1. Important work has been done by Barry; Isichei; Harris; Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa; Miller, Way of Death; Harms; Wright; and Greene, Gender, Ethnicity and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast. Also see Engerman and Inikori, which highlights many of the major issues in this debate. Also see Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery and “The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa.”
2. The Federal Writers Project of the Works Progress Administration, Library of Congress Manuscript Division, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/wpaintro/wpahome.html and Equiano.
3. See the work of Lovejoy and Gomez for similar models.
4. Both Lovejoy and Manning have looked closely at this era in terms of a transformation thesis.
5. Alessandro Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” in Perks and Tomson, 72–73.
6. Conversations with Daphne Bailey, July 2002.
7. Interviews 38 and 39.
8. Interview 37.
9. Interview 39.
10. Interview 37.
11. Anquandah, 14.
12. See the works of Braithwaite and M.G. Smith.
13. Christopher.
14. Quoted in Breed.
15. Ibid.
16. Davies and Ogundipe-Leslie, 8.
17. Interviews 40 and 41.
18. Awoonor, The Breast of the Earth, 122–23.
19. Manning.
20. Perbi, 1–3.
21. Meeting with Nana Nketia, Ghana Museums and Monuments Board chairman, January 6, 2003.
22. See Miers and Kopytoff.
23. Conversation with scholar Richard Newman, Harvard University’s W.E.B. DuBois Center for African American Studies, November 2000.
24. Interview 35.
25. Reporter: The Anti Slavery International (London) (January 2003): 5. See also their Web site, http://www.antislavery.org/ on slavery in Sudan.
26. Ibid.
27. Akyeampong, 221 and see chapter on social effects for more.
28. Chronicle, February 13, 2003. See also “Lack of Legislation in Child Trafficking: 5,000 Cry for Help,” Daily Graphic, March 21, 2003.
29. Van Dantzig, introduction.
30. Anquandah, 11.
31. Ibid.
32. Ato Ashun, West Africa, March 23, 2003, 26.
33. Interview 27 with caretaker of the fort, James Ocloo, regarding St. Croix and St. Thomas natives visiting and saying they are from Keta.
34. Osei Tutu.
35. Interview 24. The lease was withdrawn some years later for reasons that are not entirely clear.
36. Rita Marley Foundation, Ghana, http://www.bobmarley-foundation.com/ghana2003.html.
37. Elia and see also Meriweather.
38. Davies and Ogundipe-Leslie, 7.
39. The others are the slave market at Bono Manso, Ewe paramount chief Adzanu and his participation in the slave trade, the story of the Danish Lt. Svedstrup stationed at Fort Prinzenstein, and the slave narrative Memoirs of Boyrereau Brinch.
40. Nora.
41. Rathbone. See also McGowan. It should be noted here that I did not include but easily could have the many examples of slave resistance in Brazil and elsewhere in South America.
42. Morrison, 36.
43. Hesse. Hesse here is alluding to Toni Morrison in Beloved, 274.
44. Trouillot, 146–47.
1. Amenumey, Hogbeza, 6.
2. Greene, “The Anlo Ewe: Their Economy, Society, and External Relations in the Eighteenth Century,” 24, 40.
3. Ibid., 36; Amenumey, Hogbeza, 6.
4. Greene, “The Anlo Ewe: Their Economy, Society, and External Relations in the Eighteenth Century,” 14–15.
5. Yegbe, 3–4.
6. Yegbe, 36; Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 66.
7. Conversations with translator, Mrs. Edith Vuvor of Dzelukofe.
8. Interviews 1 and 5.
9. Yegbe, 69.
10. The elders often referenced the Danes, Americans, and Europeans interchangeably to signify white traders.
11. Interview 5.
12. Ibid.
13. Chief Tamaklo was a rich trader and plantation owner who was somewhat of a controversial figure in the nineteenth century, in part because in his role as a prominent chief in the area, he argued that the Anlos should attempt to work with the ever-encroaching colonial government. It appears that he was very politically minded—adopting Christianity, for example, as much for political reasons as out of faith. Conversation with Sandra Greene, April 20, 1998 and Interview 7. In any event, this particular part of the account has not been confirmed independently.
