Site Plymouth, MA,” http://
51 Drake, King Philip’s War, 4; Langdon Jr., Pilgrim, 182.
52 Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 207–37; Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, “Wattanummon’s World: Personal and Tribal Identity in the Algonquian Diaspora, c. 1660–1712,” in William Cowan, ed., Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1993), 212–24.
53 Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England, 5 vols. (Boston: W. White, 1853–54), 5:58–63 (“strange”); Mather, Brief History, 105; Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., July 25, 1675, and Aug. 2, 1675, Cotton Correspondence, 111, 112–13. On colonial New England’s crisis of conscience, see Lepore, Name of War; Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 179–206. For a critical view of colonists’ providential explanation for the war by an official from London, see Michael Leroy Oberg, Dominion and Civility: English Imperialism and Native America, 1585–1685 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1999), 113–14.
54 Silverman, Thundersticks, 112–14.
55 Charles J. Hoadly, ed., The Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut, 15 vols. (Hartford, 1850–90), 2:407 (“engage”); John Cotton Jr. to Thomas Walley, February 4, 1676, in Cotton Correspondence, 134; Church, Entertaining Passages, 51–52 (“Mohawks’ country”).
56 Oberg, Dominion and Civility, 162–63; Jennings, The Invasion of America, 314–15.
57 Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:217–19, 231, 239; I. Mather, Brief History, 128–29.
58 Thomas Hinckley to John Leverett, April 16, 1676, Davis Papers, Oversize, MHS (“Wepunuggs”); Noah Newman to John Cotton Jr., Apr. 19, 1676, in Cotton Correspondence, 148–50. On the warring Indians’ food scarcity, see Salisbury, Sovereignty and Goodness of God, 83, 85, 92–93, 105.
59 All quotes in this and the following two paragraphs come from Roger Williams to [Robert Williams?], Apr. 1, 1676, in Williams Correspondence, 721.
60 Christopher William Hannan, “ ‘After This Time of Trouble and Warr’: Crisis and Continuity in the New England Anglo-Indian Community, 1660–1725” (PhD diss., Boston College, 1999), chaps. 6–7; Jason W. Warren, Connecticut Unscathed: Victory in the Great Narragansett War, 1675–1676 (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 2014); Gookin, “Historical Account,” 434, 442; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:175–76, 250–51; Church, Entertaining Passages, 122–23; Conquests and Triumphs, 49 (“forward”); Carroll, “From Warrior to Soldier,” 49–52; Francis G. Hutchins, Mashpee: The Story of Cape Cod’s Indian Town (West Franklin, NH: Amarta Press, 1979), 55.
61 Matther, Relation of the Troubles, 133, 143 (“terror”); Silverman, Thundersticks, 117–18; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:249 (“at other times”).
62 On Church as a source, see “Benjamin Church: King of the Wild Frontier,” in Slotkin and Folsom, So Dreadfull a Judgment, 370–91; Jill Lepore, “Plymouth Rocked: Of Pilgrims, Puritans, and Professors,” New Yorker, April 24, 2006.
63 Church, Entertaining Passages, 73–87 (“convenient” on 80), 91 (“eat clams”).
64 Church, 87–91.
65 Plymouth Records, 5:201 (“secured”); Church, Entertaining Passages, 91–100; Moody to Cotton, April 1, 1677, in Cotton Correspondence.
66 Church, Entertaining Passages, 99–100; Carroll, “Warrior to Soldier,” 53–54.
67 Mandell, King Philip’s War, 112–13, 116 (“so faithfully”); Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:83, 173, 175–76 (“continued faithful”); Church, Entertaining Passages, 95; Pulsipher, “Massacre at Hurteberry Hill.”
68 Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:271–72 (“seven hundred”; “broke”); Thomas Walley to John Cotton Jr., July 18, 1676, in Cotton Correspondence, 158 (“greatest success”); William Harris to Joseph Williamson, Aug. 12, 1676, in Harris Papers, 163.
69 This and the following paragraph draw on William Harris to Sir Joseph Williamson, Aug. 12, 1676, in Harris Papers, 177; Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:183–84, 190, 191–92, 205–7, 220; Mather, Brief History, 135–36; Mandell, King Philip’s War, 113; Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 199–241, esp. 211, 221–22, 233–36; Carroll, “Warrior to Soldier,” 59.
70 Plymouth Records, 5:207, 209, 225, 244; Rhode Island Records, 2:549–50, 586; Mandell, King Philip’s War, 128; Newell, Brethren by Nature, 158, 170–71, 175–80.
71 Plymouth Records, 5:191; Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk, 248; Martin, Profits in the Wilderness, 82–83n86, 85–86; Brian D. Carroll, “The Effect of Military Service on Indian Communities in Southern New England, 1740–1763,” Early American Studies 14, no. 3 (2016): 530; A Letter from Major William Bradford, 3.
