Practice Test 2, Cracking the AP English Language & Composition Exam, 2020 Edition

Section I of this examination contains 45 multiple-choice questions. Fill in only the ovals for numbers 1 through 45 on your answer sheet.

Indicate all of your answers to the multiple-choice questions on the answer sheet. No credit will be given for anything written in this exam booklet, but you may use the booklet for notes or scratch work. After you have decided which of the suggested answers is best, completely fill in the corresponding oval on the answer sheet. Give only one answer to each question. If you change an answer, be sure that the previous mark is erased completely. Here is a sample question and answer.

Use your time effectively, working as quickly as you can without losing accuracy. Do not spend too much time on any one question. Go on to other questions and come back to the ones you have not answered if you have time. It is not expected that everyone will know the answers to all the multiple-choice questions.

Many candidates wonder whether or not to guess the answers to questions about which they are not certain. Multiple-choice scores are based on the number of questions answered correctly. Points are not deducted for incorrect answers, and no points are awarded for unanswered questions. Because points are not deducted for incorrect answers, you are encouraged to answer all multiple-choice questions. On any questions you do not know the answer to, you should eliminate as many choices as you can, and then select the best answer among the remaining choices.

Directions: This part consists of selections from prose works and questions on their content, form, and style. After reading each passage, choose the best answer to each question and completely fill in the corresponding oval on the answer sheet.

Note: Pay particular attention to the requirement of questions that contain the words NOT, LEAST, or EXCEPT.

Questions 1–11. Read the following passage carefully before you choose your answers.

1. In this passage the speaker’s purpose is to

(A) analyze the causes of slavery

(B) argue in favor of states’ rights

(D) describe the advantages of a federal government

(E) argue in favor of slavery

2. Which of the following best describes the tone of the passage?

(A) Mock enthusiasm

(B) Righteous indignation

(D) Objective rationalization

(E) Ironic detachment

3. In the first two sentences (lines 1–8), the speaker grounds his central idea on which of the following rhetorical strategies?

(A) Inductive reasoning

(B) Deductive reasoning

(D) Classification

(E) Appeal to ignorance

4. In line 36, the word “it” most closely refers to

(A) “property” (line 33)

(B) “State” (line 34)

(D) “distinction” (line 34)

(E) “quarrel” (line 35)

5. The sentence that begins “Now, my friends, if we will…” (lines 37–42) contains all of the following EXCEPT

(A) a classification

(B) an appeal to a principle

(D) a definition

(E) an accusation

6. The author suggests that which of the following is true of Maine, Illinois, and New York?

(A) They have relatively liberal policies toward “negroes.”

(B) They prove that popular sovereignty has been generally successful.

(D) They create inconsistent laws for both “negroes” and citizens.

(E) They create laws concerned more with wealth than justice.

7. The speaker substantiates his central idea with

(A) clever anecdotes

(B) innovative symbols

(D) extended metaphors

(E) appeal to authority

8. From the passage, it appears that the speaker’s personal view is that African Americans

(A) should be slaves and should not be allowed to hold property

(B) should not be slaves and should be allowed to vote

(D) should be free but not allowed to vote

(E) should be allowed to hold property and to vote

9. The author implies that Abraham Lincoln’s policies would have all of the following potential negative effects EXCEPT

(A) consolidating power

(B) hindering westward expansion

(D) initiating war

(E) hindering population growth

10. In the final lines of the passage, the speaker attempts to win over his audience by

(A) inspiring confidence

(B) shifting blame

(D) reconciling differences

(E) overstating a problem

11. The development of the passage can best be described as the

(A) argument for a particular solution to a political problem

(B) rebuttal of those who challenge the authority of Congress

(D) exploration of the various meanings of a universal principle

(E) comparison between two political entities

Questions 12–23. Read the following passage carefully before you choose your answers.

This passage is excerpted from a recent work that examines popular conceptions of the history of medieval Spain.

12. One purpose of the first paragraph is to

(A) discount the importance of medieval history

(B) reinforce a popular perception of medieval Spain

(D) define convivencia for non-specialists

(E) distinguish among the various historical accounts of medieval Spain

13. The primary purpose of the quotes in the first paragraph is to

(A) emphasize the author’s bewilderment with the narrative of medieval history offered by most historians of medieval Spain

(B) reinforce the author’s position that proponents of convivencia misinterpret their evidence by quoting directly from their works

(D) recount the conventional narrative of convivencia in the words of its historians

