Notes
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES
EHD English Historical Documents, vol. 1, c.500-1042, 2nd edn, edited by Dorothy Whitelock, General editor David C. Douglas (London and New York 1979).
KHLNM Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder fra vikingtid til reformasjonstid, in 22 volumes. General editor John Danstrup (Copenhagen 1980-82).
Rundata Rundata is the name of the joint Nordic database for runic inscriptions at
http://www.nordiska.uu.se/forskn/samnord.htm. This was started at the University of Uppsala on 1 January 1993 with the aim of assembling in a single database every known Nordic runic inscription in the Scandinavian countries and beyond. The database currently contains some 6,000 inscriptions. References are given in the form A 123, where A indicates either the province of Sweden in which the stone was found or, if outside Sweden, the country, and 123 its serial number within the system. All inscriptions are given in transliterated and normalized forms, as well as in English translation. The database can be downloaded and is fully searchable.
A magazine called Viking Heritage is referred to several times in these Notes. For a number of years this exemplary mixture of the scholarly and the popular was published by the University of Gotland, Visby, under the editorship of Professor Dan Carlsson. Regrettably, it had to cease publication in 2005.
INTRODUCTION
1 . Quoted in
Vikingtiden som 1800-tallskonstruksjon by Jørgen Haavards holm (Oslo 2004: 38).
2 . ‘The Viking Age - which period are we referring to?’ by Sven Rosborn, in
Viking Heritage, 1 (2005), p. 28.
3 . ‘Limits of Viking influence in Wales’, by Mark Redknap, in
British Archaeology 40 (December 1998, 40).
4 . ‘The Viking mind or in pursuit of the Viking’, by Anthony Faulkes, in
Saga-Book, journal of the Viking Society for Northern Research, vol. XXXI (University College, London 2007: 47).
5 . Per Sveaas Andersen in
Forum Medievale, no. 5, Oslo (June 2004: 51).
6 .
Rundata lists twelve.
7 . Like most other Viking Age monuments, the stone takes its name from the place where it now stands, or where it was originally sited.
8 . Finn Hødnebø in
Proceedings of the Tenth Viking Congress (Oslo 1987: 50).
9 . For a critique of the revisionist view, see David Dumville,
The Churches of North Britain in the First Viking Age (Whithorn 1997: 9-14).
10 . ‘Traditionen om Gange Rolf’ by Ebbe Hertzberg, in
Rikssamling og Kristendom, ed. Andreas Holmsen and Jarle Simensen (Oslo 1967: 36-7).
11 .
Skalk - Nyt om Gammelt, 5 (October 2006), Cover text.
CHAPTER 1 THE OSEBERG SHIP
1 .
Aftenposten (28 October 2007). Report by Cato Guhnfeldt.
2 .
Hva Oseberghaugen gjemte, by A. Ljono (Oslo 1967: 11).
3 . What follows is based on ‘Gåten Oseberg’, by Terje Gansum, in
Levende Historie no. 6 (2004).
4 .
Aftenposten (2 April 2006: 2).
5 .
Osebergdronningens grav, Vår arkeologiske nasjonalskatt i nytt lys, ed. Arne Emil Christensen, Anne Stine Ingstad and Bjørn Myhre (Oslo 1992).
6 . Although the fact that both had beds and were buried in the same chamber does not tally with the social status accorded the slave in Viking Age society.
7 . Laszlo Berczelly in
Aftenposten (9 April 2006: 2).
8 .
The Saga of the Jomsvikings, trans. Lee M. Hollander (Austin 1990: 109).
10 . Saxo Grammaticus,
The History of the Danes,
Books I-IX, ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson, trans. Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 31).
11 .
Hva Oseberghaugen gjemte, op. cit., p. 19.
CHAPTER 2 THE CULTURE OF NORTHERN HEATHENDOM
1 .
Fornnordisk mytologi enligt Eddans lärdomsdikter, by Lars Magnar Enoksen (Lund 2004: 22).
2 . A suggestive twist to Snorri’s tale of tribal wandering from the south has been the identification of the DNA of the younger of the two Oseberg women as belonging to haploid group U7, which is rare in Europe but common in Iran and the region around the Black Sea (‘Uskadd ut av kisten’, Schrödingers katt, NRK 12.09.2007).
3 . My interpretation of the basic structure outlined here owes much to Gro Stensland’s
Eros og død i norrøne myter (Oslo 1997).
4 .
Poems of the Vikings, trans. Patricia Terry (Indianapolis 1978: 64).
5 .
Fornnordisk mytologi, p. 133.
6 .
The Poetic Edda, trans. and introd. Carolyne Larrington (Oxford 1996: 34).
7 .
Poems of the Vikings, op. cit., p. 6.
8 . ‘Vikingenes stjernebildet’, by Jonas Persson, in
Astronomi, April 2004, p. 17.
9 .
Star Names, their Lore and Meaning, by Richard Hinckley Allen (New York 1963: 313).
10 .
KHLNM, vol. 20, p. 360.
11 . ibid., vol. 6, p. 373.
13 .
Poems of the Vikings, op. cit., p. 29.
14 .
Hávamál, trans. and ed. D. A. H. Evans (London 1986: 123).
16 .
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: I. English Text; II. Commentary, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 172).
17 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 207) (Book IV, Chapters 26 and 27).
18 .
KHLNM, vol. 6, p. 254.
19 .
The Poetic Edda, op. cit., p. 167.
20 . ‘Vikinger fra Vestsjælland ofrede mennesker’, by Anne Bech-Danielsen, in
Politiken, 9 January 2009.
21 . The pit and contents are on display in the Museum of Antiquities in Visby, Gotland.
22 . Many of the surviving picture-stones are on display in the Museum of Antiquities, Visby, Gotland. The Hammars stone is in the open-air museum at Bunge, in the north of the island.
23 .
The Viking Age in the Isle of Man. The archaeological evidence, by David M. Wilson (Odense 1974: 26).
24 .
Gulatingslovi, trans. and ed. Knut Robberstad (Oslo 1952: 44).
25 . ‘Den gamla och den nya religionen’, by Gustaf Trotzig, in
Gutar och vikingar, ed. Ingmar Jansson (Stockholm 1983: 361).
26 .
Møtet mellom hedendom og kristendom i Norden, by Fredrik Paasche, ed. Dag Strömbäck (Oslo 1958: 115).
27 . ‘The communal nature of the judicial systems in early medieval Norway’, by Alexandra Sanmark, in
Collegium Medievale, Oslo 2006, pp. 31-64.
28 .
Viking Age Iceland, by Jesse Byock (London 2001: 225-6).
29 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 11).
30 .
Ynglingasaga, trans. with notes by Carl Säve (Uppsala 1854: Chapter 7).
31 .
The Poetic Edda, op. cit., p. 89.
33 . ‘Oseberg-dronningen: hvem var hun?’ by Anne Stine Ingstad, in
Osebergdronningens grav, Vår arkeologiske nasjonalskatt i nytt lys, ed. Arne Emil Christensen, Anne Stine Ingstad and Bjørn Myhre (Oslo 1992). See also ‘Viking-Age Sorcery’ by Neil Price, in
Viking Heritage, nos. 3/2004 and 4/2004.
34 . ‘Osebergkvinne var invalid’, by Cato Guhnfeldt, in
Aftenposten, 15 January 2009, p. 7.
35 .
Poems of the Vikings, trans. Patricia Terry (Indianapolis 1978: 22).
36 .
Ville vikinger i lek og idrett by Bertil Wahlqvist (Oslo 1980: 51).
37 .
Ingimund’s Saga. Norwegian Wirral, by Stephen Harding (Birkenhead 2006: 75).
38 .
KHLNM, vol. 4, p. 157.
40 .
The Topography of Ireland, by Giraldus Cambrensis, trans. Thomas Forester, rev. and ed. with additional notes by Thomas Wright, ch. XXVI.
41 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 6.
43 .
KHLNM, vol. 20, p. 382.
44 .
Kampen om Nordwegen, by Torgrim Titlestad (Bergen-Sandviken 1996: 37).
45 . ‘Osebergskipets gåte løst’, by Cato Guhnfeldt, in
Aftenposten, 1 March 2009. The dendrochronological analyses reported on here were the work of Niels Bonde in Copenhagen and Frans-Arne Stylegar in Vest-Agder, Norway.
CHAPTER 3 THE CAUSES OF THE VIKING AGE
1 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and ed. G. N. Garmonsway (London 1990: 57).
2 .
Vikingatiden i Skåne, by Fredrik Svanberg (Lund 2000: 20).
3 .
Alcuin of York,
c. AD 732 to 804 -
his Life and Letters, by Stephen Allott (York 1974: 18).
5 .