72 Church, Entertaining Passages, 138 (“ready”); Samuel Arnold and John Cotton Jr. to the Commissioners of the United Colonies, September 7, 1676, in Cotton Correspondence, 173; Lepore, Name of War, 150–54.
73 Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:264; Mather, Brief History, 138 (“horrid”).
74 Newell, Brethren by Nature, 219–21; Caroll, “From Warrior to Soldier,” 157–207; Plane, “Putting a Face on Colonization,” 140–65; Conquests and Triumphs, 42; MA Archives, 30:227; DCD, 1:3. For the Sakonnets’ immediate aftermath of the war, see Plymouth Records, 5:209, 215, 224–25, 239, 248; Rhode Island Land Evidence (Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1921), 1:175; John Smith to Josiah Winslow, October 23, 1678, Winslow Family Papers II, MHS.
75 Church, Entertaining Passages, 151–52; Newell, Brethren by Nature, 150–51.
76 Mather, Brief History, 189 (“marvelous”); Church, Entertaining Passages, 151–52; Mandell, King Philip’s War, 130; Lepore, Name of War, 150–54, Newell, Brethren by Nature, 150–51.
77 Hubbard, Narrative of the Troubles, 1:268; Mather, Brief History, 139.
CHAPTER 9: “DAYS OF MOURNING AND NOT JOY”
1 In The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity, Jill Lepore examines the origins of these themes. Even the classic study by Douglas Edward Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War, sometimes traffics in them (see p. 24) while raising the possibility that “Philip’s eager and hot-blooded young warriors were dragging him, reluctant, into open violence and hostilities” (36).
2 My thinking here has been influenced by Ramona Louise Peters, “Community Development Planning with a Native American Tribe in a Colonized Environment: Mashpee Wampanoag, a Modern Native American Tribe in Southern New England Seeking to Maintain Traditional Values and Cultural Integrity” (MS thesis, California School of Professional Psychology, 2003).
3 Richard Lebaron Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in this Plymouth Colony Township, vol. 1 (Rehoboth, MA: privately printed [by the Rumford Press], 1945), 11, provides the figure for the English based on a census count of families and an estimate of six people per family. In 1685 Plymouth authorities tallied 1,439 Wampanoags over the age of twelve within the colony and judged there to be three times as many children as adults (defined as those over the age of twelve). See Thomas Hinckley to William Stoughton and Joseph Dudley, April 2, 1685, Hinckley Papers, MHSC, 4th ser., vol. 5 (1861): 133. On other themes, see Edward Byers, The Nation of Nantucket: Society and Politics in an Early American Commercial Center, 1660–1820 (Boston: Northeastern Univ. Press, 1987), 60; Silverman, Faith and Boundaries, 285–87; Drake, King Philip’s, 169–70; Baker and Reid, “Amerindian Power in the Early Modern Northeast”; Collin G. Calloway, The Western Abenakis of Vermont, 1600–1800: War, Migration, and the Survival of an Indian People (Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1990); Evan Haefeli and Kevin Sweeney, Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 2003).
4 Linford Fisher, The Indian Great Awakening: Religion and the Shaping of Native Cultures in Early America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2012).
5 Grindal Rawson and Samuel Danforth, “Account of an Indian Visitation, A.D. 1698,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 10 (1809): 129–30; Indian Converts, 129, 130, 132–33 (“pious”), 142–44 (“faithful”), 177, 232–33 (“worthy”; “merciful”), 243–45; New England Company Ledger, 1680–1719, MHS, p. 60; Increase Mather, A Brief Relation of the State of New England (1689), in William H. Whitmore, ed., The Andros Tracts: Being a Collection of Pamphlets and Official Papers, 3 vols. (Boston: Prince Society, 1868–74), 2:165–66, 168 (“great”).
6 Conquests and Triumphs, 52–68; John Cotton Jr. to Increase Mather, March 23, 1693, Cotton Correspondence, 429–31; John Cotton Jr. Diary, entry for July 22, 1678, MHS; Rawson and Danforth, “Indian Visitation,” 129–34; Thomas Hinckley to William Stoughton and Joseph Dudley, April 2, 1685, Hinckley Papers, MHSC, 4th ser., vol. 5 (1861): 133–34; Gideon Hawley to Samuel Cooper, Dec. 31, 1770, Ayer MS 374, Newberry Library, Chicago; Nickerson, Early Encounters, 174, 177; Josiah Paine, A History of Harwich, Barnstable County, Massachusetts, 1620–1800 (Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1937), 406–7; Increase Mather, A Letter About the Present State of Christianity among the Christianized Indians of New England (Boston: T. Green, 1705), 4–5, 5–6; Cotton Mather, A Brief Account of the Evangelical Work among the Christianized Indians of New England, appendix to his Just Commemorations: The Death of Good Men, Considered (Boston: printed by B. Green, 1715), 49–50 (“thousands”); C. Mather, Concerning the Essays that are made, for the Propagation of Religion among the Indians, appendix to his Bonifacius (Boston: printed by B. Green, 1710), 195–99; John W. Ford, ed., Some Correspondence Between the Governors and Treasurers of the New England Company in London and the Commissioners of the United Colonies in America (London: privately printed, 1896), 84; Experience Mayhew, A Brief Account of the State of the Indians on Martha’s Vineyard, appendix to his Discourse Shewing that God Dealeth with Men as with Reasonable Creatures (Boston: printed by B. Green, 1720), 2–3, 5; Experience Mayhew to Roland Cotton, July 1699, Misc. Bound MSS, MHS; NE Co. Mss. 7956, p. 103, 7955/2, pp. 100, 109–10; CPGNE, box 1, February 25, 1731.