(E) provide a comprehensive survey of the history of medieval Spain

14. The footnotes serve to

(A) demonstrate the range of sources he cites

(B) reveal that all the quotes are from the same source

(D) impress the reader with the technical expertise of the author

(E) explain the complexity of the argument at hand

15. The content of the second footnote

(A) undermines the claims made by Maria Rosa Menocal

(B) provides a citation for more information about the subject

(D) informs the reader of the whereabouts of a certain text

(E) clarifies the source of the expression used in the text

16. In line 25, the word “genre” refers to

(A) “fairy tale” (line 23)

(B) “convivencia” (line 25)

(D) “it” (line 26)

(E) “exotic journeys” (line 26)

17. Which one of the following characteristics of the scholarship on convivencia is most troublesome to the author?

(A) Its inherent lack of documentary evidence

(B) Its misleading emphasis on the importance of religion

(D) Its preoccupation with Islamic historical trends

(E) Its tendency to exaggerate historical reality

18. All of the following accurately describe the tone of the second paragraph EXCEPT

(A) emphatic

(B) acerbic

(D) comic

(E) vituperative

19. Which of the following sentences best represents the author’s main point in the passage?

(A) “If you have read anything about medieval Spain, then you probably know about convivencia—the peaceful “coexistence” of Muslims, Christians, and Jews for nearly eight hundred years on the Iberian peninsula.” (lines 1–4)

(B) “And like all fairy tales, this story of convivencia tells us much more about the world of storytelling in which it was created than about the historical past or objective reality, on which it is only loosely based.” (lines 27–31)

(C) “While some of the recent books on convivencia have gestured in the direction of scholarly discourse, more often than not, they cannot resist the temptation to indulge our basest tendencies to Orientalism and exoticism.” (lines 32–35)

(D) “And when these authors describe Islam, it is with the wonderment and delight of a tourist.” (lines 50–52)

(E) “We, their audience, are supposed to share in their surprise—and in the delicious irony—that Islam was a peaceful, tolerant religion, while Christianity was persecutory, cruel, and violent.” (lines 52–55)

20. The author’s observation about Maria Rosa Menocal’s The Ornament of the World (lines 44–46) is best described as an example of which of the following?

(A) Alliteration

(B) Metaphor

(D) Linguistic paradox

(E) Personification

21. The speaker mentions the chapter titles in lines 47–50 as examples of which of the following?

(A) Islamic history

(B) Poetic imagery

(D) Orientalist excess

(E) Failed metaphors

22. Which of the following best describes the rhetorical function of the phrase “and in the delicious irony” (line 53)?

(A) It raises a question the author answered at the beginning of the second paragraph.

(B) It alludes to a contention made in the first paragraph.

(D) It critiques the scholarly discourse of convivencia.

(E) It extends the metaphorical language of the second paragraph.

23. The passage as a whole is best characterized as

(A) a treatise on history

(B) an ironic attack

(D) an analysis of historical evidence

(E) a vituperative comparison

(1) Cities around the United States have been put into a tenuous situation due to the practice of offering stadium subsidies. (2) Stadium subsidies refer to funds given by city municipalities to fund professional sports stadiums and have real budgetary consequences.

(3) The impact that stadiums have had on cities such as Detroit, which subsidized a hockey arena for its hockey team in 2014 by decreasing pensions, and Oakland, which chopped its police department by 18% to continue funding the Oakland Coliseum, make it clear that the practice of building new stadiums must come to an end. (4) Four-fifths of all stadiums constructed since the turn of the century have benefited from tax-free bonds, leaving taxpayers to foot a total bill exceeding three billion dollars.

(5) Why, then, does this practice persist? (6) Some feel that stadiums bring economic benefits that outweigh the costs of the stadiums, though this claim has been categorically denied by economists. (7) The few studies that support the use of stadium subsidies are funded by sports franchises and cannot be used as serious evidence.

(8) While stadium subsidies make little economic sense, they do occur under some significant pressure: cities pass new budgets annually and must meet the needs of a multitude of interests. (9) The monopoly held by the major sports leagues lead municipalities to feel that they must cower to the demands of their local teams, lest they lose their beloved franchise to a city that will pay the subsidy. (10) Therefore, cities with professional sports teams will likely face this quandary for the foreseeable future.

24. Which of the following sentences, if placed before sentence 1, would both capture the audience’s interest and provide the most effective introduction to the topic of the paragraph?

(A) Professional sports teams have long brought a sense of civic pride to American cities.

(B) Even though professional sports teams are large revenue generators, they can be a financial drain on local resources.

(C) The Las Vegas football franchise, Arlington baseball team, and Detroit’s hockey organization are all sports franchises that have been rewarded with expensive stadiums in recent years.

(D) In 2018, Las Vegas celebrated its acquisition of a professional football team, but the joy may have been overshadowed by a steep budgetary hit to the tune of $750 million in tax-free municipal bonds.