14. Interview 1.
15. Interview 11.
16. An extensive review of CO 96 of the Public Records Office in London (specifically 1850–60 records) as well as newspaper accounts from the mid-nineteenth century viewed at British Library Newspapers in London provided no confirmation of a famine.
17. Interview 23. The details of this dispute are unclear. Togbui Adeladza revealed as much as he knew about the affair but was not aware of further details.
18. Excerpts from the Treaty of Washington, quoted in Thomas, 316–17.
19. National Archives, Washington, D.C.: M89, African Squadron logbooks.
20. Thomas, 240.
21. National Archives, Washington, D.C.: M89, roll 108, entries 30, 39, letter to Commodore Crabbe from Secretary of the Navy, January 27, 1855.
22. PRO, FO 313/27/p. 34, Havana mixed court commission records.
23. Lloyd, 169.
24. Interview 15. Also see Aimes and Knight.
25. Awoonor, The Breast of the Earth, 12.
26. Conversations with Klevor Abo of Woe (Spring 1998), who recorded the song as sung by his aunt, Theresa Gadzekpo of Vodza. It is not conclusive that this song, as noted by Mrs. Gadzekpo and Kofi Awoonor’s informants in Breast of the Earth, refers to the Atorkor incident. It may be that it refers to the slave trade in general. The references to Afedima, who was a famous female trader from Woe who also traded slaves, may refer to a voyage that she reportedly took to England from which she brought back the first yevudor—European fishing net. According to Greene, Gender, Ethnicity and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 80 and 165, this voyage took place sometime between 1850 and 1874. The Atorkor incident took place in 1856.
27. Mammattah, 1.
28. Yegbe, 69. Since Scotland was united with Great Britain as of 1707 and this incident took place in the mid-nineteenth century, it is possible that the interchangeable references to English or Scottish traders are not contradictory.
29. Shaw, introduction and 3.
30. Vansina, 14–24. This is consistent with Vansina’s definitions of oral traditions.
31. Amenumey, “A Political History of the Ewe Unification Problem,” 8–11 and also his Ewe Unification Movement.
32. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 144–51.
33. James, Nkrumah and the Ghana Revolution, 104, 177; Opoku Agyeman; Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom.
34. In 1997, for example, he received Minister Louis Farrakhan on his visit to Ghana and also made a high-profile visit to Jamaica.
35. This information was gathered from my own meetings with the Historical Preservation Committee of the National Museum of Ghana in 1993 on the subject of restoration of the slave forts and castles. Also see Shillington, 32–33.
36. Interview 11.
37. Portelli, The Death of Luigi Trastuli, introduction.
38. Interview 1.
39. Elie Wiesel, quoted in Naomi Rosh White, “Making Absences: Holocaust Testimony and History,” in Perks and Tomson, 173.
40. Primo Levi, quoted in ibid., 176.
41. Irina Sherbakova, “The Gulag in Memory,” in Perks and Tomson; Freud (1920), in Perks and Tomson, 193.
42. Aluwahlia, 193, referencing Freud (1920).
43. Portelli, “What Makes Oral History Different,” in Perks and Tomson.
44. Lloyd, 167, 121.
45. Ibid., 121.
46. National Archives, Washington, D.C.: M89, roll 108, letter to Commodore Crabbe, January 27, 1855.
47. Lloyd, 168.
48. PRO, FO 313/29/p. 172, Havana mixed court commission records.
49. DuBois, Suppression of the African Slave Trade, 110–12, 165; Lloyd, 168.
50. Cruickshank, 307.
51. Ibid., 331.
52. Interview 23.
53. Interview 4.
54. Perbi, 3.
1. Kopytoff, introduction.
2. See Miers and Kopytoff.
3. Interviews 25 and 28.
4. Interview 25.
5. Nkrumah was so serious about Pan-Africanism that he married an Egyptian woman as a symbol of the unity between Sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa.
6. The African Union, http://www.africa-union.org/.
7. Thornton, 104; emphasis added.
8. Ryder, 45.
9. See the Primary Source organization, which documents these statistics, http://www.primarysource.org/default.htm.
10. Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, 136–43.
11. Yegbe, 36.
12. Egblewogbe, Games and Songs as Education Media, 52.
13. Aduamah, 7.
14. Ibid, no. 3, p. 1.
15. Interview 10.
16. G. K. Nukunya, in Miers and Roberts, 243–44.
17. Interview 28.
18. The following discussion is consistent with the transformation thesis of Manning and Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery.
