The initial epigraph is from General Eisenhower’s speech to the Canadian Club, Ottawa, Canada, January 10, 1946. The preface is written without endnotes. The quotations appear elsewhere in the text and are fully cited at that point.
The epigraph is a quote from General Eisenhower reminiscing about the difference between his heritage and that of the “aristocrat” Douglas MacArthur. Quoted in John Gunther, Eisenhower: The Man and the Symbol 50 (New York: Harper and Row, 1952).
1. Birth certificates were not issued in Grayson County, Tex., when Eisenhower was born. His mother recorded his name in the family Bible as “D. Dwight Eisenhower,” the “D” for David, his father’s name. “Dwight” was for the noted evangelist Dwight Lyman Moody, whom Ida admired. Eisenhower was always called Dwight, not David, and when he entered school his name was officially entered as Dwight D. Eisenhower, reversing the order of his two given names.
2. Jacob Eisenhower sold his farm in Pennsylvania for $175 an acre. In Kansas, his quarter section cost $7.50 an acre. Dwight D. Eisenhower, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends 62 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1967).
3. A. T. Andreas, History of the State of Kansas Containing a Full Account of Its Growth from an Uninhabited Territory to a Wealthy and Important State 686 (Chicago: A. T. Andreas, 1883). Currency conversions are based on the calculations of Robert C. Sahr, Political Science Department, Oregon State University.
4. The River Brethren chose Dickinson County after an extensive survey of Kansas property. Except for annual rainfall, the climate was similar to Pennsylvania’s, with winter temperatures averaging from 41 to 44 degrees. The fertile topsoil, similar to that of the Susquehanna Valley, was an astounding twelve feet deep. For an extensive comparison between Dickinson County and Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, see John R. Hertzler, “The 1879 Brethren in Christ [River Brethren] Migration from Southeastern Pennsylvania to Dickinson County, Kansas,” Pennsylvania Mennonite Heritage 11–18, January 1980.
5. Carlo D’Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier’s Life 15–16 (New York: Henry Holt, 2002).
6. Stephen E. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 16 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983).
7. Instead of giving David a quarter section of farmland, Jacob mortgaged it to his son-in-law Chris Musser for $2,000, which he presented to David. That, plus Jacob’s standard gift of $2,000, allowed David to construct a store on the main street of Hope and stock it with merchandise. The Eisenhower Building, as it was called, was the largest structure on Hope’s main street. Thomas Branigar, “No Villains—No Heroes,” Kansas History 170, Autumn 1990.
8. DDE, At Ease 31. Also see Edgar Eisenhower’s statement recorded in Edgar Newton Eisenhower and John McCallum, Six Roads from Abilene: Some Personal Recollections of Edgar Eisenhower 18 (Seattle: Wood and Reber, 1960). Earl Eisenhower is quoted to the same effect in Bela Kornitzer, The Great American Heritage: The Story of the Five Eisenhower Brothers 11–12 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1955). Early biographers repeated the Eisenhower version. See, for example, Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy: A Biography of Dwight Eisenhower 36–37 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1946); Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 17.
9. Chattel Mortgage Record Book O, page 74, Archives Division, Dickinson County Historical Society. On November 4, 1886, The Hope Dispatch published the following notice signed by David Eisenhower: “This is to certify that I have this day bought all the interest in the late firm of Good & Eisenhower, thereby releasing M. D. Good from all responsibilities of the late firm.”
10. The Hope Dispatch, November 5, 19, 1886. Unlike David Eisenhower, Milton Good was well-liked by the community. He not only did not flee, but after the partnership was dissolved the Dispatch encouraged him “to spend the remainder of his natural days” in Hope, regardless of the type of business he chose to pursue. Ibid.
11. The exhaustive primary research into David’s early failure was conducted by Thomas Branigar of the Eisenhower Library and published in 1990 in Kansas History 168–79 under the title “No Villains—No Heroes: The David Eisenhower–Milton Good Controversy.” According to Branigar, at page 179,
When historians began studying the Eisenhower family history after David’s death, the older Eisenhower generation, even those who may have known the truth, probably repeated David’s stories out of loyalty to his memory. The younger generation, represented by the President and his brothers, who were not alive at the time of the partnership, could only repeat what they had been told by their elders.… By relying solely on Eisenhower family tradition, historians obtained and perpetuated a distorted view of the Good–Eisenhower partnership.