(E) Stadium subsidies for professional sports teams are among the most wasteful items on a municipal budget.

25. In sentence 2 (reproduced below), the writer wants an effective transition from the introductory paragraph to the main idea of the passage.

Stadium subsidies refer to funds given by city municipalities to fund professional sports stadiums and have real budgetary consequences.

Which of the following versions of the underlined text best achieves this purpose?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) are important to attracting professional sports teams to a city.

(D) are heavily supported by local politicians as well as several powerful interest groups.

(E) are more prevalent in football than in other sports.

26. In sentence 3 (reproduced below), which of the following versions of the underlined text best establishes the writer’s position on the main argument of the passage?

The impact that stadiums have had on cities such as Detroit, which subsidized a hockey arena for its hockey team in 2014 by decreasing pensions, and Oakland, which chopped its police department by 18% to continue funding the Oakland Coliseum, make it clear that the practice of building new stadiums must come to an end.

(A) (as it is now)

(B) using public land to build stadiums

(D) allowing the public to privately donate to developing sports venues

(E) developing single use sports arenas

27. The writer wants to add a phrase at the beginning of sentence 7 (reproduced below), adjusting the capitalization as needed, to set up a relationship with the idea discussed in sentence 6.

The few studies that support the use of stadium subsidies are funded by sports franchises and cannot be used as serious evidence.

Which of the following choices best accomplishes this goal?

(A) However,

(B) By contrast,

(D) On the other hand,

(E) Furthermore,

28. In sentence 8 (reproduced below), the writer wants to provide a convincing explanation for why cities feel they must give in to the demands of sports franchises.

While stadium subsidies make little economic sense, they do occur under some significant pressure: cities pass new budgets annually and must meet the needs of a multitude of interests.

Which version of the underlined text best accomplishes this goal?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) a limited number of sports teams in each league make cities feel that they could ill-afford to lose their teams.

(C) cities have large surpluses and are more than willing to move the extra money to vanity projects. allowing the public to privately donate to developing sports venues.

(D) sports is only part of the interests of city residents, and politicians do not want to alienate potential voters by supporting stadium subsidies.

(E) finding land close to public transportation could drive up the price of developing a stadium.

29. The writer wants to add the following sentence to the third paragraph (sentences 5–7) to provide additional explanation.

Whatever the case, the process for generating and approving stadium subsidies is generally quite byzantine and hidden from public view.

Where would the sentence best be placed?

(A) Before sentence 5

(B) After sentence 5

(D) After sentence 7

(E) This sentence is irrelevant and therefore should not be included.

30. The writer wants to add more information to the third paragraph (sentences 5–7) to support the main argument of the paragraph. All of the following pieces of evidence help achieve this purpose EXCEPT which one?

(A) A quote from an economist who has studied the detrimental impacts of stadium subsidies

(B) An explanation of the methodological flaws of the studies funded by sports franchises

(D) Statistics that support the amount of jobs created by the development of a new stadium

(E) The percentage of economists who deny that the economic benefits of stadium subsidies outweigh the costs

31. In the fourth paragraph (sentences 8–10), the writer wants to expand on the claim that a sports franchise can be offered a stadium subsidy simply by threatening to leave its current city. Which of the following claims would best achieve this purpose?

(A) San Diego lost its football team to Los Angeles when residents of San Diego refused to fund a new stadium for the team.

(B) The city of St. Louis was left paying for its stadium even after its football team moved away.

(C) Teams have been leaving their cities for newer locations ever since Major League Baseball began try to expand its market westward.

(D) Sports franchises have lots of money and can therefore be very influential with local politicians.

(E) Finding public funds for a stadium does not always prevent a team from moving to another city.

32. In the fourth paragraph (sentences 8–10), the writer wants to conclude with a statement that best calls for an action supportive of the essay’s central claim. Which of the following sentences would best achieve this purpose?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) However, for the sake of local budgets, lawmakers must find a way to prevent teams from demanding free state-of-the-art facilities at the expense of taxpayers.

(D) Consequently, the stranglehold that professional sports teams maintain over their home cities will remain a budget killer for years to come.

(E) Nonetheless, the civic pride stemming from a successful sports franchise winning a championship will ultimately justify whatever costs the stadium brings the city.

(1) As America’s healthcare system becomes more complex and doctors more specialized, consumers of healthcare may wonder how to evaluate the quality of their physicians. (2) Surely one may consult the subjective “gut feeling” that a patient may feel about a physician: that they have a good “report” with their doctor. (3) In recent years, insurance companies, hospitals, and professional medical societies have posited a variety of “objective” metrics to inform patients of doctor quality.