7 An Account of Monument Ponds Indians taken by Josiah Cotton their Minister in the year 1710, Curwen Papers, box 2, folder 1, AAS (“further end”); Gideon Hawley Journal, entry for May 5, 1777, Congregational Library, Boston; “Report of a Committee on the State of the Indians in Mashpee and Parts Adjacent,” MHSC, 2nd ser., vol. 3 (1815): 12–17 (“celebrate” on 12–13). On Christian Indian belief and practice, see David J. Silverman, “Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha’s Vineyard,” WMQ 62, no. 2 (2005): 141–74; Douglas L. Winiarski, “A Question of Plain Dealing: Josiah Cotton, Native Christians, and the Quest for Security in Eighteenth-Century Plymouth County,” NEQ 77, no. 3 (2004): 368–413; Linford Fisher, “Native Americans, Conversion, and Christian Practice in Colonial New England,” Harvard Theological Review 102, no. 1 (2009): 101–24; Neal Salisbury, “Embracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America,” Ethnohistory 50, no. 2 (2003): 247–59. On frolics, see Josiah Cotton Memoirs, p. 122, MHS.
8 Increase Mather, A Letter About the Present State of Christianity, 5 (“Christianized”), 11 (“foundation”); Rawson and Danforth, “Indian Visitation,” 129–34.
9 Rawson and Danforth, “Indian Visitation,” 129–34; “An Account of Monument Ponds Indians”; Conquests and Triumphs, 37. On farming reforms, see Silverman, “ ‘We Choose to Be Bounded’: Native American Animal Husbandry in Colonial New England,” WMQ 60, no. 3 (2003): 531–32; M. Halsey Thomas, ed., The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674–1729, 2 vols. (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973), 1:465; E. Mayhew, Brief Account, 11–12. On conversion narratives, see C. Mather, Concerning the Essays, 51–52; I. Mather, C. Mather, and Nehemiah Walker to William Ashhurst, March 2, 1705, Some Correspondence, 86–87.
10 Conquests and Triumphs, 33 (“disparagement”); Indian Converts, 91 (“hardly be persuaded”; “dishearten”); E. Mayhew, Mankind by Nature, 25 (“no worse”). On Indians as royal subjects, see Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King. On Indians’ legal status, Hermes, “ ‘Justice Will Be Done Us’ ”; Yasuhide Kawashima, Puritan Justice and the Indian: White Man’s Law in Massachusetts, 1630–1763 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1986). On civilized claims to the land, see Silverman, “ ‘We Choose to Be Bounded’ ”; Greer, Property and Dispossession.
11 Bangs, Town Records of Eastham, 205–6; MA Archives, 113:607 (“distressed”).
12 Franklin B. Hough, ed., Papers Relating to the Island of Nantucket … While under the Colony of New York (Albany: [J. Munsell], 1865), 107–8 (“forbear”); Elizabeth A. Little, “Sachem Nickanoose of Nantucket and the Grass Content: Part 2,” Historic Nantucket 24 (1976): 28 (“forcing”); NCR, 1:3, 113, 2:7; Byers, Nation of Nantucket, 73; Alexander Starbuck, The History of Nantucket, County, Island and Town (Boston: C. E. Goodspeed & Co., 1924), 139; MA Archives, 31:147.
13 DCD, 6:463–64; DCCR, 1:243, 244, 246, 247, 249; Silverman, Faith and Boundaries, 149–54; MA Archives, 31:129 (“flee”); Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1996), 117–63.
14 Plymouth Records, 6:159–60; Hugo A. Dubuque, Fall River Indian Reservation (Fall River, MA, 1907), 3–4, 10, 28 (“serviceable”), 61; Earle Report, 78–79; Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 51; Newell, Brethren by Nature, 219–21.
15 NE Co. MSS, 8004; DCD, 1:35, 349, 2:344, 4:128; Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 1:96–97; MA Archives, 31:10.
16 MA Archives, 31:17, 32:268–70; The Acts and Resolves, Public and Private, of the Province of the Massachusetts-Bay, 21 vols. (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1869–1922), 2:723, 724, 732, 8:118, 9:29.
17 MA Archives, 31:17 (“not true”); Thomas Walcut Papers, 1671–1866, file 4, MHS; NE Co. Mss., 7953, p. 17 (“threatened”); Some Correspondence, 94 (“scattered”).