Alcuin of York, op. cit., pp. 18-19.
6 .
EHD, p. 896. The meaning of ‘blinded eyes’ is obscure. It might refer to a hairstyle, or possibly to eye make-up.
7 . Ingeld is a character in
Beowulf, whose father was killed by Danes; see
Beowulf, ed. and introd. Michael Swanton (Manchester 1978: 132-3).
9 .
Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England 55 BC-AD
1066 by Richard Fletcher (Mechanicsburg 2002: 117).
10 .
Karmøys historie - som det stiger frem fra istid til 1050, by Per Hernæs (Stavanger 1997: 201). See also ‘The archaeology of the Early Viking Age in Norway’, by Bjørn Myhre, in
Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age, ed. H. B. Clarke, Máire Ní Mhaonaigh and Ragnhall Ó Floinn (Dublin 1998: 3-36).
11 .
Namn og gard. Studium av busetnadsnamn på - land, by Inge Særheim, Ph.D thesis, University of Bergen, 2000.
12 . ‘Government in Scandinavia around 1000 AD’, by Carl Löfving, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (2001: 27).
13 . The most fully argued presentation of this point of view is in
Kampen om Nordvegen, by Torgrim Titlestad (Bergen 1996).
14 .
Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard’s
Histories, trans. Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers (Michigan 1972: 51).
17 .
Carolingian Chronicles, op. cit., p. 61.
18 .
Two Lives of Charlemagne, by Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, trans. and introd. Lewis Thorpe (London 1969: 63).
19 . ‘Capitulary’ was the term used for all legislative and administrative decrees issued by the Frankish court in the time of Charlemagne.
20 . ‘Violence against Christians? The Vikings and the Church in ninth-century England’, by Sara Foot, in
Medieval History, vol.1, no. 3 (1991: 12).
22 .
Carolingian Chronicles, op cit. p. 50.
23 .
Two Lives of Charlemagne, op. cit., p. 61.
25 .
The Outline of History: Being a plain history of life and mankind by H. G. Wells et al. (New York 1920: Part II, 32.4).
26 . Musset’s views are summarized in ‘The Vikings in Frankia’, in
Early Medieval History, by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (Oxford 1975: 223).
28 .
Ecclesiastical History of the English People, by Bede, trans. Leo Shirley-Price, revised by R. E. Latham (London 1990: 278).
29 .
Møtet mellom Hedendom og Kristendom i Norden, by Fredrik Paasche (Oslo 1958: 75).
30 . See
Decolonizing the Viking Age 1, by Fredrik Svanberg (Lund 2003), for a particularly articulate account of the viewpoint expressed here.
32 . ‘The beginning of the Viking Age - some current archæological problems’, by Bjørn Myhre, in
Viking Revaluations, ed. Anthony Faulkes and Richard Perkins (London 1993: 182-199).
33 . ‘Myten om menneskets skapelse i Voluspå - en speiling av Adam og Eva i Genesis - et hedensk motsvar til den bibelske myten - eller noe midt i mellom?’ by Gro Steinsland. Seminar lecture at Middelaldersenteret, University of Oslo, 27 May 2004.
34 . ‘På tvers av Nordsjøen - Britiske perspektiv på Skandinavernes senere jernalder’, by John Hines, in
Universitets oldsaksamling Årbok 1991-1992 (Oslo 1993: 103-24).
35 . ‘Kirkebesøg’, by Maria Panum Baastrup, in
Skalk, 5 (October 2007: 17).
36 . ‘Norse studies: then, now and hereafter’, by Christine Fell, in
Viking Revaluations, op. cit., p. 94.
CHAPTER 4 ‘THE DEVASTATION OF ALL THE ISLANDS OF BRITAIN BY THE HEATHENS’
1 .
The Vikings, by Johannes Brønstad (London 1973: 18).
2 . ‘Embla: a Viking ship has been reconstructed’, by Gunilla Larsen, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (1998: 1-4).
3 . ‘Tiller thriller’, by Jörgen Johansson, in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2005: 23-4).
4 . Not to be confused with six different Viking Age ships, the ‘Roskilde ships’, discovered in 1996.
6 . ‘Jakter på DNA i Osebergskipet’, by Cato Guhnfeldt,
Aftenposten, 10 July 2006. An unexpected benefit of this has been to provide marine biologists with invaluable information about the DNA of whales in the Viking Age.
7 .
Arkæologi Leksikon, ed. Lotte Hedeager and Kristian Kristiansen (Copenhagen 1985: 224).
8 . ‘Paviken - a Viking-age port and shipyard’, by Malin Linquist, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (2004: 17).
9 .
KHLNM, vol. 12, p. 261.
10 . ‘The wooden disc from Wolin’, by Blazej M. Stanislawski, in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2002: 10-11).
11 .
KHLNM, vol. 12, p. 260.
12 . ‘Fine prehistoric optics or just finery?’ by Malin Lindquist, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2000: 3-4).
18 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and ed. G. N. Garmonsway (London 1990: 57, n. 5).
19 . ‘The Vikings in Ireland and Scotland in the ninth century’, by Donnchadh Ó Corráin. Internet resource in ‘Chronicon: An electronic history journal’ at
http://www.ucc.ie/chronicon/ocorr2.htm (accessed 02.02.2004).
20 .
Orkneyinga Saga, trans. and ed. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (London 1978: 26-7).
21 . ‘Genocide in Orkney? The fate of the Orcadian Picts’, by Julie Gibson and Tom Muir, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2005: 26).
22 .
The Conversion of Europe, by Richard Fletcher (London 1997: 169).
23 . ‘Before the Vikings: pre-Norse Caithness’, by Robert B. Gourlay, in
The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic, ed. Colleen E. Batey, Judith Jesch and Christopher D. Morris (Edinburgh 1993: 115).
24 .
Viking Orkney: Did Vikings kill the native population of Orkney and Shetland?, an essay by Brian Smith, quoting John Steward. Internet resource at
http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/vikingorkney/warpeace/ (accessed 26.02.2006). See also ‘Explorers, raiders and settlers. The Norse impact upon Hebridean place-names’, by Arne Kruse, in
Cultural Contacts in the North Atlantic Region: The evidence of names, ed. P. Gammeltoft, C. Hough and D. Waugh, published by NORNA, Scottish Place-name Society and Society for Name Studies in Britain and Ireland (2005: 141-56).
25 . ‘Central places in Viking Age Orkney’, by Frans-Arne Stylegar, in
Northern Studies, no. 38 (2004: 6).
26 .
Viking Scotland, by Anna Ritchie (London 2001: 28).
27 .
Viking Orkney, op. cit.
29 . ‘Viking genetics survey results’, by Nicola Cook (December 2001), BBC History. Online resource (accessed 3.3.2003).
30 .
Historia Norwegie, ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. Peter Fisher (Copenhagen 2003: 67).
32 . See ‘An ethnic enigma - Norse, Pict and Gael in the Western Isles’, by Andrew Jennings and Arne Kruse, in
Proceedings of the Fourteenth Viking Congress, ed. Andras Mortensen (Tórshavn 2001: 251-63).
33 . ‘Genetic evidence for a family-based Scandinavian settlement of Shetland and Orkney during the Viking periods’, by S. Goodacre, A. Helgason, J. Nicholson, L. Southam, L. Ferguson, E. Hickey, E. Vega, K. Stefánsson, R. Ward and B. Sykes, in
Heredity, no. 95 (2005: 129-35). Published online, 6 April 2005, at
http://www.nature.com/hdy/.
34 .
Sunday Times, 5 January 2003.
36 . Quoted in ‘The Viking towns of Ireland’, by Liam de Paor, in
Proceedings of the Seventh Viking Congress, ed. Bo Almqvist and David Greene (Dublin 1976: 29).
37 . ‘The Irish Church, 800-
c.1050’, by Kathleen Hughes, in
A New History of Ireland, ed. Daibhi Ó Cróinín (Oxford 2005: 637).
38 .
Ireland before the Normans, by Donncha Ó Corráin (Dublin 1972: 28-32).
42 . ‘The Irish Church, 800-
c.1050’, op. cit., p. 636.
45 . ‘The Viking Age’, by F. J. Byrne, in
A New History of Ireland, ed. Daibhi Ó Cróinín (Oxford 2005: 612).
46 .
KHLNM, vol. 13, p. 440.
47 . ‘The Irish Church, 800-
c.1050’, op. cit., p. 638.
48 . ‘Short report on a recent Viking find in Norway’, by Ragnar L. Børsheim, in
Viking Heritage, 1 (2000: 22).
49 . ‘Insular finds in Viking Age Scandinavia and the state formation of Norway’, by Egon Wamers, in
Ireland and Scandinavia in the Early Viking Age, ed. H. B. Clarke, Máire Ní Mhaonaigh and Ragnhall Ó Floinn (Dublin 1998).