(4) One such metric is patient evaluations, which can only be conducted in large healthcare systems. (5) In the pursuit of maximizing the patient experience, interested parties consult patients with a post-visit survey. (6) The physician and the facilities are therefore rated from the patient’s perspective. (7) Another approach to quantifying doctor quality is examining outcomes. (8) For instance, when a patient visits a hospital for a surgery, they may be contacted for follow-up information on how the patient has recovered in the short, medium, and long terms.

(9) But these types of standardized approaches that aim to measure physician quality are flawed and unfair. (10) The patient experience may not accurately reflect the quality of healthcare the patient received. (11) Physicians could boost these ratings by simply decreasing waiting room time or offering more comfortable exam tables, regardless of the quality of medical attention offered. (12) Further, attributing patient outcomes solely to the performance of a doctor, with no regard to patient lifestyle (diet and tobacco use, for instance) will certainly push physicians away from treating the most vulnerable patients, such as those who suffer from obesity, poverty, and congenital diseases.

(13) Nobody wants to choose a doctor primarily based on the accoutrements of the waiting room. (14) Further, it would not be desirable to potentially leave the most vulnerable patients to fend for themselves. (15) Perhaps the best approach would be a system that allows doctors to be evaluated by experts in their field—their peers. (16) Medical professionals can look at data and outcomes within their proper context in order to best communicate essential information about a physician’s quality to America’s health care consumers.

33. After sentence 1, the writer wants to provide a convincing explanation for why it is important for healthcare consumers to learn more about physicians. Which sentence below best accomplishes this goal?

(A) Specialists are largely similar due to the nature of their work, so the most important factor in finding a doctor is a convenient schedule.

(B) No two doctors are alike, and quality healthcare stems from factors as diverse as a physician’s experience to the physician’s relationship with patients.

(C) The complexity of the healthcare system has made it nearly impossible to learn anything about a doctor before going in for a visit.

(D) Recent trends in medicine towards team-oriented healthcare have made doctors interchangeable with one another.

(E) Learning about the personal lives and interests of physicians is key to finding a doctor with whom a patient may develop a good relationship.

34. The writer wants to add a phrase at the beginning of sentence 3 (reproduced below), adjusting the capitalization as needed, to set up a relationship with the idea discussed in sentence 2.

In recent years, insurance companies, hospitals, and professional medical societies have posited a variety of metrics to inform patients of doctor quality.

Which of the following choices best accomplishes this goal?

(A) In other words,

(B) Similarly,

(D) Furthermore,

(E) However,

35. The writer wants to add more information to the second paragraph (sentences 4–8) to further develop the examples in the paragraph. All of the following pieces of evidence help achieve this purpose EXCEPT which one?

(A) Information about the types of questions posed on patient surveys

(B) How patient feedback is translated into a doctor rating

(D) Factors that are measured in the follow up patient visits

(E) How long patients are tracked following a medical procedure

36. In sentence 4 (reproduced below), the writer wants an effective transition from the topic sentence to the main idea of the paragraph.

One such metric is patient evaluations, which can only be conducted in large healthcare systems.

Which of the following versions of the underlined text best achieves this purpose?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) create a consumer-based assessment of the healthcare experience.

(D) are typically flawed approaches to understanding a doctor’s effectiveness.

(E) are too time consuming to be done on a large scale.

37. In the third paragraph (sentences 9–12), the writer wants to provide further evidence that the current systems of evaluation are unfair. Which of the following pieces of evidence would best achieve this purpose?

(A) Patient feedback that typically aligns directly with other types of doctor evaluations

(B) Patients who do not always have the knowledge about what kind of medical care is optimal for a particular ailment

(C) Data that suggests that measuring long-term patient outcomes is a more effective method than patient surveys for evaluating physician quality

(D) A quote from a health-consumer advocacy organization

(E) A brief history of physician evaluations to provide context

38. In the third paragraph (sentences 9–12), the writer wants to expand upon the idea that attributing patient outcomes solely to the performance of the doctor could be harmful to certain patients. Which of the following claims would best achieve this purpose?

(A) The most effective physicians will continue to gravitate toward treating patients who suffer from congenital diseases.

(B) The systems of doctor evaluation currently proposed will take consideration of patient lifestyle when evaluating physician performance.

(D) Obesity can be a treatable condition when addressed by a highly qualified doctor.

(E) People who live in poverty are more susceptible to adverse long-term health conditions regardless of the quality of their physicians.

39. The writer wants to add the following sentence to the fourth paragraph (sentences 13–16) to provide additional explanation.

The aforementioned approaches put both healthcare providers and consumers in an undesirable situation.

Where would the sentence best be placed?

