ONE • INTRODUCTION
1. I am indebted to Robert Jervis’s book The Logic of Images in International Relations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970) for much of my thinking about international deceit and for bringing to my attention the writings of Alexander Groth. This quote was analyzed in Groth’s article “On the Intelligence Aspects of Personal Diplomacy,” Orbis 7 (1964): 833–49. It is from Keith Feiling, The Life of Neville Chamberlain (London: Macmillan, 1947, p. 367).
2. Speech to the House of Commons, September 28, 1938. Neville Chamberlain, In Search of Peace (New York: Putnam and Sons, 1939, p. 210, as cited by Groth).
3. This work was reported in a series of articles in the late 1960s and in a book I edited entitled Darwin and Facial Expression (New York: Academic Press, 1973).
4. This work is reported in my first article on deception: Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, “Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception,” Psychiatry 32 (1969): 88–105.
5. Roberta Wohlstetter, “Slow Pearl Harbors and the Pleasures of Deception,” in Intelligence Policy and National Security, ed. Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Uri Ra’anan, and Warren Milberg, (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1981), pp. 23–34.
TWO • LYING, LEAKAGE, AND CLUES TO DECEIT
1. San Francisco Chronicle, October 28, 1982, p. 12.
2. The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 1616.
3. See Paul F. Secord, “Facial Features and Inference Processes in Interpersonal Perception,” in Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior,” ed. R. Taguiri and L. Petrullo (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958). Also, Paul Ekman, “Facial Signs: Facts, Fantasies and Possibilities,” in Sight, Sound and Sense, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978).
4. Argument persists about whether or not animals can deliberately choose to lie. See David Premack and Ann James Premack, The Mind of an Ape (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1983). Also, Premack and Premack, “Communication as Evidence of Thinking,” in Animal Mind—Human Mind, ed. D. R. Griffin (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982).
5. I am grateful to Michael I. Handel for citing this quote in his very stimulating article “Intelligence and Deception,” Journal of Strategic Studies 5 (March 1982): 122–54. The quote is from Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini’s Roman Empire, p. 170.
6. This distinction is used by most analysts of deceit. See Handel, “Intelligence,” and Barton Whaley, “Toward a General Theory of Deception,” Journal of Strategic Studies 5 (March 1982): 179–92 for discussions of the utility of this distinction in analyzing military deceits.
7. Sisela Bok reserves the term lying for what I call falsification and uses the term secrecy for what I call concealment. The distinction she claims to be of moral importance, for she argues that while lying is “prima facie wrong, with a negative presumption against it, secrecy need not be” (Bok, Secrets [New York: Pantheon, 1982], p. xv.
8. Eve Sweetser, “The Definition of a Lie,” in Cultural Models in Language and Thought, ed. Naomi Quinn and Dorothy Holland, (1987), p. 56.
9. David E. Rosenbaum New York Times, December 17, 1980.
10. John Updike, Marry Me, (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1976), p. 90.
11. Ezer Weizman, The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 1981), p. 182.
12. Alan Bullock, Hitler (New York: Harper & Row, 1964, rev. ed.), p. 528. As cited by Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970).
13. Robert Daley, The Prince of the City (New York: Berkley Books, 1981), p. 101.
14. Weizman, Battle, p. 98.
15. Jon Carroll, “Everyday Hypocrisy—A User’s Guide,” San Francisco Chronicle, April 11, 1983, p. 17.
16. Updike, Marry Me, p. 90.
THREE • WHY LIES FAIL
1. John J. Sirica, To Set the Record Straight (New York: New American Library, 1980), p. 142.
2. James Phelan, Scandals, Scamps and Scoundrels (New York: Random House, 1982), p. 22.
3. Terence Rattigan, The Winslow Boy (New York: Dramatists Play Service Inc. Acting Edition, 1973), p. 29.
4. This story is contained in David Lykken’s book A Tremor in the Blood: Uses and Abuses of the Lie Detector (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981).