19. Bosman, 330.
20. Ibid., 333. See also Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 144–48, for the relatively small volume of early trade.
21. Bosman, 334.
22. Ibid., 331
23. Interview 20; Greene, The Anlo Ewe: Their Economy, Society, and External Relations in the Eighteenth Century, 64.
24. Wilks, “Akwamu,” 16.
25. Ibid., 30.
26. Ibid., 32.
27. Yegbe, 11.
28. Wilks, “Akwamu,” 34.
29. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change, 37.
30. I reach this conclusion based on my personal tour of the fort and a review of pictures of all three forts.
31. John Newton, quoted in Hart, 1:31.
32. Reindorf, 152. The exact quote from Reindorf is: “It was a disease imported by Europeans and which had disastrously affected the country for 357 years.”
33. See Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
34. Evidence of Chief Akolatse before the Crowther Commission, in Crowther, appendix 3.
35. This period coincides with Manning’s date for the last phase of the trade, 1830–60, which is consistent with his discussion of the transformations of the trade. See Manning, 140.
36. Interviews 3 and 20.
37. Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 66.
38. Interview 9.
39. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 165.
40. See chapter 7 on religion for more.
41. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 74–75.
42. Ibid., 73–74.
43. Carstensen, 5.
44. Yegbe, 19.
45. Ibid.; see also Reindorf, 146–48.
46. See also Yegbe, 29–38. Another such individual was the Portuguese trader Baeta, a resident of Atorkor, who also had local connections through marriage. Like Mora, he was forced to continually move his base of operations to avoid capture.
47. Interview 10.
48. Ibid.
49. Interview 2.
50. Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 65.
51. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 127.
52. Turner.
53. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 128; Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 67.
54. Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 67.
55. See Interview 20 as an example.
56. Interview 18.
57. See Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 133–34, for detailed discussion.
58. Interview 4.
59. Interview 11.
60. Interview 18. It is not clear why he was in prison, but it is likely that he was imprisoned by the British, who were trying to curtail his trading efforts.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid., 243.
63. Amenumey, “Geraldo de Lima,” 68.
64. Ibid., 75–77.
65. Falconbridge, in Dow, 139.
66. Johnson, in Anstey and Hair, 27–28.
67. Interview 11.
68. Interview 22. Kpego and Kajani are murky characters in the historical record; not much is known about their origin or their base of operations.
69. Interview 23.
70. Interview 22.
71. See Der for more.
72. Interview 33; Der, 11–14.
73. “The History of the Kagbanya People (Gonja) People,” Gonja Association of North America, http://www.geocities.com/Athens/4495/history1.htm.
74. Interview 21.
75. Interview 28.
76. Johnson, 41.
77. See Arhin, 11; LaTorre, 435–36. This view is held by Reynolds in Trade and Economic Change, which contradicts the earlier views of Ward.
78. Wilks, The Asante in the Nineteenth Century, 176.
79. Ibid., 675.
80. Arhin, 10. See also Wilks, “Asante Policy towards Hausa Trade in the Nineteenth Century,” 124–33, for a different view of the role of traders. He maintains that there was a high level of organization of state trading from 1750 to 1764, which became more entrenched from 1801 to 1824. This was part of what he calls the “bureaucratisation” of administrative function in the Asante empire.
81. Bowdich, 336.
82. Gouldsbury (1876), in Johnson, 39.
83. “An Exhibition on the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Ghana,” Ghana Museums Board, 6; “The Slave Routes of Northern Ghana,” Chicago-Ghana Tourism Initiative, http://www.ghanaslaveroutes.org.