(A) Before sentence 13

(B) After sentence 13

(D) After sentence 15

(E) After sentence 16

40. In sentence 16 (reproduced below), which of the following versions of the underlined text best establishes the writer’s position on the main argument of the passage?

Medical professionals can look at data and outcomes within their proper context in order to best communicate essential information about a physician’s quality to America’s health care consumers.

(A) (as it is now)

(B) remove patients from the process of evaluating physicians.

(D) best enhance the patient experience during visits to doctors’ offices and hospitals.

(E) treat both short- and long-term ailments faced by patients.

(1) Zoos are the subject of controversy due to a fundamental misunderstanding of their role in the survival of various species. (2) The moral imperative of keeping some animals in captivity has unfortunately been clouded by less humane practices from a century ago. (3) In reality, most modern zoos provide necessary joy and entertainment to their thousands of annual visitors.

(4) Climate change has resulted in threats to nearly half of all small mammals and a quarter of the world’s bird population. (5) However, repopulation programs hosted by zoos have shown only moderate effects in recent decades. (6) Even larger animals, such as wild horses, which were considered extinct a half century ago, have benefited from repopulation programs at zoos: the 12 horses in captivity at the time of extinction have now increased to over 2,000, with a significant number being reintroduced to the wild.

(7) While there have been questions about the effects of zoos on the health of animals due to small enclosures, there is a net benefit stemming from captivity due to the amount of scientific research that is possible. (8) One outcome of such research arises when zoo veterinarians use a comparison of disease surveillance in the wild with their own animals in captivity and can warn the public about possible outbreaks that are forthcoming.

(9) Zoos of the twenty-first century are a far cry from the circus sideshows that have informed our popular perception of zoos as inhumane animal prisons. (10) Nowadays, all it takes is a single visit to make it clear that park goers are primarily on an educational journey focused on the conservation of some of the planet’s most threatened species. (11) The challenging living conditions are just an unfortunate side effect of a system that benefits humans as well as animals.

41. In sentence 3 (reproduced below), which of the following versions of the underlined text best establishes the writer’s position on the main argument of the passage?

In reality, most modern zoos provide necessary joy and entertainment to their thousands of annual visitors.

(A) (as it is now)

(B) unjust and inhumane living quarter for its inhabitants.

(D) animals with homes that are preferable to habitats in the wild.

(E) an indispensable service in promoting public education and the survival of threatened species.

42. In sentence 5 (reproduced below), the writer wants to provide a convincing explanation for why zoos provide a necessary service.

However, repopulation programs hosted by zoos have shown only moderate outcomes in recent decades.

Which version of the underlined text best accomplishes this goal?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) had dramatic effects in recent decades.

(D) been met with unceasing successes.

(E) not been successful enough to justify caging animals.

43. The writer wants to add more information to the second paragraph (sentences 4–6) to support the main argument of the paragraph. All of the following pieces of evidence help achieve this purpose EXCEPT which one?

(A) American zoos have invested more than $25 million in research during a single year.

(B) Zoos have used their resources to help minority students access STEM training and careers.

(C) Conservation efforts in California zoos have helped increase the population of California condors from nine to over four hundred during a period of thirty years.

(D) Studies have confirmed that zoo visitors experience an increase in knowledge of both biodiversity and conservation efforts stemming from their visits.

(E) Polar bears in captivity were found to have an infant mortality rate of 65%.

44. The writer wants to add a phrase at the beginning of sentence 8 (reproduced below), adjusting the capitalization as needed, to set up a relationship with the idea discussed in sentence 7.

One outcome of such research arises when zoo veterinarians use a comparison of disease surveillance in the wild with their own animals in captivity and can warn the public about possible outbreaks that are forthcoming.

Which of the following choices best accomplishes this goal?

(A) Furthermore,

(B) However,

(D) By contrast,

(E) Consequently,

45. In the fourth paragraph (sentences 9–11), the writer wants to conclude with a statement that supports the essay’s central claim. Which of the following sentences would best achieve this purpose?

(A) (as it is now)

(B) However, the controversy surrounding zoos will not disappear anytime soon.

(D) Any opposition to the mission of zoos is shrouded in misinformation and lacks compassion.

(E) We must therefore continue to support America’s zoos on their path toward helping a wide array of species.

AP^® English Language and Composition Exam

Section II of this examination requires answers in essay form. To help you use your time well, the coordinator will announce the time at which each question should be completed. If you finish any question before time is announced, you may go on to the following question. If you finish the examination in less than the time allotted, you may go back and work on any essay question you want.

Each essay will be judged on its clarity and effectiveness in dealing with the requirements of the topic assigned and on the quality of the writing. After completing each question, you should check your essay for accuracy of punctuation, spelling, and diction; you are advised, however, not to attempt many longer corrections. Remember that quality is far more important than quantity.