5. Phelan, Scandals, p. 110.
6. Robert D. Hare, Psychopathy: Theory and Research (New York: John Wiley, 1970), p. 5.
7. Michael I. Handel, “Intelligence and Deception,” Journal of Strategic Studies 5 (1982): 136.
8. San Francisco Chronicle, January 9, 1982, p. 1.
9. San Francisco Chronicle, January 21, 1982, p. 43.
10. William Hood, Mole (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1982), p. 11.
11. Bruce Horowitz, “When Should an An Executive Lie?” Industry Week, November 16, 1981, p. 81.
12. Ibid, p. 83.
13. This idea was suggested by Robert L. Wolk and Arthur Henley in their book The Right to Lie (New York: Peter H. Wyden, Inc., 1970).
14. Alan Dershowitz, The Best Defense (New York: Random House, 1982), p. 370.
15. Shakespeare, Sonnet 138.
16. Roberta Wohlstetter, “Slow Pearl Harbours and the Pleasures of Deception,” in Intelligence Policy and National Security, ed. Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, Jr., Uri Ra’anan, and Warren Milberg (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Press, 1981).
FOUR • DETECTING DECEIT FROM WORDS, VOICE, OR BODY
1. In “Facial Signs: Facts, Fantasies and Possibilities,” in Sight, Sound, and Sense, ed. Thomas A. Sebeok (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), I describe eighteen different messages conveyed by the face, one of which is the mark of unique individual identity.
2. See J. Sergent and D. Bindra, “Differential Hemispheric Processing of Faces: Methodological Considerations and Reinterpretation,” Psychological Bulletin 89 (1981): 554–554.
3. Some of this work was reported by Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, Maureen O’Sullivan, and Klaus Scherer, “Relative Importance of Face, Body and Speech in Judgments of Personality and Affect,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (1980): 270–77.
4. Bruce Horowitz, “When Should an Executive Lie?” Industry Week, November 16, 1981, p. 83.
5. S. Freud, The psychopathology of everyday life (1901), in James Strachey, tr. and ed., The Complete Psychological Works, vol. 6 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976), p. 86.
6. Freud gave many interesting, briefer examples of slips of the tongue, but they are not as convincing as the one I selected, because they had to be translated from the original German. Dr. Brill was an American, and Freud quoted this example in English. Ibid., pp. 89–90.
7. S. Freud, Parapraxes (1916), in James Strachey, tr. and ed., The Complete Psychological Works, vol. 15 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976), p. 66.
8. John Weisman, “The Truth will Out,” TV Guide, September 3, 1977, p. 13.
9. A number of new techniques developed to measure the voice promise breakthroughs in the next few years. For a review of these methods, see Klaus Scherer, “Methods of Research on Vocal Communication: Paradigms and Parameters,” in Handbook of Methods in Nonverbal Behavior Research, ed. Klaus Scherer and Paul Ekman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
10. These results are reported by Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, and Klaus Scherer, “Body Movement and Voice Pitch in Deceptive Interaction,” Semiotica 16 (1976): 23–27. The findings have been replicated by Scherer and by other investigators.
11. John. J. Sirica, To Set the Record Straight (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979), pp. 99–100.
12. Richard Nixon, The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, vol. 2 (New York: Warner Books, 1979), p. 440.
13. Sirica, To Set the Record Straight, pp. 99–100.
14. Ibid.
15. John Dean, Blind Ambition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), p. 304.
16. Ibid., pp. 309–10.
17. For critical reviews of these various voice stress lie detection techniques, see David T. Lykken, A Tremor in the Blood by (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), chap. 13 and Harry Hollien, “The Case against Stress Evaluators and Voice Lie Detection,” (unpub. mimeograph, Institute for Advanced Study of the Communication Processes, University of Florida, Gainesville).
18. A description of our method for surveying emblems and the results for Americans is contained in Harold G. Johnson, Paul Ekman, and Wallace V. Friesen, “Communicative Body Movements: American Emblems,” Semiotica 15 (1975): 335–53. For comparison of emblems in different cultures, see Ekman, “Movements with Precise Meanings,” Journal of Communication 26 (1976): 14–26.
19. Efron’s book, Gesture and Environment, published in 1941, is back in print again under the title Gesture, Race, and Culture (The Hague: Mouton Press, 1972).