18 NE Co. Mss., 7953, pp. 69, 70, 7955/2, pp. 22–23.
19 Nickerson, Early Encounters, 184–85; Paine, Harwich, 191, 199; Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 54 (“use forever”).
20 Acts and Resolves …, Public and Private, of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, 10:ch.88:p.464; Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 75; CPGNE, box 2, entry for July 16, 1741; MA Archives, 31:320–22.
21 Banks, Papers Relating to Martha’s Vineyard, unbound vol., pp. 65–71 (160 acres), MHS; DCD, 1:123, 4:173, 6:97 (“Legall Town meeting”), 8:196; Suffolk Files, no. 43637, p. 81, no. 69495, Mass. State Archives; Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 1:134–35; MA Archives, 31:19, 32:386a (“town people”).
22 MA Archives, 33:222; O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees; Mandell, Behind the Frontier.
23 Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 1:370–73; Jessie Little Doe Baird from the Anne Makepeace documentary, We Still Live Here: Âs Nutayuneân (2010).
24 Kawashima, Puritan Law, 32–35; Suffolk Files no. 29178 (“devil”); Superior Court of Judicature, Recs., Reel no. 3, p. 105, Mass. State Archives; MA Archives 31:523–24, 550, 551, 643 (“before”), 645, 32:424 (“good as right”), 356; Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 1:173–75 (“poorer”); Petition of the Mashpee Indians to the Commissioners of Indian Affairs, Aug. 4, 1757, Hawley Letters, MHS (“more hurt”; “hearken”).
25 Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 176–77 (all quotes); Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 157–58; Campisi, Mashpee Indians, 84–85.
26 Conquests and Triumphs, 42–43.
27 Plymouth Records, 5:270, 6:98, 108, 116; Francis G. Hutchins, Mashpee: The Story of Cape Cod’s Indian Town (West Franklin, NH: Amarta Press, 1979), 60–61; DCR, 1:59, 61–62.
28 Kawashima, Puritan Law, 32; MA Archives, 30:491 (“young men”); Paine, Harwich, 404–5; E. Mayhew to Cotton Mather, Aug. 28, 173, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS (“disgusted”).
29 David Thomas Konig, ed., Plymouth Court Records, 1686–1859, 16 vols. (Wilmington, DE: M. Glazier/Pilgrim Society, 1978), 1:228, 247, 268, 273, 294, 2:26, 31, 41–42, 44, 66, 79, 81, 86, 87, 82, 91, 98–99, 109, 118, 155; DCGSP, 866–67; NCD 3:171; Newell, Brethren by Nature, 211–36.
30 Daniel Vickers, Farmers and Fishermen: Two Centuries of Work in Essex County, Massachusetts, 1630–1830 (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1994); Margaret Ellen Newell, From Dependency to Independence: Economic Revolution in New England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1998); James E. Wadsworth, ed., The World of Credit in Colonial Massachusetts: James Richards and His Daybook, 1692–1711 (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 2017); NCD, 1:110 (“Judges and Jurors”).
31 DCCR, 1:100, 143, 144. See also “1723 Indenture, Alice Sachemus, Indian Woman,” http://
32 Samuel Moody, Summary Account of the Life and Death of Joseph Quasson, Indian (Boston: printed for S. Gerrish, 1726); Covenant of Indenture, April 28, 1728, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS; “Indenture of Robin Meserick,” July 6, 1737, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS.
33 Petition of Simon Popmonet, George Wapock, and John Terkins, Mashpee Indians to the Governor of the Province of Massachusetts, May 24, 1700, https://
34 Zaccheus Macy, “A Short Journal of the First Settlement of the Island of Nantucket,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 3 (1794): 161; Daniel F. Vickers, “Maritime Labor in Colonial Massachusetts: A Case Study of the Essex Cod Fishery and the Whaling Industry of Nantucket, 1630–1775” (PhD diss., Princeton University, 1981), 150–57; Richard C. Kugler, “The Whale Oil Trade, 1750–1775,” in Philip Chadwick Foster Smith, ed., Seafaring in Colonial Massachusetts (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1980), 153–73; Byers, Nation of Nantucket, chaps. 4, 7; Alexander Starbuck, History of the American Whale Fishery: From Its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876, 2 vols. (1878) (New York: pub. by the author, 1964), 1:1–42; J. Hector St. John de Crèvecour, Letters from an American Farmer (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1957), 115; “A Summer in New England: Paper One,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 124 (June 1860): 9 (“greater variety”); Daniel Ricketson, The History of New Bedford, Bristol County, Massachusetts (New Bedford: published by the author, 1858), 58, 59, 72, 300–302; James Freeman, “Notes on New Bedford,” MHSC, 2nd ser., vol. 3 (1815): 18.