84. Tour of Bono Manso slave market and Interview 33.
85. Wilks, The Asante in the Nineteenth Century, 681.
86. Wilks, “Akwamu,” 83.
87. Wilks, The Asante in the Nineteenth Century, 57.
88. Ibid.; Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 129.
89. PRO: CO 96/35; Wilks, The Asante in the Nineteenth Century, 223–24.
90. Claridge, 548–51.
91. Horton, 78–89; letter to the African Times, September 22, 1866.
92. Wilks, The Asante in the Nineteenth Century, 225.
93. Johnson, 37, 57.
94. See Inikori, Forced Migration for more.
95. Bowdich, 325.
96. Davis, 38–40.
97. Brazil House Rehabilitation Project, 5–8; meeting with Wolowski, December 2004.
98. Evidence of Chief Akolatse before the Crowther Commission, in Crowther, appendix 3.
1. Dubois, A Biography of Sylvia Dubois.
2. Ibid., 3; also see Higginbotham, 267–310, for more on this discussion and queries about the timing of the incident.
3. James, A History of Negro Revolt, 21. See also Genovese.
4. U.N. Web site: http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/activities/against_slavery.html.
5. James, A History of Negro Revolt, 21.
6. Hart, 2:334–35.
7. Ibid., 337.
8. Richard Hart, public lectures at the Harriet Tubman Museum in London, Summer 1997.
9. Bosman, 365. See also Harris (1987), 87–88, regarding African resistance to the trade.
10. Gomez, 206; and see also Rathbone.
11. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 112–13. In the oral collection of historian Sandra Greene, there is a more general reference to parents rather than simply mothers taking these decisions, though I am inclined to believe from my sources and others that the women in the family held sway over this decision.
12. Davies and Ogundipe-Leslie, 8. See also Henry Louis Gates Jr., in Larison and Lobdell.
13. Albert, 1.
14. Foster, introduction to Albert, xxx.
15. Albert, 3.
16. Ibid., 4.
17. Schwartz, 1.
18. Albert, 33.
19. Ibid., 34.
20. Ibid., 35–36.
21. Prince; “Documenting the American South,” http://docsouth.unc.edu/, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Academic Affairs Library, 17.
22. Thomas Pringle, preface to Prince.
23. Ibid., xxxii.
24. Goss and Barnes.
25. Prince, 24.
26. Ibid., 19, 24.
27. Gomez, 208; emphasis added.
28. Brinch; “Documenting the American South,” http://docsouth.unc.edu/, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Academic Affairs Library, 3–4.
29. Brinch, 21.
30. Ibid., 71.
31. Ibid., 81–84; emphasis added.
32. Brinch, 169.
33. Oldfield; Brown; Prince, 19.
1. See the work of Ghanaian poet and scholar Kofi Anyidoho for more on traditional Ewe storytelling.
2. Gomez, 199–209.
3. Good examples are in Interview 18 and Interview 10.
4. See Eltis et al. This is a collection of the records of 27, 233 slave ships, but it is estimated that there were thousands more.
5. Equiano, http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/index.htm. In recent years, some academics, including S. E. Ogude and Vincent Caretta, have challenged the authenticity of this much-studied narrative. These findings, however, are still highly debated in the academy, and so for our purposes here we shall accept the long-standing tradition and use of this narrative as an important source on the history of the slave trade. See “Where Was Olaudah Equiano Born?” http://www.brycchancarey.com/equiano/nativity.htm. See also the narrative of Boyrereau Brinch for a similar perception of whites.
6. Isichei, 37.
7. Ibid., 39.
8. See also Harris (1987), 84, for similar discussion.
9. Gomer Williams, 466
10. These sources include records from the Gold Coast: Governor Carstensen’s Diary (1842), Brodie Cruikshank’s Eighteen Years on the Gold Coast of Africa (1853), Carl Reindorf’s History of the Gold Coast and the Asante (1895), and English colonial records (1850–60). Much information has also been gathered from Gomer Williams’s History of Liverpool Privateers and Letters of Marque, with an Account of the Liverpool Slave Trade (1897), Aimes’s History of the Slave Trade in Cuba, (1907), Claridge’s A History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti (1915), autobiographies of slave ship captains in the nineteenth century, and documents from the Havana Mixed Trade Commission (1840–60).
11. Falconbridge, in Dow, 136.
12. Ibid.
13. Brooks, Yankee Traders, 112.
14. Lloyd, 167.
15. Aimes, 87.
16. Ibid., 88–92.
17. PRO, FO 313/24/p. 212.
18. Aimes, 95; PRO, FO 313/23/ p. 7.
19. Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 147–48.
20. Davies, 11–17, 240–50, 266–67. Relations with the Dutch in the late seventeenth century were particularly contentious. The cause of the conflicts was not limited to the issue of interlopers but also concerned disputes over the rights to certain settlements on the Gold Coast such as Kommenda and Sekondi.