20. For a discussion of manipulators, see Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, “Nonverbal Behavior and Psychopathology,” in The Psychology of Depression: Contemporary Theory and Research ed. R. J. Friedman and M. N. Katz (Washington, D.C.: J. Winston, 1974).
21. For a current exponent of this view, see George Mandler, Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1984).
22. Paul Ekman, Robert W. Levenson, & Wallace V. Friesen, “Autonomic Nervous System Activity Distinguishes between Emotions,” Science 1983, vol. 221, pp. 1208–10.
FIVE • FACIAL CLUES TO DECEIT
1. The descriptions of the impairment of voluntary and involuntary systems with different lesions is taken from the clinical literature. See, for example, K. Tschiassny, “Eight Syndromes of Facial Paralysis and Their Significance in Locating the Lesion,” Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology 62 (1953): 677–91. The description of how these different patients might have difficulty or success in deception is my extrapolation.
2. For a review of all the scientific evidence, see Paul Ekman, Darwin and Facial Expression: A Century of Research in Review (New York: Academic Press, 1973). For a less technical discussion, and photographs illustrating universals in an isolated, preliterate, New Guinea people, see Ekman, Face of Man: Expressions of Universal Emotions in a New Guinea Village (New York: Garland STMP Press, 1980).
3. Ekman, Face of Man, pp. 133–36.
4. The Facial Action Coding System, Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1978), is a self-instructional package—containing a manual, illustrative photographs and films, and computer programs—that teaches the reader how to describe or measure any expression.
5. See E. A. Haggard and K. S. Isaacs, “Micromomentary Facial Expressions,” in Methods of Research in Psychotherapy, ed. L. A. Gottschalk and A. H. Auerbach (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, 1966).
6. Unmasking the Face, Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1984), provides the pictures and instructions on how to acquire this skill.
7. Friesen and I developed a Requested Facial Action Test, which explores how well someone can deliberately move each muscle and also pose emotion. See by Paul Ekman, Gowen Roper, and Joseph C. Hager, “Deliberate Facial Movement,” Child Development 51 (1980): 886–91 for results on children.
8. Column by William Safire, “Undetermined,” in the San Francisco Chronicle, June 28, 1983.
9. “Anwar Sadat—in his own words,” in the San Francisco Examiner, October 11, 1981.
10. Ezer Weizman, The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam, 1981), p. 165.
11. Margaret Mead, Soviet Attitudes toward Authority (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1951), pp. 65–66. As cited by Erving Goffman, Strategic Interaction (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1969), p. 21.
12. San Francisco Chronicle, January 11, 1982.
13. Harold Sackeim, Ruben C. Gur, and Marcel C. Saucy, “Emotions Are Expressed More Intensely on the Left Side of the Face,” Science 202 (1978): 434.
14. See Paul Ekman, “Asymmetry in Facial Expression,” and Sackeim’s rebuttal in Science 209 (1980): 833–36.
15. Paul Ekman, Joseph C. Hager, and Wallace V. Friesen, “The Symmetry of Emotional and Deliberate Facial Actions,” Psychophysiology 18/2 (1981): 101–6.
16. Joseph C. Hager and Paul Ekman, “The Asymmetry of Facial Actions Is Inconsistent with Models of Hemispheric Specialization,” Psychophysiology 49(5) (1985): 1416–26.
17. I am grateful to Ronald van Gelder for his help in this unpublished study.
18. San Francisco Chronicle, June 14, 1982.
19. See Paul Ekman and Joseph C. Hager, “Long Distance Transmission of Facial Affect Signals,” Ethology and Sociobiology 1 (1979): 77–82.
20. Paul Ekman, Wallace V. Friesen, and Sonia Ancoli, “Facial Signs of Emotional Experience,” by Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980): 1125–34.
SIX • DANGERS AND PRECAUTIONS
1. David M. Hayano, “Communicative Competence among Poker Players,” Journal of Communication 30 (1980): 117.
2. Ibid., p. 115.
3. William Shakespeare, Othello, act 5, scene 2.
4. Richards J. Heuer, Jr., “Cognitive Factors in Deception and Counterdeception,” in Strategic Military Deception, ed. Donald C. Daniel and Katherine L. Herbig (New York: Pergamon Press, 1982), p. 59.