35 Brian D. Carroll, “ ‘Savages’ in the Service of Empire: Native American Soldiers in Gorham’s Rangers, 1744–1762,” NEQ 85, no. 3 (2012): 383–429; Carroll, “Effect of Military Service”; Carroll, “From Warrior to Soldier,” i, 68, 260; Richard R. Johnson, “The Search for a Usable Indian: An Aspect of the Defense of Colonial New England,” Journal of American History 64, no. 3 (1977): 622–51; Colin G. Calloway, “New England Algonkians in the American Revolution,” in Peter Benes, ed., Algonkians of New England: Past and Present (Boston: Boston Univ., 1993), 51–62.
36 Carroll, “Warrior to Soldier,” 95–98, 101.
37 Byers, Nation of Nantucket, 99. See also Daniel Vickers, “The First Whalemen of Nantucket,” WMQ 40, no. 4 (1983): 560–83; Kelly K. Chaves, “Before the First Whalemen: The Emergence and Loss of Indigenous Maritime Autonomy in New England, 1672–1740,” NEQ 87, no. 1 (2014): 46–71; Mark A. Nicholas, “The Mashpee Wampanoags of Cape Cod, the Whalefishery, and Seafaring’s Impact on Community Development,” American Indian Quarterly 26, no. 2 (2002): 165–97; Starbuck, History of Nantucket, 154 (“How”).
38 Hawley Journal, entry for Dec. 9, 1760, Congregational Library (“First”); PLP, Acts 1804, chap. 84 (“Our men”).
39 Indian Converts, 200 (“pressed”); Carroll, “Warrior to Soldier,” 95–96, 111–15 (“recruitment” on 113), 232, 259, 286, 310 (“ventured”); MA Archives, 1:576 (“never been”).
40 Wait Winthrop, Some Meditations Concerning our Honourable Gentlemen and Fellow-Soldiers, in Pursuit of Those Barbarous Natives in the Narragansit-Country (New London, CT: reprinted at N. London [by Timothy Green], 1721) (“swarm”); David J. Silverman, Red Brethren: The Brothertown and Stockbridge Indians and the Problem of Race in Early America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 2010), 79; Daniel R. Mandell, “ ‘The Indian’s Pedigree’ (1794): Indians, Folklore, and Race in Southern New England,” WMQ 61, no. 3 (2004): 521–38.
41 Alden T. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experience (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1995), 21 (“too apt”); Stephen Badger, “Historical and Characteristic Traits of the American Indians in General, and Those of Natick in Particular,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 5 (1798): 39–40 (“considered”); Richard J. Boles, “Dividing the Faith: The Rise of Racially Segregated Northern Churches, 1730–1850” (PhD diss., George Washington University, 2013).
42 In a lengthy literature, see Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind, rev. ed. (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1988); Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978); Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1981); Dippie, Vanishing Indian.
43 William Tudor, Letters on the Eastern States (New York: Kirk & Mercein, 1820), 236, 244 (“hopeless”); “A Visit to Martha’s Vineyard,” Atlantic Monthly 4 (September 1859): 292–93 (“exchanging”); O’Brien, Firsting and Lasting.
44 William Apess, “The Experiences of Five Christian Indians,” in Barry O’Connell, ed., On Our Own Ground: The Complete Writings of William Apess, a Pequot (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1992), 118; Report of the Commissioners, 14.
45 On population, see U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1970), II, 1168, 1170 (Ser. Z 2-8, Ser. Z 24-132); Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 163; James W. Bradley et al., Historic and Archaeological Resources of Cape Cod and the Islands: A Framework for Preservation Decisions (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Commission, 1986), 92. On deaths at sea, see “List of Vessels Lost,” notebook A, file 18, Macy Family Papers, Nantucket Historical Association; Crèvecour, Letters from an American Farmer, 175–76; Starbuck, History of the American Whaling Fishery, 1:33, 34, 77, 170, 171. On 1730, see Boston News-Letter, no. 1400, November 19, 1730 (“scarce”); Nickerson, “Some Lower Cape Indians” (1933), p. 119, MS 52, Sturgis Library, Barnstable, MA. On smallpox in Yarmouth, see Boston News-Letter, no. 1763, Jan. 2, 1738. On Mashpee, see CPGNE, box 1, entry for Nov. 10, 1738, and box 2, entry for Oct. 23, 1738. On yellow fever, see Letter of Jasper Manduit, Jan. 5, 1765, box 1, CPGNA; Boston News-Letter, no. 3127, Jan. 26, 1764; Newport Mercury, no. 283, February 6, 1764; Boston Evening Post, no. 1482, Jan. 30, 1764; Elizabeth A. Little, “The Nantucket Indian Sickness,” in William Cowan, ed., Papers of the Twenty-First Algonquian Conference (Ottawa: Carleton Univ. Press, 1990), 181–96; Edouard A. Stackpole, “The Fatal Indian Sickness of Nantucket that Decimated the Island Aborigines,” Historic Nantucket 23 (1975): 8–13; Donald Pelrine, “The Indian Sickness in the Town of Miacomet,” Historic Nantucket 39 (1991): 67–69; “Account of Those Who Died at Mashpee in 1763,” Gideon Hawley Journal, Congregational Library. On the Revolution, see Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities (New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1995), 34; Campisi, Mashpee Indians, 88; Mashpee Births and Deaths for 1778, Hawley Journal, Congregational Library.