21. Ibid., 18.
22. Gomer Williams, 468. The Spanish sovereigns inaugurated a system of special contracts (assiento), which became of international significance, under which they bestowed from time to time the monopoly of the supply of Africans for their American possessions on foreign nations, corporations, or individuals, who in turn employed subcontractors (http://www.jahsonic.com/SlaveTrade.html).
23. W. E. Minchington, “The Slave Trade of Bristol with the British Mainland Colonies in North America, 1699–1770,” in Anstey and Hair, 39.
24. Anstey and Hair, introduction and 7; D. P. Lamb, “Volume and Tonnage of the Liverpool Slave Trade, 1772–1807,” in Anstey and Hair, 91.
25. David Richardson, “Profits in the Liverpool Slave Trade: The Accounts of William Davenport, 1757–1784,” in Anstey and Hair, 67.
26. This aspect was fictionalized by Jane Austen in Mansfield Park.
27. Richardson, in Anstey and Hair, 68.
28. Mannix and Cowley, 73.
29. For example, Thomas Golightly (1732–1821), mayor of Liverpool in 1772–73, was listed among the company of merchants trading to Africa in 1807. These and other examples are documented in the Liverpool exhibit “Transatlantic Slavery,” Merseyside Maritime Museum, Albert Dock, Liverpool, England.
30. Gomer Williams, 598.
31. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, 52, 58
32. Ibid., 63, 64.
33. Walvin, 313.
34. Liverpool exhibit.
35. Mannix and Cowley, 73.
36. Behrendt; B. K. Drake, “The Liverpool-Africa Voyage, c. 1790–1807: Commercial Problems,” in Anstey and Hair, 104, 128.
37. Richardson, in Anstey and Hair, 67–68.
38. Behrendt, 86–93.
39. Manning, 151, 206.
40. Stammers, 35.
41. Hoyt, 97; Walvin, 45.
42. Walvin, 46.
43. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery, 68.
44. Walvin, 30–31; Clarke.
45. Interview 6.
46. Richardson, in Anstey and Hair, 74.
47. Walvin, 16–21; Slavery: An Introduction to the African Holocaust, 104.
48. Weskett, viii.
49. Ibid.
50. Richardson, in Anstey and Hair, 74.
51. Aimes, 171.
52. Canot, 106.
53. Dow, 10.
54. Walvin, 53.
55. Behrendt, 99.
56. Dow, 14.
57. Spiegl.
58. Gomer Williams, 688.
59. Mannix and Cowley, 143.
60. Behrendt, 112; Hunter, 138.
61. Carstensen, 9.
62. Ibid., 4
63. Ibid., 44.
64. Dow, 10–11.
65. Interview 7.
66. Walvin, 32.
67. Carstensen, 11.
68. Fage, “A New Check List of the Forts and Castles of Ghana.”
69. Walvin, 32–33.
70. Daaku, Trade and Politics on the Gold Coast, 30. See also Inikori, “The Impact of Firearms in West Africa.” In this article, Inikori estimates the total import of guns during this period to be between 283,000 and 294,000 per annum, most of which went to major slave-exporting regions. See also chapter 6 on the political effects of the slave trade for more detailed discussion.
71. The Basel mission began work in Accra in the 1820s. The North German (Bremen) mission came in 1847. Their efforts included developing the first Ewe primer, grammar, and dictionary and a translation of the Bible. See also chapter 7 on religion for more.
72. Cruikshank; “Dutch Slave Dealing in Africa,” 3–4.
73. Lloyd, 118.
74. Stammers, 40.
75. Walvin, 22.
76. Ibid., 57–58.
77. Walvin, 48; Equiano, 26.
78. Falconbridge, in Dow, 146, 148.
79. Ibid., 146.
80. Ibid.
81. Walvin.
82. Ibid., 52.
83. Liverpool exhibit.
84. Gomer Williams, 477.
85. Equiano, 27. See also same phenomenon in the apartheid era discussed by Archbishop Desmond Tutu in No Future without Forgiveness in terms of white security officers and their abusive treatment of their wives and children.
86. Nukunya, Kinship and Marriage among the Anlo Ewe, 23–25.
87. Lloyd, 173. The Wanderer made many slave voyages. In 1857 it sailed to the Congo and bought 750 boys and girls, aged thirteen to eighteen, then set sail for the Savannah River.