5. Ross Mullaney, “The Third Way—The Interroview,” unpublished mimeograph, 1979.
6. Schopenhauer, “Our Relation to Others,” in The Works of Schopenhauer, ed. Will Durant (Garden City, N.Y.: Garden City Publishing Company, 1933).
7. See Lykken’s book Tremor in the Blood (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981) for a full description of how to use the Guilty Knowledge Technique with the polygraph in criminal interrogations.
8. Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation—A Technical Memorandum (Washington D.C.: U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-TM-H-15, November 1983).
SEVEN • THE POLYGRAPH AS LIE CATCHER
1. Richard O. Arther, “How Many Robbers, Burglars, Sex Criminals Is Your Department Hiring This Year?? (Hopefully, Just 10% of Those Employed!),” Journal of Polygraph Studies 6 (May–June 1972), unpaged.
2. David T. Lykken, “Polygraphic Interrogation,” Nature, February 23, 1984, pp. 681–84.
3. Leonard Saxe, personal communication.
4. Most of my figures on the use of the polygraph come from Scientific Validity of Polygraph Testing: A Research Review and Evaluation—A Technical Memorandum (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-TM-H-15, November 1983). Essentially the same report will appear as an article entitled “The Validity of Polygraph Testing,” by Leonard Saxe, Denise Dougherty, and Theodore Cross, in American Psychologist, January 1984.
5. David C. Raskin, “The Truth about Lie Detectors,” The Wharton Magazine, Fall 1980, p. 29.
6. Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) report, p. 31.
7. Benjamin Kleinmuntz and Julian J. Szucko, “On the Fallibility of Lie Detection,” Law and Society Review 17 (1982): 91.
8. Statement of Richard K. Willard, Deputy Assistant Attorney General, U.S. Department of Justice, before the Legislation and National Security Committee of the Committee on Government Operations, U. S. House of Representatives, October 19, 1983, mimeograph, p. 22.
9. OTA report, p. 29.
10. The OTA was created in 1972 as an analytical arm of Congress. The report on the polygraph is available by writing to the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
11. Marcia Garwood and Norman Ansley, The Accuracy and Utility of Polygraph Testing, Department of Defense, 1983, unpaged.
12. David C. Raskin, “The Scientific Basis of Polygraph Techniques and Their Uses in the Judicial Process, in Reconstructing the Past: The Role of Psychologists in Criminal Trials, ed. A. Trankell (Stockholm: Norstedt and Soners, 1982), p. 325.
13. David T. Lykken, A Tremor in the Blood, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981), p. 118.
14. David T. Lykken, personal communication.
15. Lykken, Tremor in the Blood, p. 251.
16. Raskin, “Scientific Basis,” p. 341.
17. OTA report, p. 50.
18. Raskin, “Scientific Basis,” p. 330.
19. Avital Ginton, Netzer Daie, Eitan Elaad, and Gershon Ben-Shakhar, “A Method for Evaluating the Use of the Polygraph in a Real-Life Situation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 67 (1982): 132.
20. OTA report, p. 132.
21. Ginton et al., “Method for Evaluating,” p. 136.
22. Jack Anderson, San Francisco Chronicle, May 21, 1984.
23. OTA report, p. 102.
24. Statement by David C. Raskin at hearings on S. 1845 held by the Subcommittee on the Constitution, United States Senate, September 19, 1978, p. 14.
25. OTA report, pp. 75–76.
26. Raskin, Statement, p. 17.
27. Lykken, Tremor in the Blood, chap. 15.
28. Gordon H. Barland, “A Survey of the Effect of the Polygraph in Screening Utah Job Applicants: Preliminary Results,” Polygraph 6 (December 1977), p. 321.