51 . ‘Viking genetics survey results’, op. cit.
52 . ‘Nordisk innvandring, bosetning og samfunnsdannelse på Isle of Man i middelalderen’, by Per Sveaas Andersen, in
Collegium Medievale, vol. 8.1 (1995: 5-49).
54 .
Orkneyinga Saga, op. cit., pp. 74-5.
55 . ‘Viking Age Faroe Islands and their southern links’, by Steffen Stummann Hansen, in
The Viking Age in Caithness, Orkney and the North Atlantic, op. cit., p. 475.
56 .
The Vikings in History, by F. Donald Logan (London 1992: 61).
57 .
Skalk, 2 (April 2007: 24-5).
CHAPTER 5 THE VIKINGS IN THE CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE
1 .
Two Lives of Charlemagne, by Einhard and Notker the Stammerer, trans. and introd. Lewis Thorpe (London 1969: 159).
2 .
The Annals of Fulda, trans. and annotated by Timothy Reuter (Manchester 1992: 122).
3 . ‘Study into the socio-political history of the Obodrites’, by Roman Zaroff,
Collegium Medievale vol. 16 (2003: 7).
4 .
Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard’s
Histories , trans. Bernhard Walter Scholz with Barbara Rogers (Michigan 1972: 59).
5 .
Two Lives of Charlemagne, op. cit., p. 72.
7 . The origin and meaning of the nickname Klak are uncertain. See
The Works of Sven Aggesen, trans. with introd. and notes by Eric Christiansen (London 1992: 116-17).
8 .
Carolingian Chronicles, op. cit., p. 96.
9 . ‘Haugbrott eller gravplyndring i tidlig kristentid?’ by Bjørn Myhre, in
Fra hammer til kors. 1000 år med kristendom. Brytningstid I Viken (Oslo 1994: 85).
10 .
Carolingian Chronicles, op. cit., p. 114.
13 . ‘The medieval theory of empire’, in
Lectures in the History of Political Thought, by Michael Oakeshott (Charlottesville 2006: 288-9).
14 . ‘Study into the socio-political history of the Obodrites’, by Roman Zaroff,
Collegium Medievale, vol. 16 (2003: 25).
15 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 37-8) (Book 1, Chapter 15).
16 .
Two Lives of Charlemagne, op. cit., pp. 168-9.
17 . Rimbert:
Life of Anskar, op. cit., ch. 7.
18 .
The Annals of St-Bertin, trans. and annotated by Janet L. Nelson (Manchester 1991: 51) (s.a. 841).
20 .
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: I. English Text; II. Commentary, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 291).
21 .
The Annals of Fulda, op. cit., p. 33.
22 . Rimbert:
Life of Anskar, op. cit., ch. 9.
27 .
Carolingian Chronicles, op. cit., p. 108.
29 . ‘Ex Ermentarii miraculis sancti Filiberti’. Extracts trans. and printed in
The History of Feudalism, ed. David Herlihy (London 1971: 9).
30 .
The Annals of St-Bertin, op. cit., p. 60.
31 . ‘The defence of Birka - this year’s excavation at the Garrison’, by Lena Holmquist Olausson, in
Viking Heritage, 5 (1998: 6-8).
32 . Bj 854: ‘Rikaste kvinnan i Birka’, on CD-ROM
Vikingarnas Birka: Utstil lingen 1998. Produced by Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm, 2000.
33 . Rimbert:
Life of Anskar, op. cit., ch. 19.
36 .
The Annals of St-Bertin, op. cit., p. 65.
37 . Rimbert:
Life of Anskar, op. cit., ch. 31.
38 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 46 (Book 1, Chapter 28).
39 . ‘Pagan and Christian in the age of conversion’, by Anne-Sofie Gräslund, in
Proceedings of the Tenth Viking Congress (Oslo 1987: p. 85).
40 . See, for example,
Encyclopaedia of the Viking Age, by John Haywood (London 2000: p. 24).
41 . ‘The Frankish tribute payments to the Vikings and their consequences’, by Simon Coupland, in
Francia, 26, 1 (1999).
42 .
The Annals of Fulda, op. cit., p. 30.
44 .
The Annals of St-Bertin, op. cit., p. 224.
45 .
The Annals of Fulda, op. cit., p. 92.
46 . Abbo’s ‘
Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen in the Reign of Charles the Fat. Quoted in
A Source Book of Medieval History, ed. Frederic A. Ogg (Chicago 1907: 168).
47 . ‘The Vikings in Francia’, in
Early Medieval History, by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (Oxford 1975; 208).
48 . ‘Three sources on the ravages of the Northmen in Frankland,
c.843-912: Abbo’s ‘
Wars of Count Odo with the Northmen in the Reign of Charles the Fat’. Internet resource at
Medieval Sourcebook,
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/843bertin.html (accessed 21.07.2006).
CHAPTER 6 ACROSS THE BALTIC
1 . For a full discussion of these and other possible goals see
The Emergence of Rus, 750-1200, by Simon Franklin and Jonathan Shepard (Eastbourne 2002: 31-41).
2 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie b.2: Vikingtid og rikssamling 800-1139, by Claus Krag (Oslo 2005: 14).
3 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: p. 23).
5 .
Stones, Ships and Symbols, by Erik Nylén and Jan Peder Lamm (Stockholm 1998: 144).
6 . ‘Saxo Grammaticus on the Balts’, by Tomas Baranauskas, in
Saxo and the Baltic Region. A symposium, ed. Tore Nyberg (Odense 2004: 71).
7 . ‘Grobin - Anskars-krönikans Seeburg?’ by Agneta Lundström, in
Gutar och vikingar (Stockholm 1983: 325).
8 . ‘Gotland och Ostbaltikum’, by Lena Thunmark-Nylén, in ibid., pp. 306-22.
9 . ‘The first Scandinavians in northern Rus’, by E. N. Nosov in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2001: 11).
10 .
The Islamic World, Russia and the Vikings 750-900: the numismatic evidence, by Thomas S. Noonan (Aldershot 1998: 333).
11 .
The Eastern World of the Vikings. Eight essays about Scandinavia and Eastern Europe in the early Middle Ages, by E. A. Melnikova (Gothenburg 1996: 33).
12 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, trans. and ed. Samuel H. Cross (Cambridge, Mass. 1930: 130).
13 . ‘Rus’, by P. B. Golden, in
The Encyclopedia of Islam. New Edition, vol. 7, ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat (Leiden 1986: 624).
14 .
The Hoard from Spillings, ed. Gun Westholm (Gotland 2005: 12-13).
15 .
The Eastern World of the Vikings, op. cit., p. 40.
16 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 122.
17 . ‘Saxo Grammaticus on the Balts’, op. cit., p. 75.
18 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 145.
20 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 121.
22 .
The Emergence of Rus, op. cit., pp. 53-7.
23 . Photios, quoted in
The Emergence of Rus, op. cit., p. 51.
24 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 149.
26 .
Kievan Russia, by George Vernadsky (New Haven and London 1976: 22).
27 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 154.
28 .
Kievan Russia, op. cit., p. 54.
30 .
Vikingenes Russland, by Halvor Tjønn (Stavanger 2006: 47).
31 .
The Emergence of Rus, op. cit., p. 150.
32 .
Chronicles of the Viking. Records, Memorials and Myths, by R. I. Page (London 2000: 95).
34 . ‘Gotländska runinskrifter’, by Thorgunn Snædal Brink and Ingmar Jansson, in
Gutar och vikingar (Stockholm 1983: 427).
35 . ‘The Antipodes - a little something about two ocean trades that never met, or . . .’, by Malin Lindquist, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2002: 16).
36 .
Stones, Ships and Symbols, op. cit., pp. 90-97.
38 . Public Lecture given at the Länsmuseet in Visby, Gotland, in 2005.
39 .
The Hoard from Spillings, ed. Gun Westholm (Gotland 2005: 15).
40 .
Kievan Russia, op. cit., p. 58.
41 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 180.
42 .
The Emergence of Rus, op. cit., p. 158.
43 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 159.
44 .
The Emergence of Rus, op. cit., p. 142.
46 . ‘Rus’, op. cit., p. 627.
47 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, op. cit., p. 200.
CHAPTER 7 THE DANELAW I: OCCUPATION
1 .
Fact and Fiction in the Legend of St Edmund, by Dorothy Whitelock, in
Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology, 31 (1969: 233, note 17).
2 . Book review by Matthew Innes, in
Saga-Book of the
Viking Society for Northern Research, vol. XXVI (2002: 126).
3 .