88. Ibid., 118.
89. Aimes, 202.
90. PRO, FO 313/23/ nos. 30, 48.
91. PRO, FO 313/29/p. 74.
92. Aimes, 209, 171.
93. Walvin.
94. Aimes, 111.
95. PRO, FO 313/26/ p. 171.
96. Williams, in Davidson, 73–75.
97. Ibid.
98. Martin Klein, 16–19.
99. See Rohrbach.
100. Interviews 35 and 36.
101. See Norregard and some of his sources: the Guinea Journal and Letters Sent to General Customs Department and Commerce Collegium, Copenhagen.
102. Norregard, 214; Akyeampong, 53. Also see evidence of the incident in Claridge, 457–58, Ward, 152–53, and in the novel by Alexander Svedstrup called Erik Gudmand.
103. Isichei, 26.
104. Norregard, 173–78.
105. Ibid., 173.
106. Eltis and Walvin, 6. See also Anstey.
107. See Engerman and Inikori.
1. Interview 11i.
2. Interview 9.
3. Interview 18.
4. Inikori, Forced Migration, 28.
5. See chapter 3 on African agency for a discussion of Geraldo de Lima.
6. Interview 2. See also Harris (1972), 89, for a similar discussion of impact.
7. Interview 4.
8. Interview 5.
9. Christine King Farris, 17.
10. Ibid., 26.
11. See Manning, 142.
12. Interview 4.
13. Interview 6.
14. Much work has been done on the diversity of African slavery by Miers and Kopytoff, among others. Often, distinctions have been drawn between African slavery and New World slavery. Inikori, in a recent essay, suggests that it might be more apt to compare African slavery to servile social categories in medieval Europe. See Inikori, “Slavery in Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade,” in Jalloh and Maizlish.
15. Interview 10.
16. Inikori, Forced Migration, 45.
17. Interview 10.
18. Interview 7.
19. See Miers and Kopytoff for a discussion on the need to put African “slavery” in quotes because of this fact.
20. Carstensen, 28–29; emphasis added.
21. Interview 29. Some of these terms were verified in a conversation with Ms. Kafui Ofori, University of Ghana Language Center, June 2004.
22. See Emma Toonen, “Ghana: Mediating a Way out of Complex Ethnic Conflicts,” http://www.ama.africatoday.com/konkomba.htm/. Early and more recent collections of oral histories confirm that they were indeed victims of many raids, particularly at the hands of slave traders in neighboring Dagomba communities. See also Cardinall, 232; Interview 32.
23. Der, 32.
24. Interview 33.
25. Interviews 28 and 29.
26. Rutgers Oral History Archives of World War II, http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/oralhistory/home.html.
27. Interview 25.
28. Burns. See also Haas, 104–5, 136–40, for detailed discussion on the ways in which some survivors have blocked out memories of the Holocaust and the effect this has had on their children.
29. Survivors of the Shoah Visual History Foundation started in 1994.
30. Eisner, 13.
31. Interview 32.
32. Meillassoux.
33. Interview 11.
34. Bosman, 331; and see chapter 3 on African agency. See also Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, 220.
35. Isert, 75.
36. Ibid., 56–57.
37. Ibid., 57.
38. Ibid., 189; emphasis added.
39. Reynolds, Stand the Storm, 98. See also Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
40. See Ali Mazrui, The Africans: A Triple Heritage, film series produced by WETA and BBC.
41. “The Buying Power of Black America” report is based on an analysis of expenditures reported by three thousand black households for the Department of Commerce’s Consumer Expenditure Survey.
42. Interview 29.
43. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 112–13.
44. Amenumey, “A Political History of the Ewe Unification Problem.”
45. Ibid., 12–14; Amenumey, Hogbeza, 17; and see Awoonor, The Breast of the Earth.
46. Amenumey, Hogbeza, 28.
47. Ibid., 15.
48. Ibid., 17.
49. Interview 6.
50. Interview 20.
51. Interview 23.
52. Interview 20; Amenumey, Hogbeza, 17.
53. Interview 6.
54. Interview 20.
55. Interview 6.
56. Miller, Way of Death, 223.
57. Reynolds, Stand the Storm, 99; Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 107–8.
58. Daaku, “The European Traders and the Coastal States.”
59. Inikori, Forced Migration, 127.
60. Ibid., 129–35.
61. Selena Axelrod Winsnes, in Isert, 83–84.
62. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 133.