29. Ibid.
30. Raskin, Statement, p. 21.
31. Arther, “How Many,” unpaged.
32. Ibid.
33. Garwood and Ansley, Accuracy and Utility, unpaged.
34. OTA report, p. 100.
35. Daniel Rapoport, “To Tell the Truth,” The Washingtonian, February 1984, p. 80.
36. Willard, ibid., p. 36.
37. Lykken, “Polygraphic Interrogation,” p. 684.
38. OTA report, pp. 109–110.
39. OTA report, p. 99.
40. Willard, Statement, p. 17.
41. Ginton et al., “Method for Evaluating.” Also, John A. Podlesny and David C. Raskin, “Effectiveness of Techniques and Physiological Measures in the Detection of Deception,” Psychophysiology 15 (1978): pp. 344–59 and Frank S. Horvath, “Verbal and Nonverbal Clues to Truth and Deception During Polygraph Examinations,” Journal of Police Science and Administration, 1 (1973): 138–52.
42. David C. Raskin and John C. Kircher, “Accuracy of Diagnosing Truth and Deception from Behavioral Observation and Polygraph Recordings,” ms. in preparation.
EIGHT • LIE CHECKING
1. Randall Rothenberg, “Bagging the Big Shot,” San Francisco Chronicle, January 3, 1983, pp. 12–15.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Agness Hankiss, “Games Con Men Play: The Semiosis of Deceptive Interaction,” Journal of Communication 3 (1980): pp. 104–112.
5. Donald C. Daniel and Katherine L. Herbig, “Propositions on Military Deception,” in Strategic Military Deception, ed. Daniel & Herbig (New York: Pergamon Press, 1982) p. 17.
6. I am indebted for this example to John Phelan’s fascinating account in chapter 6 of his book Scandals, Scamps and Scoundrels (New York: Random House, 1982), p. 114. I have only reported part of the story. Anyone interested in detecting lies among people suspected of crimes should read this chapter to learn about other pitfalls that may occur in interrogation and lie detection.
7. I am indebted for my knowledge about interrogations to Rossiter C. Mullaney, an FBI agent from 1948 to 1971, and then coordinator of Investigation Programs, North Central Texas Regional Police Academy, until 1981. See his article “Wanted! Performance Standards for Interrogation and Interview,” The Police Chief June 1977, pp. 77–80.
8. Mullaney began a very promising series of studies training interrogators in how to use clues to deceit and evaluating the usefulness of that training, but he retired before completing that work.
9. Alexander J. Groth, “On the Intelligence Aspects of Personal Diplomacy,” Orbis 7 (1964): 848.
10. Robert Jervis, The Logic of Images in International Relations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970), pp. 67–78.
11. Henry Kissinger, Years of Upheaval (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1982), pp. 214, 485.
12. As quoted by Jervis, Logic, pp. 69–70.
13. Ibid., pp. 67–68.
14. Michael I. Handel, “Intelligence and Deception,” Journal of Strategic Studies 5 (1982): 123–53.
15. Barton Whaley, “Covert Rearmament in Germany, 1919–1939: Deception and Mismanagement,” Journal of Strategic Studies 5 (1982): 26–27.
16. Handel, “Intelligence,” p. 129.
17. This quote was analyzed by Groth, “Intelligence Aspects,”
18. As cited by Groth, “Intelligence Aspects.”
19. Telford Taylor, Munich (New York: Vintage, 1980), p. 752.
20. Ibid., p. 821.
21. Ibid., p. 552.
22. Ibid., p. 629.
23. Graham T. Allison, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971), p. 193.
24. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (New York: Fawcet Premier Books, 1965). p. 734.
25. Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), p. 673.
26. Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), p. 5.
27. Roger Hilsman, To Move a Nation (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1967), p. 98.
28. David Detzer, The Brink (New York: Thomas Crowell, 1979).
29. Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 690.
30. Detzer, Brink, p. 142.
31. Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days, p. 18.
32. Elie Abel, The Missile Crisis (New York: Bantam Books, 1966), p. 63.
33. Sorensen, Kennedy, p. 690.
34. Abel, Missile, p. 63.
35. Detzer, Brink, p. 143.
36. Kennedy, Thirteen Days, p. 20.
37. Detzer, Brink, p. 143.
38. Ibid., p. 144.
39. Allison, Essence, p. 135.
40. Abel, Missile, p. 64.
41. Allison, Essence, p. 134.
42. Daniel and Herbig, “Propositions,” p. 13.
43. Herbert Goldhamer, reference 24 cited by Daniel and Herbig, “Propositions.”
44. Barton Whaley, reference 2 cited by Daniel and Herbig, “Propositions.”
45. Maureen O’Sullivan, “Measuring the Ability to Recognize Facial Expressions of Emotion,” in Emotion in the Human Face, ed. Paul Ekman (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
46. Groth, “Intelligence Aspects,” p. 847.
47. Jervis, Logic, p. 33.
48. Winston Churchill, The Hinge of Fate (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950), pp. 481, 493, as cited by Groth, ibid., p. 841.