England: An Oxford Archaeological Guide to Sites from Earliest Times to AD
1600, by Timothy Darvill, Paul Stamper and Jane Timby (Oxford 2002: 184-5).
4 . ‘Boundaries and cult centres’, by Julian D. Richards, in
Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress (Oxford 2001: 99-100).
9 .
The Poetic Edda, trans. and introduced by Carolyne Larrington (Oxford 1999: 20).
10 .
Alfred the Great: Asser’s Life of King Alfred and other contemporary sources, trans. and introd. by Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge (London 1983: 83).
19 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, trans. Siân Grønlie (London 2006: 3 and 14).
20 .
Norrøne Gude- og Heltesagn, by P. A. Munch. Revised edition by Anne Holtsmark (Oslo 1981: 266).
21 .
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: I. English Text; II. Commentary, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 281 and 292).
22 .
Orkneyinga Saga, trans. and ed. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (London 1978: 29-31).
23 . See, for example, the exchanges in the
Saga Book (Notes and Reviews) of the
Viking Society for Northern Research, vol. XXII, 1 (1986: 79-82); vol. XXII, 5 (1988: 287-9); vol. XXIII, 2 (1990: 80-83).
24 .
Adam av Bremen,
Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993), p. 50 (Book 1, Chapter 37).
26 .
Abbo of Fleury: The Martyrdom of St Edmund, King of East Anglia, 870, trans. K. Cutler in
Sweet’s Anglo-Saxon Primer (Oxford 1961: 81-7).
27 . ‘Repton and the “great heathen army”, 873-4’, by Martin Biddle and Birthe Kjølbye-Biddle, in
Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress (Oxford 2001: 83).
29 . J. de Vries, quoted in
Saxo Grammaticus, op. cit., pp. 281 and 154.
30 . ‘Vikingerne i Vasconia’, by Anton Erkoreka, in
Vikingerne på Den Iberiske Halvø (Madrid 2004: 22).
31 . ‘Repton and the “great heathen army”, 873-4’, op. cit., p. 77.
33 . ‘Boundaries and cult centres’, op. cit., p. 100.
34 . ‘Repton and the “great heathen army”, 873-4’, op. cit., pp. 82-4.
35 .
EHD, p. 202 (s.a. 893).
36 . ibid., p. 203 (s.a. 893).
39 .
Early Medieval History, by J. M. Wallace-Hadrill (Oxford 1975: 226-7).
40 .
The Vikings: a very short introduction, by Julian D. Richards (Oxford 2005: 72).
42 .
Ottar og Wulfstan. To rejsebeskrivelser fra vikingetiden, ed. Niels Lund (Roskilde 1983: 20).
43 .
Alfred the Great, op. cit., p. 103; see also Fulco’s letter to Alfred, ibid., p. 182.
44 .
Vikings: Fear and Faith, by Paul Cavill (Michigan 2001: 272).
46 .
Ottar og Wulfstan, op. cit., p. 14.
CHAPTER 8 THE SETTLEMENT OF ICELAND
1 .
The Book of the Settlements, in
The Norse Atlantic Saga, by Gwyn Jones (Oxford 1986: 157).
4 .
Historia Norwegie, ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. Peter Fisher (Copenhagen 2003: 71).
5 .
Viking Age Iceland, by Jesse Byock (London 2001: 89).
6 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, trans. Siân Grønlie (London 2006: xiv-xviii).
8 .
The Norse Atlantic Saga, op. cit., p. 35, n. 7.
11 . ‘Cave culture in South Iceland’, by Florian Huber, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (2001: 8).
12 .
Historia Norwegie, op. cit., p. 67.
13 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 17.
14 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 43-77).
16 . See
Ynglingatal og Ynglingesaga: En studie i Historiske Kilder, by Claus Krag (Oslo 1991).
17 . See, for example, ‘Storhaugene i Vestold - riss av en forskningshistorie’, by Einar Østmo, in
Gokstadhøvdingen og hans tid (Sandefjord 1997: 55-7).
18 . ‘Islands forfatning’, by Ólafur Lárusson, in
Rikssamling og kristendom, ed. Andreas Holmsen and Jarle Simensen (Oslo 1967: 219).
19 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 46.
20 .
Historia Norwegie, op. cit., p. 196.
21 .
The Little Ice Age: How climate made history 1300-1850, by Brian Fagan (New York 2002: 7).
22 .
Vikings: Fear and Faith, by Paul Cavill (Michigan 2001: 273).
23 .
The Little Ice Age, op. cit., pp. 8-9.
24 .
Aftenposten Aften (29 Feb. 2004: 18). Article by Frede Vestergaard.
25 . ‘Climate and history: the Westviking’s saga’, by John and Mary Gribbin, in
New Scientist (20 Jan. 1990: 52-5).
26 . ‘Utflytterne i Vest’, by Claus Krag, in
Aschehougs Norges Historie v.2 (Oslo 2005: 46).
27 .
The Icelandic Saga, by Peter Hallberg, trans. with notes and introduction by Paul Schach (Lincoln, Nebraska 1962: 5).
28 .
The Norse Atlantic Saga, by Gwyn Jones (Oxford 1986: 162).
30 .
The Saga of King Olaf Trygvasson, trans. J. Sephton (London 1895: 337).
31 .
The Vikings: a very short introduction, by Julian D. Richards (Oxford 2005: 100).
32 . ‘Utflytterne i Vest’, op. cit., p. 46.
33 .
mt DNAand the Islandsofthe North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry, by Agnar Helgason, Eileen Hickey, Sara Goodacre, Vindar Bosnes, Kári Stefánsson, Ryk Ward and Bryan Sykes, in
American Journal of Human Genetics, 68 (2001: 723-7).
34 .
The Book of the Settlements, op. cit., p. 172.
35 .
Viking Age Iceland, op. cit., p. 84.
37 .
The Book of the Settlements, op. cit., p. 165.
38 . Quoted in
A Piece of Horse Liver and the Ratification of the Law, by Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson (Reykjavík 1998: 45).
39 . ‘Pingnes by Ellidavatn: The first local assembly in Iceland?’, by Gudmun dur Ólafsson, in
Proceedings of the Tenth Viking Congress, ed. James E. Knirk (Oslo 1987: 344).
40 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 4. Teit was Ari’s foster-father and one of his most important sources.
41 . Martina Stein-Wilkeshuis and Stefan Brink, quoted in ‘The communal nature of the judicial systems in early medieval Norway’, by Alexandra Sanmark, in
Collegium Medievale (Oslo 2006: 32).
42 . The origin of the name is not known.
43 .
The Viking Achievement, by Peter Foote and David M. Wilson (London 1974: 371).
45 .
Mennesket i Middelalderens Norge: Tanker, tro og holdninger 1000- 1300, by Sverre Bagge (Oslo 1998: 20).
46 . ‘Sagas and Society III: How credible is the picture of slavery in Icelandic literature?’ by Michael Neiss, in
Viking Heritage, 1 (2001: 8-9).
47 .
The Saga of Gisli, trans. George Johnston, with notes by Peter Foote (London 1978: 30).
48 .
Eyrbyggja Saga, trans. with notes by Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (London 1989: 100-101).
49 .
The Viking Achievement, op. cit., p. 70.
50 .
KHLNM, vol. 19, p. 14.
51 .
Chronicles of the Vikings, by R. I. Page (London 2000: 63).
52 .
The Sagas of Icelanders, ed. Jane Smiley (London 2000: 457-9).
54 . ‘Utflytterne i Vest’, op. cit., p. 47.
55 .
The Icelandic Saga, op. cit., p. 9.
CHAPTER 9 ROLLO AND THE NORMAN COLONY
1 .
Source Book of Medieval History, ed. Frederic A. Ogg (London 1907: 174).
2 .
The Normans in Europe, trans. and ed. Elisabeth van Houts (Manchester 2000: 14).
4 . This identification has been made previously in
Dudo of St-Quentin: History of the Normans, trans. and ed. Eric Christiansen (Woodbridge 1998: xiv).
7 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 59).
9 .
The Normans in Europe, op. cit., p. 54.
10 . So called to distinguish it from the saga in
Heimskringla.
11 .
The Saga of King Olaf Trygvasson, trans. J. Sephton (London 1895: 223).
12 .
The Normans in Europe, op. cit., p. 15.
13 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 230.
14 . ‘Le Prétendu Rollon et la Normandie’, by Jean Renaud, in
Les Vikings, premiers Européens. VIII-XI siècle, ed. Regis Boyer (Paris 2005: 183).
15 . ‘Saga om Gange-Rolv’, in
Sagalitteraturen, vol. 4 (Oslo 1984: 180).
16 .
Historia Norwegie, ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. Peter Fisher (Copenhagen 2003: 67).
17 .
Dudo of St-Quentin, op. cit., p. 46.