63. Interview 4; emphasis added.
64. Ward, 129.
65. See Harris (1972), 83.
66. Isert, 61.
67. Ibid., 41.
68. Ibid., 27.
69. Ibid., 54.
70. Ibid., 73.
71. Ibid., 42.
72. Ibid., 56–57.
73. Ibid., 74; Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 83.
74. Inikori, Forced Migration, 50.
75. See Law, The Slave Coast of West Africa, for discussion of a similar phenomenon elsewhere on the coast. Also see Engerman and Inikori, 7.
76. Reynolds, Stand the Storm, 114.
77. See chapter 3 for detailed discussion of Geraldo’s activities in the context of the activities of other traders.
78. Awoonor, The Breast of the Earth, 19.
79. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 130.
80. Carstensen, 19.
81. Bradbury, 49.
82. Carstensen, 36.
83. Conversations with Professor Kwame Arhin in Accra and Kumasi, September and November 2004.
84. Interview 31.
85. Akyeampong, 221. See also the last chapter of his book.
86. Interview 9.
87. Conversation with Kafui Ofori, University of Ghana Language Center, June 2004.
88. Nirit Ben-Ari, “Liberating Girls From Trokosi,” African Recovery (December 2001): 9.
89. Obenewa Amponsah, “The Trokosi: Religious Slavery in Ghana,” http://www.anti-slavery.org/global/ghana/.
90. Ben-Ari, 9.
91. Regarding slavery and other forms of servitude in contemporary Africa, see also Derrick, 19–33; Mercer; Jok; Bales; and U.S. Congress.
1. Meyer, 218.
2. Mazrui, The Africans: A Triple Heritage.
3. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 2; and Kofi Asare Opoku, “African Traditional Religion: An Enduring Heritage,” in Olupona and Nyang, 67. The word “traditional” here and in the preceding works refers to religions indigenous to the continent as opposed to those that were promulgated by missionaries and others from outside the continent.
4. See also Blassingame; Walker.
5. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 3.
6. Nooter, 10; Nii Otokunor Quarcoopome, “Dangme Art and the Politics of Secrecy,” in Nooter, 114.
7. Dzobo, 66.
8. Rivière, 15; Gaba, 47
9. Fiawoo, 88.
10. Gaba, 54
11. Mbiti,. Concepts of God in Africa, 12–18.
12. Gaba, 77.
13. Ibid., 337.
14. Opoku, 75.
15. Ibid.
16. I attended a number of funerals during my stay on the Ewe coast. The attendance of funerals was a community affair and in general a joyous occasion. Often there was a small booklet published for the occasion on the life of the deceased. Every significant detail would be mentioned, including a list of ancestors and surviving relatives. Often also in this biography were tributes from friends and relatives who asserted their belief that the deceased would now join the realm of the ancestors.
17. Fiawoo, 221
18. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 112.
19. Greene, “The Anlo-Ewe: Their Economy, Society, and External Relations in the Eighteenth Century,” 399n32.
20. Fiawoo, 222–23; Greene, “The Anlo Ewe: Their Economy, Society, and External Relations in the Eighteenth Century,: 278n5.
21. Interview 23.
22. J. Die Spieth, Die Religion des Eweer, 147, quoted in Debrunner, A Church between Colonial Powers, 62.
23. Fiawoo, 220–29.
24. Debrunner, A Church between Colonial Powers, 78.
25. Muller, Geschichte der Ewe Mission, 23, quoted in ibid.
26. Debrunner, A Church between Colonial Powers, 84.
27. Interview 11.
28. Torgby, i.
29. Ibid., 10.
30. Interview 9.
31. Interview 10; Fiawoo, 75.
32. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 145; Torgby, iii.
33. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 95.
34. Torgby, iv.
35. Fiawoo, 70; Interview 10.
36. Torgby, iv.
37. Interview 9.
38. Torgby, 3–7.
39. Interview 19.
40. Interview 11.
41. Interview 9.
42. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 101.
43. Torgby, 1–2.
44. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 154.