49. Lewis Broad, The War that Churchill Waged (London: Hutchison and Company, 1960), p. 356, as cited by Groth, “Intelligence Aspects,” p. 846.
50. Broad, War, p. 358, as cited by Groth, “Intelligence Aspects,” p. 846.
51. Milovan Djilas, Conversations with Stalin (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1962), p. 73, as cited by Groth, ibid., p. 846.
NINE • LIE CATCHING IN THE 1990s
1. My colleague and friend Maureen O’Sullivan, at the University of San Francisco, has worked with me for many years to develop this test, collaborated in the research on professional lie catchers, and also gave some of the workshops.
2. “Who Can Catch a Liar” by Paul Ekman and Maureen O’Sullivan appeared in the September 1991 issue of the journal American Psychologist.
3. Those findings were reported in “The Effect of Comparisons on Detecting Deceit” by M. O’Sullivan, P. Ekman, and W. V. Friesen, Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 12 (1988): 203–15.
4. Udo Undeutsch from Germany developed a procedure called statement analysis, and a number of American researchers are testing its validity in evaluating children’s testimony.
5. These findings are reported in “Face, Voice, and Body in Detecting Deceit” by Paul Ekman, Maureen O’Sullivan, Wallace V. Friesen, and Klaus C. Scherer in the Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, vol. 15 (1991): 203–15.
6. “The Duchenne Smile: Emotional Expression and Brain Physiology II” by P. Ekman, R. J. Davidson, and W. V. Friesen. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990).
7. M.G.Frank, P. Ekman, and W. V. Friesen, “Behavioral Markers and Recognizability of the Smile of Enjoyment,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 64 (1993): 83–93.
8. M. G. Frank and P. Ekman, “The Ability to Detect Deceit Generalizes across Different Types of High-Stake Lies,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997) 1429–39.
9. Professor John Yuille at the University of British Columbia has been directing a program to train social workers in better techniques for interviewing children.
10. Time magazine, July 27, 1987, p. 10.
11. In earlier chapters I used the phrase natural liar, but that I have found implies that these people may lie more often than others, when I have no evidence that is so. The phrase natural performer better describes what I mean, which is that if they lie they do so flawlessly.
12. Not having met North nor had the opportunity to question him directly I cannot be certain my judgment is correct. His performance on television, however, certainly fits my description.
TEN • LIES IN PUBLIC LIFE
1. Oliver L. North, Under Fire (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), p. 66.
2. For a recent discussion of the constitutional issues in this case see an article by Edwin M. Yoder, Jr., entitled “A Poor Substitute for an Impeachment Proceeding,” International Herald Tribune, July 23, 1991.
3. Stansfield Turner, “Purge the CIA of KGB Types,” New York Times, October 2, 1991, p. 21.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (New York: Bantam Books, 1982), p. 511.
7. See reference 3.
8. For a recent discussion of the various views on this topic see Self-Deception: An Adaptive Mechanism? edited by Joan S. Lockard and Delroy L. Paulhus (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1988).
9. Richard Feynman, What Do You Care What Other People Think? Further Adventures of a Curious Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1988).
10. Ibid., p. 214.
11. Time, August 19, 1974, p. 9.
ELEVEN • NEW FINDINGS AND IDEAS ABOUT LYING AND LIE CATCHING
1. C. Bok, Secrets (New York: Pantheon, 1982).
2. P. Ekman, W. V. Friesen, and M. O’Sullivan, “Smiles When Lying,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (1988): 414–20; P. Ekman, M. O’Sullivan, W. V. Friesen, and K. R. Scherer, “Face, Voice and Body in Detecting Deception,” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 15 (1991): 125–35.
3. T. P. Cross and L. Saxe, “A Critique of the Validity of Polygraph Testing in Child Sexual Abuse Cases,” Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 1 (1992): 19–33.