18 . Not to be confused with Lothar II’s daughter Gisela, who was given in marriage to the Viking Godfrid in 883. See p. 105.
19 .
The Normans in Europe, op. cit., p. 25.
21 .
The Vikings in Brittany, by Neil Price (London 1989: 83).
22 .
Dudo of St-Quentin, op. cit., p. 51.
23 .
Normandy before 1066, by David Bates (London 1982: 22).
24 . ‘Le Prétendu Rollon et la Normandie’, op. cit., p. 194.
25 .
Dudo of St-Quentin, op. cit., p. 16.
26 . ‘La conversion des Normands peu après 911’, by Olivier Guillot, in
Cahiers de civilisation medievale: Xe-XIIe siècles, no. 2 (Poitiers 1981, April-June: 110).
28 .
The Vikings: a very short introduction, by Julian D. Richards (Oxford 2005: 56).
29 .
The Viking Achievement, by Peter Foote and David M. Wilson (London 1974: 407).
30 .
The Vikings: a very short introduction, op. cit., p. 56.
31 . Dudo makes no mention of this, commenting merely that Rollo, ‘full of days, migrated to Christ’.
32 . Quoted in
The Norsemen in the Viking Age, by Eric Christiansen (Oxford 2002: 268).
33 . ‘Brief presentation of a thesis on the Viking presence in France from the 9th to the 11th century: sources and sets of problems’, by Jean-Christophe Guillon, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (1998: 5).
34 .
The Vikings in Brittany, op. cit., p. 56.
35 .
Viking Heritage, article by Jean-Christophe Guillon, op. cit., p. 6.
36 . ‘Some aspects of Viking research in France’, by Anne Nissen Jaubert, in
Acta Archaeologica, vol. 71 (2001).
37 . Le Prétendu Rollon et la Normandie’, op. cit., p. 190.
38 .
KHLNM, vol. 12, p. 339.
39 .
Kampen om Nordvegen, by Torgrim Titlestad (Stavanger 1996: 16), quoting Lucien Musset.
40 .
Dudo of St-Quentin, op. cit., p. 49.
42 . Quoted in
The Normans in Europe, op. cit., p. 53.
44 .
Normandy before 1066, op. cit., p. 14.
45 . ‘Normandy, 911-1144’, by Cassandra Potts, in
A Companion to the Anglo-Norman World, ed. Christopher Harper-Bill and Elisabeth van Houts (Woodbridge 2003: 27).
CHAPTER 10 THE MASTER-BUILDER: HARALD BLUETOOTH AND THE JELLING STONE
1 .
The Penguin History of Europe, by J. M. Roberts (London 1997: 130-32).
2 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 61) (Book 1, Chapter 55).
3 . ibid., p. 62 (Book 1, Chapter 59).
4 .
The Heroic Age of Scandinavia, by G. Turville-Petre (London 1951: 92).
5 .
The Viking Achievement, by Peter Foote and David M. Wilson (London 1974: 377).
6 .
Skalk, 1 (Feb. 2005: 18).
7 .
A Source Book of Medieval History, by F. A. Ogg (New York 1907: 199).
8 . The scene on the seventh bronze is too badly mutilated to identify.
10 . ‘Crucifixion iconography in Viking Scandinavia’, by Signe Horn Fugle sang, in
Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress, ed. Hans Bekker-Nielsen, Peter Foote and Olaf Olsen (Odense 1981: 87-9).
11 .
Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, by H. R. Ellis Davidson (London 1976: 148).
12 .
Aschehougs Norgeshistorie, b. 1,
Fra jeger til bonde - inntil 800 e.kr, by Arnvid Lillehammer (Oslo 2005: 246).
13 . ‘Runeinnskrifter som kilde til historiske hendelser i vikingtiden’, by James E. Knirk, in
Nytt Lys på Middelalderen (Oslo 1997: 87).
18 . ‘Oseberggraven-Haugbrottet’, by A. W. Brøgger, in
Viking Tidsskrift for norrøn arkeologi, vol. IX, (Oslo 1945: 20-21).
20 .
Vikingarnas egna ord, by Lars Magnar Enoksen (Lund 2003: 178).
21 .
The Viking-Age Rune-Stones: custom and commemoration in early medieval Scandinavia, by Birgit Sawyer (Oxford 2000); see also
Chronicles of the Vikings, by R. I. Page (London 2000: 74-6).
22 .
Vikingarnas egna ord op. cit., pp. 139-48.
23 .
The Works of Sven Aggesen, trans. with introduction and notes by Eric Christiansen (London 1992: 56).
24 .
The Saga of the Jomsvikings, trans. Lee M. Hollander (Austin 1990: 34).
25 .
De Kongelige Monumenter i Jelling, by Steen Hvass (Jelling 2000: 17).
26 .
The Saga of Grettir the Strong, trans. G. A. Hight (London 1982: 45).
27 .
The Book of the Settlements, in
The Norse Atlantic Saga, by Gwyn Jones (Oxford 1986: 161).
28 . ‘Oseberggraven-Haugbrottet’, op. cit., p.5.
29 .
Fra Hammer til Kors, ed. Jan Ingar Hansen and Knut G. Bjerva (Oslo 1994: 85).
30 .
Vikinger i Vestfold 2006 (Sandefjord 2006: 10).
32 .
De Kongelige Monumenter i Jelling, op. cit., p. 26.
33 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle says that, in 1044, Jaroslav the Wise had the remains of Svyatoslov’s sons Jaropolk and Oleg baptized and moved to the Church of the Holy Virgin.
The Russian Primary Chronicle, ed. Samuel H. Cross (Cambridge, Mass. 1930: 228).
34 .
Vikingetidens Jelling, by Hans Ole Matthiesen (Jelling 2004: 22).
35 .
The Works of Sven Aggesen, op. cit., p. 61.
36 . ‘Cnut’s Scandinavian Empire’, by Peter Sawyer, in
The Reign of Cnut: King of England, Denmark and Norway, ed. A. R. Rumble (London 1994: 12).
37 .
Vikingatiden i Skåne, by Fredrik Svanberg (Lund 2000: 77).
39 . ‘Water routes in pre-Mongol Rus’, in
The Eastern World of the Vikings, by E. A. Melnikova (Gothenburg 1996: 43).
40 .
Skalk, 5 (2001). Article by Kåre Johannessen.
41 . Poul Nørlund, extract printed in
Danmark i vikingetiden, ed. Carl og Esben Harding Sørensen (Århus 1980: 127).
42 .
De Kongelige Monumenter i Jelling, op. cit., p. 32.
43 .
The Works of Sven Aggesen, op. cit., p. 61.
44 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 83.
45 . ‘Facts and fancy in Jomsvikinga saga’, by Leszek P. Slupecki. Pre-print of a conference paper delivered at the Thirteenth International Saga Conference, 6-12 August 2006, Durham and York. Internet resource at
www.dur.ac.uk/medieval.www./sagaconf/sagapps.htm (accessed 29.11.2007).
46 .
The Saga of the Jomsvikings, op.cit., p. 63.
48 . ‘The Vikings bare their filed teeth’, by Caroline Arcini, in
American Journal of Physical Anthropology (December 2005, 128 (4): 727-33).
CHAPTER 11 THE DANELAW II: ASSIMILATION
3 . ‘Defining the Danelaw’, by Katherine Holman, in
Viking and the Danelaw: Select papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, ed. J. Graham-Campbell, Richard Hall, Judith Jesch and David N. Parsons (Oxford 2001: 2).
5 .
Viking Treasure from the North West - the Cuerdale Hoard in Context, ed. James Graham-Campbell (National Museums and Galleries in Merseyside 1992).
6 .
Ingimund’s Saga: Norwegian Wirral, by Stephen Harding (Birkenhead 2006: 21).
7 .
Dagbladet, 27.11.2007.
8 .
The Medieval Foundations of England, by G. O. Sayles (London 1950: 105).
10 .
Who’s Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England, by Richard Fletcher (Mechanicsburg 2002: 146).
12 .
The Formation of England 550-1042, by H. P. R. Finberg (St Albans 1976: 147).
15 .
Who’s Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England, op. cit., p. 153.
17 .
Ingimund’s Saga, op. cit., pp. 121ff.
21 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 72).
23 .
Egil’s Saga, trans. and introd. by Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (London 1976: 164).
24 .
Historia Norwegie, ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. Peter Fisher (Copenhagen 2003: 83).
25 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, by Nicholas Brooks (Leicester 1984: 222).
26 .
Who’s Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England, op. cit., p. 159.
28 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, op. cit., p. 223.
29 .
Egil’s Saga, op. cit., p. 248.