Write your essays with a pen, preferably in black or dark blue ink. Be sure to write CLEARLY and LEGIBLY. Cross out any errors you make.

The questions for Section II are printed in the green insert. You are encouraged to use the green insert to make notes and to plan your essays, but be sure to write your answers in the pink booklet. Number each answer as the question is numbered in the examination. Do not skip lines. Begin each answer on a new page in the pink booklet.

It is suggested that you spend 15 minutes reading the question, analyzing and evaluating the sources, and 40 minutes writing your response.

Note: You may begin writing your response before the reading period is over.

Individuals have argued the concept of what it means to live a good life for thousands of years. Many have posited that happiness is an internal choice, a question of free will, and that it is something that can be reached every moment of every day. Others have pointed to external factors such as the slow accumulation of wealth and the construction of solid relationships—both of which require time and long-term strategy—as the primary drivers of a “life well-lived.” More recently, some have even pointed to the role of genes in determining life satisfaction.

Carefully read the following seven sources, including the introductory information for each source. Then synthesize the information from at least three of the sources and incorporate it into a coherent, well-developed essay that argues a clear position on whether life satisfaction is better achieved by living in the moment or by working toward long-term goals.

Your argument should be the focus of your essay. Use the sources to develop your argument and explain the reasoning for it. Avoid merely summarizing the sources. Indicate clearly which sources you are drawing from, whether through direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary. You may cite the sources as Source A, Source B, and so forth, or by using the descriptions in parentheses.

The following is excerpted from an article on the National Institute of Health’s Web site.

Most drugs of abuse directly or indirectly target the brain’s reward system by flooding the circuit with dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter present in regions of the brain that regulate movement, emotion, motivation, and feelings of pleasure. When activated at normal levels, this system rewards our natural behaviors. Overstimulating the system with drugs, however, produces euphoric effects, which strongly reinforce the behavior of drug use—teaching the user to repeat it. Most drugs of abuse target the brain’s reward system by flooding it with dopamine.

How does stimulation of the brain’s pleasure circuit teach us to keep taking drugs?

Our brains are wired to ensure that we will repeat life-sustaining activities by associating those activities with pleasure or reward. Whenever this reward circuit is activated, the brain notes that something important is happening that needs to be remembered, and teaches us to do it again and again without thinking about it. Because drugs of abuse stimulate the same circuit, we learn to abuse drugs in the same way.

When some drugs of abuse are taken, they can release 2 to 10 times the amount of dopamine that natural rewards such as eating do. In some cases, this occurs almost immediately (as when drugs are smoked or injected), and the effects can last much longer than those produced by natural rewards. The resulting effects on the brain’s pleasure circuit dwarf those produced by naturally rewarding behaviors. The effect of such a powerful reward strongly motivates people to take drugs again and again. This is why scientists sometimes say that drug abuse is something we learn to do very, very well.

For the brain, the difference between normal rewards and drug rewards can be described as the difference between someone whispering into your ear and someone shouting into a microphone. Just as we turn down the volume on a radio that is too loud, the brain adjusts to the overwhelming surges in dopamine (and other neurotransmitters) by producing less dopamine or by reducing the number of receptors that can receive signals. As a result, dopamine’s impact on the reward circuit of the brain of someone who abuses drugs can become abnormally low, and that person’s ability to experience any pleasure is reduced.

This is why a person who abuses drugs eventually feels flat, lifeless, and depressed, and is unable to enjoy things that were once pleasurable. Now, the person needs to keep taking drugs again and again just to try and bring his or her dopamine function back up to normal—which only makes the problem worse, like a vicious cycle. Also, the person will often need to take larger amounts of the drug to produce the familiar dopamine high—an effect known as tolerance.

The following is excerpted from an article published by a website dedicated to current psychology topics and research.

Life unfolds in the present. But so often, we let the present slip away, allowing time to rush past unobserved and unseized, and squandering the precious seconds of our lives as we worry about the future and ruminate about what’s past.

When we’re at work, we fantasize about being on vacation; on vacation, we worry about the work piling up on our desks. We dwell on intrusive memories of the past or fret about what may or may not happen in the future. We don’t appreciate the living present because our “monkey minds,” as Buddhists call them, vault from thought to thought like monkeys swinging from tree to tree.

Most of us don’t undertake our thoughts in awareness. Rather, our thoughts control us. “Ordinary thoughts course through our mind like a deafening waterfall,” writes Jon Kabat-Zinn, the biomedical scientist who introduced meditation into mainstream medicine. In order to feel more in control of our minds and our lives, to find the sense of balance that eludes us, we need to step out of this current, to pause, and, as Kabat-Zinn puts it, to “rest in stillness—to stop doing and focus on just being.”