45. See chapter 6 for more regarding the social chaos that resulted from the trade.
46. Interview 9.
47. Torgby, 1.
48. See chapter 6 on the social and political effects of the slave trade; Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 112–13.
49. Interview 29.
50. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 98.
51. Torgby, 3.
52. Interview 9.
53. Ibid. Kevigatowo—owners/carriers of bib baskets—are also more generally associated with fishermen.
54. Dzobo, vii–viii.
55. See Manning, 122–25; Nooter, 18–19. Also see Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 35–43 for a similar discussion of various principles or ideals that can be loosely associated with precolonial Africa. Also it should be noted that these were ideals as distinguished from practices.
56. Dzobo, 53–54.
57. Torgby, 2.
58. Debrunner, A History of Christianity in Ghana, 14.
59. Ibid., 48–49.
60. Ibid., 50.
61. Recently the pope and the Church of England have made formal apologies for their role in the trade, cited in an article in the Daily Telegraph (London), “Church Leaders: Let’s Say Sorry for Our Evil History,” March 16, 1997; see also Debrunner, A History of Christianity in Ghana, 152.
62. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast, 114.
63. Ibid.
64. Interview 9.
65. Dzobo, 142, 144.
66. Manning, 33.
67. Dike, The Aro of Southeastern Nigeria, 131. See also Harris (1972), 90.
68. Dike, The Aro of Southeastern Nigeria, 130–33, 139; Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 39.
69. Dike, Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta, 40.
70. Debrunner, A History of Christianity in Ghana, 208.
71. Meyer, 32.
72. Ibid., 39.
73. Fred Agyemang, introduction.
74. Ibid., 72.
75. Debrunner, A History of Christianity in Ghana, 152–53.
76. Muller, 44–57.
77. Debrunner, A Church between Colonial Powers, 87.
78. Meyer, 8–11.
79. Debrunner, A Church between Colonial Powers, 85; Montsblatt der Norddeutschen Mission gesellschaft up to and after 1850.
80. Fred Agyemang, introduction.
81. Ibid.
82. Hayford, 74.
83. Achebe, Hopes and Impediments.
84. Nkrumah, Africa Must Unite, 22.
85. Ibid., 45.
86. Ibid., 29–30.
87. Lucy Mair (1934), in Nukunya, Tradition and Change, 126–27.
1. Robinson, 203.
2. Hill. See also Negro History Bulletin; Robinson, 204.
3. Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro, 332, 282–84.
4. Ibid.
5. Mary Frances Berry, as quoted in Dr. Conrad Worrill, “A Reparations Historical Overview,” National Black Law Students Web site, http://nblsa.org/programs/reparations/2003-2004/worrill.html.
6. Martin Luther King Jr.
7. Robinson, 202.
8. Davies and Ogundipe-Leslie, 8.
9. James and van de Vijver, introduction and 43. See also TRC Web site: http://www.doj.gov.za/trc/index.html.
10. Rothberg, 11.
11. Tutu, 58–62.
12. West Africa, February 1991. See also Osabu-Kle, “The African Reparation Cry.”
13. Chris McGreal, “Africans Back Down at UN Talks,” Guardian Unlimited, September 9, 2001.
14. Matthew Tokson, Dartmouth Review, February 4, 2002.
15. CNN.COM http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/03/26/slavery.reparations/).
16. Lori Rotenberk, “Slavery Reparations Lawsuit Dismissed: Families Had Argued That Firms Benefited,” Globe, January 27, 2004.
17. Barbara Blake Hannah, Jamaican Reparations Movement, Listserv correspondence, October 13, 2002.
18. Interview 27.
19. Schuck.
20. “Church Leaders: Let’s Say Sorry for Our Evil History,” Daily Telegraph (London), March 16, 1997.
21. Representatives of the African Union have reported that the union is independently considering a number of outreach proposals with respect to the African Diaspora (outside of the discussion and context of reparations). Preparatory meeting of Conference of African Intellectuals, Dakar, Senegal, May 3–5, 2004.
22. See Tutu; TRC Web site on black collaborators in the apartheid regime.
23. See Web site for more information: http://clk.about.com/?zi=1/XJ&sdn=racerelations&zu=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnationalslaverymuseum.org%2F.
24. See also Tatum.