30 . On stylistic grounds it has been argued that Snorri Sturluson was the author. See
The Sagas of Icelanders, ed. Jane Smiley (London 2000: 7).
31 .
Egil’s Saga, op. cit., p. 118.
32 .
Egil’s Saga trans. and ed. by Christine Fell (London 1975: 76-8). The ‘King Olaf’ of the saga is not to be confused with the later kings of Norway Olaf Tryggvason and Olav Haraldson.
34 .
Egil’s saga, trans. and introd. by Pálsson and Edwards, op.cit., p. 148.
35 . ‘The Saga of the People of Vatnsdal’, trans. Andrew Wawn, in
The Sagas of Icelanders, op. cit., p. 243.
36 . For a description of the terms of the Lesser Outlawry see pp. 280-81.
37 . ‘Monstrous allegations: an exchange of ýki in Bjarnar saga Hítdoela kappa’, by Alison Finlay, in
alvíssmál, 10 (2001: 21).
38 .
Nid, ergi and Old Norse moral attitudes, by Folke Stiröm (London 1974: 6).
40 . Preben Meulengracht Sørensen suggested that the threat may be one of castration, in
Norrønt Nid. Forestillingen om den umandige mand i de islandske sagaer (Odense 1980: 102).
41 . For a good general survey, see ‘In the steps of the Vikings’, by Gillian Fellows-Jensen, in
Viking and the Danelaw: Select papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, op. cit.
42 .
Place Names in the Landscape, by Margaret Gelling (London 2000: 52).
45 . W. H. F. Nicolaisen, quoted in ibid., p. 210.
46 . ‘In the steps of the Vikings’, op. cit., p. 284.
48 .
The Formation of England 550-1042, op. cit., p. 158.
49 .
Dictionary of English Place-Names by A. D. Mills (Oxford 1998).
50 .
The Formation of England 550-1042, op.cit., p. 158.
51 . ‘In the steps of the Vikings’, op. cit., p. 280.
52 . ‘Norse in the British Isles’, by Michael Barnes, in
Viking Revaluations, ed. Anthony Faulkes and Richard Perkins (London 1993: 69).
53 . ‘Settlement and Acculturation’, by David Griffiths, in
Land, Sea and Home, ed. John Hines, Alan Lane and Mark Redknap (Leeds 2004: 133).
54 . ‘Defining the Danelaw’, op. cit., p. 7.
55 .
Ingimund’s Saga: Norwegian Wirral, op. cit., p. 24.
57 .
KHLNM, vol. 8, p. 647.
59 .
KHLNM, vol. 8, p. 647.
60 . ‘Defining the Danelaw’, op. cit., p. 3.
63 . C. Neff, quoted in ‘Defining the Danelaw’, op. cit., p. 3.
64 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, op. cit., p. 227.
65 .
Encyclopedia of the Viking Age, by John Haywood (London 2000: 214).
66 .
Who’s Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England, op. cit., p. 158.
CHAPTER 12 WHEN ALLAH MET ODIN
1 .
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, by Harris Birkeland (Oslo 1954: 5-6).
4 . ‘Vikingerne i Vasconia’, by Anton Erkoreka, in
Vikingerne på Den Iberiske Halvø (Madrid 2004: 11).
5 . ‘Al-Madjus’, by Arne Melvinger, in
The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 5, ed. C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, B. Lewis and Ch. Pellat (Leiden 1986: 1118).
6.
Les premières incursions des Vikings en Occident d’après les sources arabes, by Arne Melvinger (Uppsala 1955: 44).
7 . ibid., p. 9. See also pp. 51-5, where further possible evidence is explored.
9 .
The Encyclopedia of Islam, op. cit., p. 1120.
10 . ‘Vikingerne i Vasconia’, op. cit., p. 10.
11 . Mauritania is in North Africa, present-day northern Morocco and west and central Algeria. It was conquered by the Arabs in the seventh century.
12 . CELT (Corpus of Electronic Texts)
Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, FE 330. Internet resource at
http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100017/text017. html (accessed 4.12.2007). This online edition is based on
Fragmentary Annals of Ireland, ed. and trans. by Joan Radner (Dublin 1978).
13 .
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, op. cit., p. 111.
14 . Not until the early fourteenth-century geographer ad-Dimasqi, who refers to Scandinavia as a ‘large island, inhabited by very tall people with white skin, fair hair and blue eyes, who understand no one else’s language’, do we find a reference to the familiar racial stereotype of present-day Scandinavians. See
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, op cit., p. 114.
15 .
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, op. cit., p. 16.
17 . ‘Eastern Connections at Birka’, by Björn Ambrosiani, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2001: 7).
19 .
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, op. cit., p. 17.
21 . This accounts for its disappearance from Europe throughout the era of Christian culture until it was reintroduced by seamen in the eighteenth century. The word was borrowed from the Tahitian and brought to Britain by the explorer Captain Cook.
22 .
Poems of the Vikings. The Elder Edda, trans. Patricia Terry (Indianapolis 1978: 167-8).
23 . The ‘
disir’ were female gods.
24 .
Kroppen som lerret, by Terje Gansum (Midgard Historisk Senter, undated, no page number).
26 .
Nordens historie i middelalderen etter Arabiske kilder, op. cit., p. 84.
27 . A. Fabricius, quoted in ibid., p. 154.
30 .
The Muslim Discovery of Europe, by Bernard Lewis (London 1982: 286).
31 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 189) (Book 4, Chapter 6).
32 . Évariste Lévi-Provencal, in
Un échange d’ambassades entre Cordue et Byzance au IXième siècle, quoted in
Les premières incursions des Vikings en Occident d’après les sources arabes, op. cit., p. 61.
33 . ‘San Isidoro-æsken i León’, by Eduardo Morales Romero, in
Vikingerne på Den Iberiske Halvø (Madrid 2004: 118ff).
34 . ‘Vikingerne i Vasconia’, op. cit., p. 32.
35 . ‘The Vikings in the Iberian Peninsula: questions to ponder’, by Jose Manuel Mates Luque, in
Viking Heritage 3 (1998: 8).
36 . ‘Vikingerne i Galicien’, by Vicente Almazán, in
Vikingerne på Den Iberiske Halvø, op. cit., p. 46.
CHAPTER 13 A PIECE OF HORSE’S LIVER: THE PRAGMATIC CHRISTIANITY OF HÅKON THE GOOD
1 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 159).
2 . Quoted in
A Piece of Horse Liver and the Ratification of Law, by Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson (Reykjavík 1998: 63).
3 .
Narratives of Veøy by Brit Solli (Oslo 1996: 187).
5 .
KHLNM, vol. 18, p. 271.
7 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., p. 87.
9 . From
Fagrskinna/Nóregs konunga tal, quoted in
A Piece of Horse Liver, op. cit., p. 65.
10 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., p. 90.
11 . ibid., pp. 86-90. Snorri spreads these developments over two years.
13 .
A Piece of Horse Liver, op. cit., p. 62.
14 .
Historia Norwegie, ed. Inger Ekrem and Lars Boje Mortensen, trans. Peter Fisher (Copenhagen 2003: 85);
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, by Theodoricus Monachus, trans. and annotated by David and Ian McDougall (London 1998: 61).
15 .
A Piece of Horse Liver, op. cit., p. 64
17 .
Heimskringla, or the Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., pp. 100-101.
18 . The ‘sampling’ of the ‘Hávamál’ may account for Eyvind’s nickname, ‘the Plagiarist’. The interpretation of the last two lines as a comment on ‘king’s luck’ is based on a reading by the Danish translator, Martin Jensen.
19 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, Vikingtid og rikssamling 800-1139, by Claus Krag (Oslo 2005: 151).
20 .
Den Norsk-Isländska Poesien, by Erik Noreen (Stockholm 1926: 219).
21 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., p. 104.
22 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 63.
24 .
KHLNM, vol. 19, p. 641.
25 .
Kampen om Norvegen, by Torgrim Titlestad (Bergen-Sandviken 1996: 63).
26 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, op. cit., p. 134.
27 . Translated from
Blot: Tro og offer i det forkristne Norden, by Britt-Mari Näsström (Oslo 2001: 27).
28 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, op. cit., p. 134.
29 .
Historia Norwegie, op. cit., p. 89.
30 . Such a statement of relationship was necessary for the legitimation of Olaf’s later kingship. Norwegian historians increasingly doubt the validity of the genealogical links to Harald Finehair of both Olaf Tryggvason and of the later saint-king, Olav Haraldson.
31 .
Historia Norwegie, op. cit., p. 91.
32 .
The Formation of England 550-1042, by H. P. R. Finberg (St Albans 1976: 182). For a different assessment of the importance of the battle, see
The Return of the Vikings: The Battle of Maldon 1991, by Donald Scragg (Stroud 2006).