We need to live more in the moment. Living in the moment—also called mindfulness—is a state of active, open, intentional attention on the present. When you become mindful, you realize that you are not your thoughts; you become an observer of your thoughts from moment to moment without judging them. Mindfulness involves being with your thoughts as they are, neither grasping at them nor pushing them away. Instead of letting your life go by without living it, you awaken to experience.

Cultivating a nonjudgmental awareness of the present bestows a host of benefits. Mindfulness reduces stress, boosts immune functioning, reduces chronic pain, lowers blood pressure, and helps patients cope with cancer. By alleviating stress, spending a few minutes a day actively focusing on living in the moment reduces the risk of heart disease. Mindfulness may even slow the progression of HIV.

Mindful people are happier, more exuberant, more empathetic, and more secure. They have higher self-esteem and are more accepting of their own weaknesses. Anchoring awareness in the here and now reduces the kinds of impulsivity and reactivity that underlie depression, binge eating, and attention problems. Mindful people can hear negative feedback without feeling threatened. They fight less with their romantic partners and are more accommodating and less defensive. As a result, mindful couples have more satisfying relationships.

Mindfulness is at the root of Buddhism, Taoism, and many Native-American traditions, not to mention yoga. It’s why Thoreau went to Walden Pond; it’s what Emerson and Whitman wrote about in their essays and poems.

“Everyone agrees it’s important to live in the moment, but the problem is how,” says Ellen Langer, a psychologist at Harvard and author of Mindfulness. “When people are not in the moment, they’re not there to know that they’re not there.” Overriding the distraction reflex and awakening to the present takes intentionality and practice.

Living in the moment involves a profound paradox: You can’t pursue it for its benefits. That’s because the expectation of reward launches a future-oriented mindset, which subverts the entire process. Instead, you just have to trust that the rewards will come.

The World Happiness Report is a landmark survey of the state of global happiness. The World Happiness Report 2018, ranks 156 countries by their happiness levels, and 117 countries by the happiness of their immigrants.[…]

The overall rankings of country happiness are based on the pooled results from Gallup World Poll surveys from 2015–2017, and show both change and stability. There is a new top ranking country, Finland, but the top ten positions are held by the same countries as in the last two years, although with some swapping of places. Four different countries have held top spot in the four most recent reports-Denmark, Switzerland, Norway and now Finland.

All the top countries tend to have high values for all six of the key variables that have been found to support well-being: income, healthy life expectancy, social support, freedom, trust and generosity. Among the top countries, differences are small enough that that year-to-year changes in the rankings are to be expected.

The analysis of happiness changes from 2008–2010 to 2015–2015 shows Togo as the biggest gainer, moving up 17 places in the overall rankings from the last place position it held as recently as in the 2015 rankings. The biggest loser is Venezuela, down 2.2 points on the 0 to 10 scale. […]

The importance of social factors in the happiness of all populations, whether migrant or not, is emphasized in Chapter 6, where the happiness bulge in Latin America is found to depend on the greater warmth of family and other social relationships there, and to the greater importance that people there attach to these relationships.

The Report ends on a different tack, with a focus on three emerging health problems that threaten happiness: obesity, the opioid crisis, and depression. Although set in a global context, most of the evidence and discussion are focused on the United States, where the prevalence of all three problems has been growing faster and further than in most other countries.

In positive psychology, flow, also known as the zone, is the mental state of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity. The chart below describes the balance that a person encounters, when doing an activity, between how much challenge the task presents and how much skill that person already possesses for the activity. Experts such as Mihály Csíkszentmihályi have suggested that happiness can be found by entering the upper right quadrant of this chart.

The following is excerpted from a book about redesigning your lifestyle in order to work less and increase your income.

To do or not to do? To try or not to try? Most people will vote no, whether they consider themselves brave or not. Uncertainty and the prospect of failure can be very scary noises in the shadows. Most people will choose unhappiness over uncertainty. For years, I set goals, made resolutions to change direction, and nothing came of either. I was just as insecure and scared as the rest of the world.

The simple solution came to me accidentally four years ago. At that time, I had more money than I knew what to do with—I was making $70K or so per month—and I was completely miserable, worse than ever. I had no time and was working myself to death. I had started my own company, only to realize it would be nearly impossible to sell.

Critical mistakes in its infancy would never let me sell it. I could hire magic elves and connect my brain to a supercomputer—it didn’t matter. My little baby had some serious birth defects. The question then became, How do I free myself from this Frankenstein while making it self-sustaining? How do I pry myself from the tentacles of workaholism and the fear that it would fall to pieces without my 15-hour days? How do I escape this self-made prison? A trip, I decided. A sabbatical year around the world.