46 On 1815, see Report of a Committee on the State of the Indians in Mashpee, MHSC, 2nd ser., vol. 3 (1815): 14; Freeman, “Description of Dukes County,” 93–94. On these places before the war, see Report of Elisha Tupper, Aug. 7, 1757, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS; Franklin Bowditch Dexter, ed., Extracts from the Itineraries and Other Miscellanies of Ezra Stiles, D.D., LL.D., 1755–1794 (New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1916), 59, 118; Petition of Indians at Potonumecut, November 24, 1765, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS; and the recollections of Gideon Hawley in his letter to the General Court, Jan. 29, 1794, Hawley Journal, Congregational Library. On hamlets, see Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 172–73, 174; Mandell, Tribe, Race, History: Native Americans in Southern New England (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2008); Report of the Commissioners to determine the title of certain lands claimed by Indians, Governor’s Council Files, box Jan. 1859–Dec. 1860, Mass. State Archives; Report of the Commissioners; Earle Report. On Mashpee, see Hawley to Rev. Peter Thatcher, Aug. 5, 1800, Society for Propagating the Gospel among the Indians and Others in North America, Records, 1791–1875, Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA (hereafter SPGNA), box 2, folder 16. On Herring Pond, see A. Williams to John Eliot, June 20, 1778, CPGNE, box 3, folder 61. On Aquinnah, see Freeman, “Description of Dukes County,” 93–94. For an 1827 census, see D. L. Child, H. Stebbins, and D. Fellows Jr., Report on Condition of the Native Indians and Descendants of Native Indians, in This Commonwealth, Massachusetts House Report No. 68 (Boston: printed by True and Greene, 1827). On Indians in urban “colored” neighborhoods, see Daniel R. Mandell, “Shifting Boundaries of Race and Ethnicity: Indian-Black Intermarriage in Southern New England, 1760–1880,” Journal of American History 85, no. 2 (1998): 466–501; Jason Mancini, “Beyond Reservation: Indian Survivance in Southern New England and Eastern Long Island, 1713–1861” (PhD diss., University of Connecticut, 2009); Russell Lawrence Barsh, “ ‘Colored’ Seamen in the New England Whaling Industry: An Afro-Indian Consortium,” in James F. Brooks, ed. Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America (Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 2002), 76–107; Petition of Essex Boston, Peter Boston, and Jeffrey Sammons, May 17, 1822, SPGNA, box 1, (“colored”).
47 Hawley to Andrew Eliot, July 18, 1787, Hawley Journal, Congregational Library (“asylum”); Hawley to Rev. Peter Thatcher, Aug. 5, 1800, SPGNA, box 2, folder 16. See also Moses Howwoswee, Account of the Indians Resident at Gay Head, March 19, 1792, Misc. Mss., MHS; A List of Children Under Eighteen Years of Age, the 14th Day of May, 1798; PLP, Resolves 1789, chap. 57; Gay Head Report, 37, 39; Report of the Commissioners, 62.
48 ULRIA, box 2, file 9419-1824; Report of the Commissioners, 20–21 (“no heart-burning”; “communists”); Tudor, Letters on the Eastern States, 243–44; Earle Report, 33, 42; Mass. Acts and Resolves, 1845, chap. 22, 522–23; box 4S, env. 25, Martha’s Vineyard Museum; “Visit to the Elizabeth Islands,” 318; Ebenezer Skiff to Frederick Baylies, May 3, 1823, Misc. Bound Mss., MHS; Leavitt Thaxter to John Milton Earle, February 3, 1860, John Milton Earle Papers, box 2, file 2, AAS.
49 Zachariah Howwoswee Papers, file 1777 My 12-Ag 28, file 1784 Ap. 16-22, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI; Petition and Address of the Indians of Mashpee [n.d.], Hawley Journal, Congregational Library (“Negroes and English”); Moses Howwoswee, Account of the Indians Resident at Gay Head, March 19, 1792, Misc. Mss., MHS; Petition of “the Proprietors, Nation, and Tribe of Gay Head,” May 18, 1816, ULRIA, 8029-1816 (4); “Enumeration of Proprietors and Non-Proprietors (Negroes of Mashpee),” Nov. 1832, GIP, folder 13.