34 .
A Choice of Anglo-Saxon Verse, ed. and trans. by Richard Hamer (London 1972: 51-2).
39 .
The Return of the Vikings, op. cit., p. 61.
40 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 13.
41 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., pp. 155-7.
42 .
Ágrip: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway, edited and translated, with an introduction and notes by M. J. Driscoll (London 1995: 31).
43 .
The Conversion of Iceland, by Dag Strömbäck (London 1975: 33).
44 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, op. cit., p. 176.
45 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 15.
CHAPTER 14 GREENLAND AND NORTH AMERICA
1 . Quoted in
Icelandic Culture, by Sigurdur Nordal, trans. with notes by Vilhjálmur T. Bjarnar (New York 1990: 91).
2 .
The Vinland Saga. The Norse discovery of America, trans. and introduced by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (London 1978: 76).
3 .
KHLNM, vol. 4, p. 605.
5 . ibid., vol. 3, p. 537.
6 . It is not clear from the saga whether Erik had been exiled for life or only for another three years, and there may have been flexibility in such matters. Given his avowed intention to settle in Greenland it is possible he was permitted to return for the purposes of organizing the colonization.
7 .
The Vinland Saga, op. cit., p. 78.
8 .
Islendinga Saga, by Jon Jóhannesson, trans. by Haraldur Bessason (Winnipeg 1974: 95).
9 . ‘Far and yet near: North America and Norse Greenland’, by Kirsten Seaver, in
Viking Heritage, 1 (2000: 3).
10 .
KHLNM, vol. 8, p. 651.
11 .
Eirik den Rødes Grønland, by Knud J. Krogh (Odense 1967: 52).
12 .
The Vinland Saga, op. cit., pp. 32-3.
14 .
Eirik den Rødes Grønland, op. cit., p. 71.
16 . What follows is based on an article in
Viking Heritage, 4 (2001: 3-7), by Joel Berglund, of the Greenland National Museum, who was one of the leaders of the excavation.
17 . ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 3.
19 . ‘Reconstructing the costume of the Viking Age’, by Viktoria Persdotter, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (1999: 3).
20 .
Eirik den Rødes Grønland, op. cit., p. 74.
21 .
KHLNM, vol. 8, p. 657.
22 .
The Norse Atlantic Saga, by Gwyn Jones (Oxford 1986: 99).
23 . Both letters are in the
American Journeys Collection of the Wisconsin Historical Society Digital Library and Archives, Document No. AJ-060. Internet resource at
www.americanjourneys.org/aj-060/ (accessed 11.12.2007).
24 .
KHLNM, vol. 5, p. 405.
25 .
Viking Heritage, 4(2003: 35).
27 . ‘Viking Navigation’, by Søren Thirslund, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (1999: 6).
28 .
Eirik den Rødes Grønland, op. cit., p. 71.
31 .
The Vikings and America, by Eirik Wahlgren (London 2000: 15).
32 . ‘Vikingerne tidligere i Amerika end vi troede’, article in
Berlingske Tidende, 23 September 2008.
33 .
The Vinland Saga, op. cit., pp. 52-4.
34 . ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland: The Norse in the North Atlantic’, by Birgitta Wallace, in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2004: 26).
35 . For a discussion of the differences between the sagas as literature and history, see
The Vinland Saga, op. cit., pp. 35-9.
36 . ‘Far and yet near’, op. cit., p. 4.
37 . The name is an example of the pitfalls of modern mapmaking when written encounters oral culture. What looks like a mixture of French and English is probably a misrendering of the all-French L’Anse aux Méduse, ‘the bay of jellyfish’.
38 . ‘L’Anse aux Meadows and Vinland’, op. cit., p. 28.
39 .
The Vikings and America, op. cit., p. 124.
40 . ‘Norse Greenland on the eve of Renaissance exploration’, by Kirsten A. Seaver, in
Voyages and Exploration in the North Atlantic from the Middle Ages to the XVIIth Century, ed. Anna Agnarsdóttir (Reykjavik 2001: 30).
CHAPTER 15 RAGNARÖK IN ICELAND
1 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, trans. Siân Grønlie (London 2006: 36).
3 .
The Tale of Thorvald Chatterbox, collected in
Viga-Glum’s Saga, trans. John McKinnell (Edinburgh 1987).
4 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 40.
5 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. by Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 216) (Book IV, Chapter 36, scholium 156).
6 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 40.
7 . ibid., pp. xxxii, 42-43.
10 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, by Theodoricus Monachus, trans. and annotated by David and Ian McDougall with an introduction by Peter Foote (London 1998: 15).
12 . Ari writes that the mission took place in the same summer as Olaf Tryggvason was killed, but that Olaf met his death in the year 1000. The apparent discrepancy arises because Ari began his year on 1 September and Olaf is believed to have died on 9 September. Starting the year on 1 January as we now do gives a date for both the conversion mission and Olaf’s death of 999. See
The Conversion of Iceland, by Dag Strömback (London, 1975), esp. footnote 1 on page 2, summarizing a 1964 paper
Studier i kronologisk metode i tidlig islandsk historieskrivning by Dr Ólafiá Einarsdottir.
13 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 8.
14 . ‘On the conversion of the Icelanders’, by Peter Foote, reviewing
Under the Cloak by Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson, in
Aurvandilstá: Norse Studies (Odense 1984: 62).
15 . J. H. Adalsteinsson,
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time (Uppsala 1978: 99).
17 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 49.
19 . There is no evidence that Runolf and Hjalti were related. The implication that Runolf took the prosecution upon himself as someone outside the family would bear strong witness to his opposition to Christianity’s progress.
20 .
Norrøne Gude- og Heltesagn, by P. A. Munch, revised by Anne Holtsmark (Oslo 1981: 143).
21 . ‘Fimbulvinteren, Ragnarök och Klimatkrisen år 536-537 e. kr.’, by Bo Gräslund, in
Saga och Sed 2007 (Uppsala 2008).
22 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 6).
23 .
Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX: 1. English Text; II. Commentary, trans. and annotated by Hilda Ellis Davidson and Peter Fisher (Cambridge 2002: 290).
24 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 50.
25 .
EHD, p. 435, Law 2.1.
27 . ‘The last Viking in Iceland’, by Steinunn Kristjánsdóttir, in
Viking Heritage 3 (1998: 5).
28 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 16.
29 .
Icelandic Culture, by Sigurdur Nordal (New York 1990: 178).
30 . See Jón Hnefill Adalsteinsson’s doctoral thesis
Under the Cloak: The acceptance of Christianity in Iceland with particular reference to the religious attitudes prevailing at the time (Uppsala, 1978), for a full exposition of this theory and further examples of this practice.
31 . ‘Sjamanisme i norske sagn fra middelalderen’, by Ronald Grambo, in
Forum Mediævale, 4/5, no. 1/2 (1983: 9).
34 . ‘Rimbert:
Life of Anskar’ op. cit., chapter 27.
35 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., p. 50.
36 . ‘Gunnlaug Wormtongue’ is included in
Eirik the Red and Other Icelandic Sagas, trans. by Gwyn Jones (London 1961).
37 .
Fornskandinavisk religion, by Britt-Mari Näsström (Lund 2002: 297).
38 .
KHLNM, vol. 1, p. 349.
39 . ‘Children’s graves - status symbols?’ by Malin Lindquist, in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2003: 28).
40 .
Viking Age Iceland, by Jesse Byock (London 2001: 50).
42 .
The Saga of Hallfred, trans. and introduced by Alan Boucher (Reykjavik 1981: 37).
43 . These tenth-century verses question a popular assumption, deriving from Stendhal’s 1822 treatise ‘On Love’, that romantic love was invented at some point after 1100. Some years ago an American scholar joked that the most frequent cause of death among young men in the Saga Age was the composing of love poetry. See ‘Jeg elsker deg’, by Bjørn Bandlien in
Klassekampen, July 2007, p. 9.
44 .
Íslendingabók and Kristni Saga, op. cit., pp. 45-7.
45 . The complicated structure of skaldic poetry makes these effects impossible to convey in translation. For a complete exposition of how close Hallfred sails to the wind see ‘The Reluctant Christian and the King of Norway’, by Cecil Wood, in
Scandinavian Studies, Vol. XXXI, 2 (May 1959: 65-72).
46 . Based on the circumstances of its composition, valid but not fatal objections to the authenticity of this last verse have been raised. See ‘The Last Hour of Hallfredar vandrædaskald’, by Bjarni Einarsson, in
Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress (Odense 1981: 217-223).
47 .
The Saga of Hallfred, op. cit., p. 51.
48 .
Ágrip: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway, ed. and trans. with an introduction and notes by M. J. Driscoll (London 1995: 34)
49 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 216 (Book IV, Chapter 36).