4. P. Ekman, Why Kids Lie (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons), 1989.
5. M. Frank and P. Ekman, “The Ability to Detect Deceit Generalizes across Deception Situations,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (1997): 1429–39.
6. P. Ekman, M. O’Sullivan, and M. Frank, “A Few Can Catch a Liar,” Psychological Science 10 (1999): 263–66.
7. J. Stiff, S. Corman, B. Krizek, and E. Snider, “Individual Differences and Changes in Nonverbal Behavior,” Communication Research 21 (1994): 555–81.
8. M. T. Bradley, “Choice and the Detection of Deception,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 66 (1988): 43–48.
9. P. Ekman and M. O’Sullivan, “Who Can Catch a Liar,” American Psychologist 46 (1991): 913–20.
10. R. E. Kraut and E. Poe, “On the Line: The Deception Judgments of Customs Inspectors and Laymen,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980): 784–98; B. M. Depaulo and R. L. Pheifer, “On-the-job Experience and Skill at Detecting Deception,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 16 (1986): 249–67; G. Kohnken, “Training Police Officers to Detect Deceptive Eye-witness Statements: Does It Work?” Social Behaviour 2 (1987): 1–17.
11. D. L. Cheney and R. M. Seyfarth, How Monkeys See the World (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1990), p. 189.
12. A. Grafen, “Biological Signals as Handicaps,” Journal of Theoretical Biology 144(1990): 517–46.
13. L. Cosmides and J. Tooby, “Cognitive Adaptations for Social Exchange,” in The Adapted Mind, ed. J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, and J. Tooby, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
14. D. B. Bugental, W. Shennum, M. Frank, and P. Ekman,” True Lies’: Children’s Abuse History and Power Attributions as Influences on Deception Detection,” ms. submitted.
15. E. Goffman, Frame Analysis (New York: Harper & Row, 1974).
TWELVE • MICRO, SUBTLE, AND DANGEROUS FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
1. Maureen O’Sullivan, Ph.D., is a professor at the University of San Francisco.
2. S. Porter and L. ten Brinke, “Reading Between the Lies: Identifying Concealed and Falsified Emotions in Universal Facial Expressions,” Psychological Science 19, no. 5 (2008): 508–14.
3. M. G. Frank, D. Matsumoto, P. Ekman, S. Kang, and A. Kurylo, “Improving the Ability to Recognize Micro Expressions of Emotion,” manuscript submitted for publication.
4. T. A. Russell, E. Chu, and M. L. Phillips, “A Pilot Study to Investigate the Effectiveness of Emotion Recognition Mediation in Schizophrenia Using the Micro-Expression Training Tool,” British Journal of Clinical Psychology 45 (2006): 579–83.
5. T. A. Russell, M. J. Green, I. Simpson, and M. Coltheart, “Remediation of Facial Emotion Perception in Schizophrenia: Concomitant Changes in Visual Attention,” Schizophrenia Research 103, nos. 1–3 (2008): 248–56.
6. D. Matsumoto, H-S. Hwang, and P. Ekman, “Training the Ability to Read Microexpressions of Emotion Improves Emotional Competence on the Job,” manuscript currently submitted for publication, 2008.
7. P. Ekman, W. V. Friesen, M. O’Sullivan, and K. Scherer, “Relative Importance of Face, Body and Speech in Judgments of Personality and Affect,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38 (1980): 270–77.
8. G. Warren, E. Scherder, and P. Bull, “Detecting Deception from Emotional and Nonemotional Clues,” Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, in press, 2009.
EPILOGUE
1. For the arguments against falsification, see Sisela Bok, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life (New York: Pantheon, 1978). For an argument in favor of concealment in private, not public, life, see Bok, Secrets (New York: Pantheon, 1982). For the opposite view, advocating the virtues of lying, see Robert L. Walk and Arthur Henley, The Right to Lie: A Psychological Guide to the Uses of Deceit in Everyday Life (New York: Peter H. Wyden, 1970).
2. Sigmund Freud, Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria (1905), Collected Papers, vol. 3.; (New York: Basic Books, 1959), p. 94.