50 PLP, Acts 1804, chap. 84; Report of the Commissioners, 88 (“not right”); “Zacheus Howwoswee to John Milton Earle, Aug. 25, 1859,” Earle Papers, box 2, file 3, AAS; Earle Report, 44–45; Petition of Christiantown, Dec. 25, 1823, ULRIA, box 2, folder: House Unpassed 9419-1824; Resolve on the Petition of Hannah Cappen, Resolves-1822, Ch. 22, PLP; Petition of Benjamin Allen, February 11, 1850, ULRIA, box 2, folder SU 13034-1850 (4) (“arose”); Petition of the Indians of Chappaquiddick, May 25, 1826, Acts-1827, Ch. 114, PLP (“difficulties”).
51 Report of the Commissioners, 26; GIP, box 2, file 13; Howwoswee to John Milton Earle, 27 Jan. 1860,” Earle Papers, box 2, file 3, AAS (“we the proprietors”); Bird, Griswold, and Weekes, Report of the Commissioners, 16 (“liberty”); Earle Report, 20. See also the interview between the Mashpee women Anne Foxx and Joan Tavares Avant, ca. 1950, in Senier, Dawnland Voices, 470–72.
52 E. Mayhew, Brief Account, 9–10 (“much better”); Samuel Sewall to William Ashhurst, October 6, 1724, NE Co. Recs., 7955/2, p. 10 (“unless”); Goddard and Bragdon, Native Writings, 1:179 (“no need”); “At a meeting of the Indians in Mashpee, July 28, 1754,” Hawley Letters, MHS (“did not understand”); “Report of a Committee on the State of the Indians in Mashpee,” MHSC, 1st ser., vol. 10 (1815): 13 (“fond”); Boston News-Letter, no. 3351, December 24, 1767.
53 Hawley to R.D.S., August 1802, Savage Papers, MHS (“English language”); Frederick Baylies, Names and Ages of the Indians on Martha’s Vineyard, Jan. 1, 1823, Shattuck Collection, Mss. A/S53, NEHGS (“six”); Samuel Davis Papers, uncatalogued, May 1841, MHS (“infancy”).
54 Edward S. Burgess, “The Old South Road of Gay Head,” Dukes County Intelligencer 12 (1970): 22.
55 Patrick Wolfe, “Land, Labor, and Difference: Elementary Structures of Race,” American Historical Review 106, no. 3 (2001): 866–905.
56 Report of Joseph Thaxter and Federick Baylies, September 22, 1818, GIP, box 3, folder 15 (“pure”); Indians on Martha’s Vineyard, Shattuck Collection, Mss. A/S53, folder 1HA, NEHGS (“probable”); Report of the Commissioners, 6 (“admixture”); Report of a Committee Appointed to Investigate the Condition of the Indians, March 1, 1827, PLP, Acts 1827, chap. 114 (“full blood”); “A Visit to Martha’s Vineyard,” Atlantic Monthly 4 (1859): 292 (“half-breeds”); Christine Tracey Grabowski, “Coiled Intent: Federal Acknowledgment Policy and the Gay Head Wampanoags” (PhD diss., City University of New York, 1994), 295 (“monig”).
57 “Report on the care of Holden Wordell as Guardian of the Troy Indians, May 15, 1845,” Governor’s Council Files, box May 1845–Jan. 1846, Mass. State Archives (“kindness”); Donald M. Nielsen, “The Mashpee Indian Revolt of 1833,” NEQ 58, no. 3 (1985): 500 (“do not believe”); GIP, box 2, folder 1, MA Archives (“free and equal”); Apess, Indian Nullification of the Unconstitutional Laws of Massachusetts Relative to Mashpee (1835), in O’Connell, On Our Own Ground, 163–274; Philip F. Gura, The Life of William Apess, Pequot (Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2015), 77–99; Mandell, Tribe, Race, History, 96–103.
58 Joanna Brooks, ed., The Collected Writings of Samson Occoum, Mohegan: Leadership and Literature in Eighteenth-Century Native America (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006).
59 Apess, Eulogy on King Philip (1836), in O’Connell, On Our Own Ground, 278, 280.
60 Apess, 305–6.
61 Apess, 286.
62 Campisi, Mashpee, 105.
63 Morse, Report to the Secretary of War, 69; Daniel Wrighte to Adlen Bradford, April 9, 1839, Andrews-Eliot Coll., MHS; Bird, Griswold, and Weekes, Report of the Commissioners, 7 (“pictures”), 9–10, 14–16, 18–19, 20–21; B. G. Marchant to J. M. Earle, August 27, 1859, Earle Papers, box 2, file 3, AAS; Earle Report, 17, 18, 26–27, 36; Albert C. Koch, Journey through a Part of the United States, trans. and ed. Ernst A. Stadler (Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univ. Press, 1972), 16; Glover and McBride, “Old Ways and New Ways,” 15; B. G. Marchant to J. M. Earle, September 17, 1859, and Leavitt Thaxter to John Milton Earle, February 3, 1860, Earle Papers, box 2, file 3; Report of the Select Committee of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in North America (Cambridge, MA, 1861), 21, 24; Vineyard Gazette, June 1, 1848, vol. 3, no. 4; Wrighte to Bradford, April 9, 1839, SPGNA, Recs., box 6, MHS (“parents”); Gay Head Town Records, 1858–1866, box 174, env. S1, Martha’s Vineyard Museum; Report on Account of the Commissioners … for the Herring Pond Indians, March 20, 1839, Governor’s Council Files, box June 1838–March 1839, Mass. State Archives; Report of the Guardians of the Herring Pond Indians, March 1840, GIP, box 2, folder 3; Report of the Guardians of the Troy Indians, 1857, GIP, box 3, folder 11; House Report 46 (1849); Earle Report.