50 .
The Icelandic Saga, by Peter Hallberg, trans. and introduced by Paul Schach (Lincoln 1962: 31-4).
CHAPTER 16 ST BRICE, ST ALPHEGE AND THE WOLF: THE FALL OF ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND
1 .
The Kings and Queens of Britain, by John Cannon and Anne Hargreaves (Oxford 2001: 72).
4 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and ed. G. N. Garmonsway (London 1990: 57).
7 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 133.
9 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 135.
12 .
Anglo-Saxon Charters: An annotated list and bibliography, by P. H. Sawyer (London 1968: 277) (Charter no. 909).
13 .
The Vikings, by Magnus Magnusson (Stroud 2003: 274).
14 . A version of Henry of Huntingdon’s account can be read on the website cited in note 10 above.
15 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 139.
18 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, by Nicholas Brooks (Leicester 1984: 285).
19 .
Erik the Red and other Icelandic Sagas, selected and trans. by Gwyn Jones (London 1961: 279-80).
20 .
The Works of Sven Aggesen, trans. with introduction and notes by Eric Christiansen (London 1992: 35).
21 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 144.
22 . It was this marriage between his great-aunt and Ethelred, followed after Ethelred’s death by her marriage to Cnut of Denmark, that would give William of Normandy his slender claim to the throne of England in 1066.
23 .
The Normans in Europe, trans. and ed. Elisabeth van Houts (Manchester 2000: 20).
28 . ibid., p. 933, n. 6.
30 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden. Trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 99) (Book 1, Chapter 52).
31 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 139.
33 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, op. cit., p. 153.
35 .
Encomium Emmae Reginae, trans. and ed. Alistair Campbell, with a supplementary introduction by Simon Keynes (Cambridge 1996: lx).
37 .
Who’s Who in Roman Britain and Anglo-Saxon England 55 BC-AD
1066, by Richard Fletcher (Mechanicsburg 2002: 204).
38 . ‘Who were the thegns of Cnut the Great?’ by Carl Löfving, in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2005: 14-17).
39 . ‘Cnut’s Scandinavian empire’, by Peter Sawyer, in
The Reign of Cnut: King of England, Denmark and Norway, ed. Alexander R. Rumble (London 1994: 19-20).
40 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 98 (Book 2, Chapter 52).
43 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, op. cit., p. 292.
47 . ‘King Cnut in the verse of his skalds’, by Roberta Frank, in
The Reign of Cnut, op. cit., p. 108.
48 . Writing in the thirteenth century, Snorri Sturluson glossed the word
skáld as
frædamadr, meaning someone learned, knowledgeable and possessed of essential information, rather than simply a ‘poet’ in the modern sense of a maker of verse. See ‘Memorials in speech and writing’, by Judith Jesch, in
Hikuin, ed. Gunhild Øeby Nielsen (Århus 2006: 101).
49 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 402).
50 .
KHLNM, vol. 15, p. 237.
CHAPTER 17 THE VIKING SAINT
1 .
Heimskringla, or The Lives of the Norse Kings, by Snorri Sturluson, ed. with notes by Erling Monsen, trans. with the assistance of A. H. Smith (New York 1990: 167).
2 .
Ágrip: A Twelfth-Century Synoptic History of the Kings of Norway, ed. and trans. with an introduction and notes by M. J. Driscoll (London 1995: 96).
4 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, by Theodoricus Monachus, trans. and annotated by David and Ian McDougall, with an introduction by Peter Foote (London 1998: 21).
5 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, Vikingtid og rikssamling 800-1139, by Claus Krag (Oslo 2005: 179); see also
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 218.
8 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 17.
9 .
Ágrip, op. cit., p. 35.
10 .
Regestica Norvegica I 822-1263, ed. Erik Gunnes (Oslo 1989: 28-32).
11 .
Ágrip, op. cit., p. 39.
12 . For a full account of this hypothesis, see
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, op. cit., pp. 185-8.
15 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., pp. 356-7.
17 .
KHLNM, vol. 5, p. 559.
18 . ‘Fast and Feast: Christianization through the regulation of everyday life’, by Alexandra Sanmark, in
Viking Heritage, 4 (2005: 3-7).
19 . Florence of Worcester reports the rumour that Ælfgifu deceived the king and presented as his own the son of a priest.
EHD, p. 315
20 .
Ágrip, op. cit., p. 41.
22 . In 1031 the Church’s bishops could confer sainthood on the dead on their own initiative. By Snorri’s time the Pope alone had this power.
24 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, op. cit., p. 165.
25 . ‘Anglo-Saxon saints in Old Norse sources and vice-versa’, by Christine E. Fell, in
Proceedings of the Eighth Viking Congress (Odense 1981: 95-6).
27 .
Ágrip, op. cit., pp. 47-9.
28 .
Morkinskinna: The earliest Icelandic chronicle of the Norwegian Kings (1030-1157), trans. with an introduction and notes by Theodore M. Anders son and Kari Ellen Gade (Ithaca and London 2000: 66 and 101).
29 .
The Ancient History of the Norwegian Kings, op. cit., p. 34.
30 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 489.
32 .
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, trans. and ed. G. N. Garmonsway (London 1990: 165).
33 .
Heimskringla, op. cit., p. 503, note 1.
CHAPTER 18 HEATHENDOM’S LAST BASTION
1 . There are fewer names than stones because a number of the stones and inscriptions are fragments without names.
3 . This is of course not Harald Hardrada.
7 . A small body of opinion prefers to identify the ‘Ingvar’ of this saga as the Kievan prince Igor, who attacked Constantinople in 941. See above, Chapter 6. See also
Vikingar i Österled, by Mats G. Larsson (Stockholm 2003: 24).
8 .
Adam av Bremen. Beretningen om Hamburg stift, erkebiskopenes bedrifter og øyrikene i Norden, trans. and ed. Bjørg Tosterud Danielsen and Anne Katrine Frihagen (Oslo 1993: 132) (Book 3, Chapter 16).
9 .
The Russian Primary Chronicle, trans. and ed. Samuel H. Cross (Cambridge, Mass. 1930: 225).
10 . ‘Runestones tell about mercenaries going east,’ by Mats G. Larsson, in
Viking Heritage, 2 (2001: 18-19).
11 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 178 (Book 3, Chapter 72).
12 . ibid., p. 80 (Book 2, Chapter 25).
13 . ibid., p. 89 (Book 2, Chapter 37).
14 .
The Viking Achievement, by P. Foote and D. Wilson (London 1974: 32).
15 .
The Early History of the Church of Canterbury, by Nicholas Brooks (Leicester 1984: 283).
17 . A clear division of geographical Sweden into regions dominated by separate tribes known as the Svear and the Gautar at this time is not universally accepted by historians.
18 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 102 (Book 2, Chapter 58).
19 .
Hedenskap og Kristendom, by Fredrik Paasche (Oslo 1948: 41).
20 .
Kristninga i Norden 750-1200, by Jón Vidar Sigurdsson (Oslo 2003: 33).
21 .
Rundata, J RS1928;66 $.
22 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 131 (Book 3, Chapter 15).
23 . ‘The Lily Stones: research findings shed new light on the history of Christianity’, by Christen Åhlin in
Viking Heritage, 3 (2002: 28).
25 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 209 (Book 4, Chapter 30).
26 . ibid., p. 161 (Book 3, Chapter 53).
27 . The rituals were those at Uppsala described by Adam and mentioned earlier, involving the sacrifice of nine males of different genus over a period of nine days.
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 207 (Book 4, Chapter 27).
28 . ‘Study into the socio-political history of the Obodrites’, by Roman Zaroff, in
Collegium Medievale, vol. 16 (2003: 27).
29 . Örjan Martinsson’s website (
http://www.tacitus.nu) is a good guide to this obscure but important period of the history of the Swedes.
30 .
Hervarar saga ok Heidreks was an important source for Tolkien’s
The Lord of the Rings.
31 .
Orkneyinga Saga, trans. and ed. Hermann Pálsson and Paul Edwards (London 1978: p. 80).
32 .
Kristninga i Norden, op. cit., p. 33.
33 .
Vikingatiden i Skåne, by Fredrik Svanberg (Lund 2000: 87).
34 .
Adam av Bremen, op. cit., p. 91 (Book 2, Chapter 41).
35 . ibid., p. 189 (Book 4, Chapter 7).
36 .
Vikingatiden i Skåne, op. cit., p. 93.
37 .
Oxford Dictionary of Popes, by J. N. D. Kelly (Oxford 2003: 154).
38 .
Aschehougs Norges Historie, b. 2, Vikingtid og rikssamling 800-1130, by Claus Krag (Oslo 2005: 240).