So I took the trip, right? First, I felt it prudent to dance around with my shame, embarrassment, and anger for six months, all the while playing an endless loop of reasons why my cop-out fantasy trip could never work. One of my more productive periods, for sure.

Then a funny thing happened. In my undying quest to make myself miserable, I accidentally began to backpedal. As soon as I cut through the vague unease and ambiguous anxiety by defining my nightmare, the worst-case scenario, I wasn’t as worried about taking a trip. I could always take a temporary bartending job to pay the rent if I had to. I could sell some furniture and cut back on eating out. I could steal lunch money from the kindergarteners who passed by my apartment every morning. The options were many. I realized it wouldn’t be that hard to get back to where I was, let alone survive. None of these things would be fatal—not even close.

I realized that on a scale of 1–10, 1 being nothing and 10 being permanently life-changing, my so-called worst-case scenario might have a temporary impact of 3 or 4. On the other hand, if I realized my best-case scenario, or even a probable-case scenario, it would easily have a permanent 9 or 10 positive life-changing effect.

In other words, I was risking an unlikely and temporary 3 or 4 for a probable and permanent 9 or 10, and I could easily recover my baseline workaholic prison with a bit of extra work if I wanted to. This all equated to a significant realization: There was practically no risk, only huge life-changing upside potential.

That is when I made the decision to take the trip and bought a one-way ticket to Europe. I started planning my adventures and eliminating my physical and psychological baggage. None of my disasters came to pass, and my life has been a near fairy tale since.

Fewer than half of Americans have calculated how much they need to save for retirement.

In 2014, 30 percent of private industry workers with access to a defined contribution plan (such as a 401(k) plan) did not participate.

The average American spends roughly 20 years in retirement. Putting money away for retirement is a habit we can all live with. Remember…saving matters!

Start saving, keep saving, and stick to your goals. If you are already saving, whether for retirement or another goal, keep going! You know that saving is a rewarding habit. If you’re not saving, it’s time to get started. Start small if you have to and try to increase the amount you save each month. The sooner you start saving, the more time your money has to grow. Make saving for retirement a priority. Devise a plan, stick to it, and set goals. Remember, it’s never too early or too late to start saving.

Know your retirement needs. Retirement is expensive. Experts estimate that you will need at least 70 percent of your preretirement income—lower earners, 90 percent or more—to maintain your standard of living when you stop working. Take charge of your financial future. The key to a secure retirement is to plan ahead.

Contribute to your employer’s retirement savings plan. If your employer offers a retirement savings plan, such as a 401(k) plan, sign up and contribute all you can. Your taxes will be lower, your company may kick in more, and automatic deductions make it easy. Over time, compound interest and tax deferrals make a big difference in the amount you will accumulate. Find out about your plan. For example, how much would you need to contribute to get the full employer contribution and how long you would need to stay in the plan to get that money?

Learn about your employer’s pension plan. If your employer has a traditional pension plan, check to see if you are covered by the plan and understand how it works. Ask for an individual benefit statement to see what your benefit is worth. Before you change jobs, find out what will happen to your pension benefit. Learn what benefits you may have from a previous employer. Find out if you will be entitled to benefits from your spouse’s plan.

Consider basic investment principles. How you save can be as important as how much you save. Inflation and the type of investments you make play important roles in how much you’ll have saved at retirement. Know how your savings or pension plan is invested. Learn about your plan’s investment options and ask questions. Put your savings in different types of investments. By diversifying this way, you are more likely to reduce risks and improve return. Your investment mix may change over time depending on a number of factors such as your age, goals, and financial circumstances. Financial security and knowledge go hand in hand.

Don’t touch your retirement savings. If you withdraw your retirement savings now, you’ll lose principal and interest and you may lose tax benefits or have to pay withdrawal penalties. If you change jobs, leave your savings invested in your current retirement plan, or roll them over to an IRA or your new employer’s plan.

The passage below is excerpted from one of Mark Twain’s most famous essays, “Fenimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses.” At the time Twain wrote his essay, Cooper’s novels were generally well liked and respected. Read the passage carefully. Then, in a well-developed essay, analyze the rhetorical strategies Twain uses to convey his attitude.

The French Enlightenment writer Voltaire wrote, “It is dangerous to be right in matters about which the established authorities are wrong.”

In a well-written essay, develop your position on Voltaire’s claim. Use appropriate evidence from your reading, experience, or observations to support your argument.

Practice Test 2

AP® English Language and Composition Exam

AP® English Language and Composition Exam

AP^® English Language and Composition Exam

AP^® English Language and Composition Exam