64 Bird, Griswold, and Weekes, Report of the Commissioners, 11 (“feel”); Earle Report, 13 (“vague”), 24 (“shrewder”).
65 Gay Head Report, 28 (“exist”); Petition of Aaron Cooper, Thomas Jeffers, and Isaac D. Rose, Selectmen and Treasurer of the Gay Head Indians … February 4, 1869, PLP, Acts 1870, chap. 213 (“incorporated”); Plane and Button, “Massachusetts Indian Enfranchisement Act”; D. Elliotte Draegor, “Losing Ground: Land Loss among the Mashantucket Pequot and the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribes in the Nineteenth Century” (PhD diss., University of Connecticut, 2009), 82–94.
66 Mandell, Tribe, Race, History, 218–30; Dubuque, Fall River Reservation.
67 Earle Report; Grabowski, “Coiled Intent,” 320; Hutchins, Mashpee, 142; Campisi, Mashpee, 119–50; Draegor, “Losing Ground,” 129, 138–39, 156, 158.
68 Gabrowski, “Coiled Intent,” 278 (“always”). These sentiments cut through Levitas, “No Boundary Is a Boundary”; Campisi, Mashpee; Starna, “ ‘We’ll All Be Together Again,’ ” 3–12; and the narratives accompanying the Gay Head Wampanoag and Mashpee Wampanoag petitions for federal recognition.
69 Campisi, Mashpee, 130–38; Ann McMullen, “What’s Wrong with This Picture? Context, Conversion, Survival, and the Development of Regional Native Cultures and Pan-Indianism in Southeastern New England,” in Weinstein, Enduring Traditions, 123–50.
70 Campisi, Mashpee; and Grabowski, “Coiled Intent.”
71 James Clifford, “Identity in Mashpee,” in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1988), 217–48.
72 Clifford, “Identity in Mashpee”; Smith and Warrior, Like a Hurricane; Cornell, Return of the Native; Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal.
73 Administrative Policies and Procedures of the Coalition of Eastern Native Americans, Inc., CENA Records, folder 1973, National Museum of the American Indian Cultural Resources Center, Suitland, MD.
74 Campisi, Mashpee; Grabowski, “Coiled Intent”; Starna, “ ‘We’ll All be Together Again.’ ” For local coverage of the Gay Head Wampanoags’ federal recognition, see John Robinson, “US Recognizes Wampanoag Indians as Tribe,” Boston Globe, February 5, 1987; Steven Marantz, “Wampanoags See Better Days Ahead after Ruling,” Boston Globe, February 6, 1987; Elaine Lembo, “Historic Ruling Grants Gay Head Indians Federal Recognition,” Vineyard Gazette, February 12, 1987. On Mashpee, see Andrew Ryan, “Mashpee Tribe Wins Federal Recognition,” Boston Globe, February 16, 2007; Jason Kolnos, “A Nation Reborn: The Mashpee Wampanoag Indian Tribe Gets Federal Recognition after a Years-Long Battle,” Cape Cod Times, February 15, 2007.
75 Local newspapers, the Cape Cod Times, the Vineyard Gazette, and the Vineyard Times, regularly cover these developments. These issues can also be traced from the perspective of Mashpee tribal authorities in the official newsletter, Mittark: https://
76 The story of Baird and her language work is treated on the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project website: http://
77 “Wampanoag Massasoit Returns to Grave,” Nashauonk Mittark, May 2017, https://
EPILOGUE: TOWARD A DAY WITH LESS MOURNING
1 “Native Americans Marking Thanksgiving with Day of Mourning,” Associated Press, November 23, 2017, https://
2 Quoted in Meg Anderson, “How to Talk to Kids About Thanksgiving,” NPR, November 25, 2015, https://
3 “Wampanoag on Thanksgiving,” Many Hoops, http://
4 Amanda Morris, “Teaching Thanksgiving in a Socially Responsible Way,” Teaching Tolerance, November 10, 2015, https://
5 Paula Peters, “Cultural Lives Matter,” Dawnland Voices 2.0: Indigenous Writing from New England and the Northeast, https://
6 “Tribe Gives Thanks at Seventh Annual Native American Thanks Giving,” Nashauonk Mittark, December 2016, 7, https://
7 Paula Peters, “Wampanoag Reflections,” in Senier, Dawnland Voices, 479.
8 “October 19, 1998 Settlement,” United American Indians of New England, www