12. D’Este, Eisenhower 22.
13. By the late 1890s, the Belle Springs Creamery was producing well over two million pounds of butter annually. It had established milk-buying stations in twenty-nine Kansas locations and processing plants in Abilene and Salina, and employed fifty persons full-time. See Hertzler, “1879 Brethren in Christ Migration” 15–17.
14. Peter Lyon, Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero 36 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1974). Musser was concerned about David’s stability. After advancing the money for train tickets for the family’s return to Abilene, he gave David a contract that specified he would receive a salary of $340 a year: $25 a month for six months, $30 a month for four months, and $35 a month for two months. In addition, the contract specified that “at the end of each month 12% of the salary is retained until the end of the year when the full amount is paid.” Musser wanted to be doubly certain David did not bolt from the job. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 60 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1987).
15. Whether by prior agreement or not, in 1908, ten years later, Ida transferred the title to David. Geoffrey Perret, Eisenhower 15 (New York: Random House, 1999).
16. Kornitzer, Great American Heritage 26.
17. Ibid. 32–33.
18. When they were serving together in the 1930s, General MacArthur rebuked Eisenhower for never attending church. “I’ve gone to West Point Chapel so goddamn often,” said Ike, “I’m never going inside a church again.” William Clark to Stewart Alsop, March 3, 1954, Alsops’ Papers, Library of Congress. Cited in Piers Brendon, Ike: His Life and Times 9 (New York: Harper and Row, 1986).
19. Eisenhower signed the legislation adding the words “under God” to the pledge on Flag Day (June 14) 1954. “From this day forward,” said the president, “the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.” Public Papers of the Presidents: Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1954 141 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service, 1960).
20. Jerry Bergman, “Steeped in Religion: President Eisenhower and the Influence of the Jehovah’s Witnesses,” Kansas History 148–67, Autumn 1998. When Ike graduated from West Point in 1915, Ida gave him a standard Watchtower Bible, in which the word “Jehovah” is substituted throughout for the word “God.” Eisenhower used this Bible when he was sworn in for his second presidential term in 1957, but in his quotation from it, “Blessed is the nation whose God is Jehovah,” he substituted “Lord” for “Jehovah.” N. H. Knorr, “Conspiracy Against Jehovah’s Name,” 78 Watchtower 323–24 (June 1, 1957).
After Ida’s death in 1946, Milton, then president of Kansas State University, quietly disposed of her fifty-year collection of Watchtower, the monthly publication of the Jehovah’s Witnesses, lest there be any unfavorable publicity. Presumably, David’s pyramid diagram was removed at the same time. Jack Anderson, Washington Merry-Go-Round, The Washington Post, September 23, 1956; Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 79.
21. Edgar Newton Eisenhower and McCallum, Six Roads from Abilene 21.
22. Ibid. 31–32.
23. DDE, At Ease 31.
24. Perret, Eisenhower 11.
25. DDE, At Ease 37. “Our love for our father was based on respect,” said Edgar. “Our love for our mother was based on something more.” Edgar Newton Eisenhower and McCallum, Six Roads from Abilene 35.
26. Milton Eisenhower, interview by Stephen Ambrose, in Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 21.
27. “From my present position as a banker,” Arthur once said, “I can grasp our early economic situation better than I could while I was a youngster. Indeed, were it not for the three-acre garden patch behind the house, we might have faced real want at times.” Kornitzer, Great American Heritage 63.
28. Edgar Newton Eisenhower and McCallum, Six Roads from Abilene 92–93.
29. With characteristic rigidity, David agreed to support Edgar if he would attend medical school at the University of Kansas but not if he wanted to study law. With equally characteristic stubbornness, Edgar refused and was partially supported at Michigan by his uncle, Chris Musser, who countersigned Edgar’s notes at the Farmers National Bank of Abilene. Neither Edgar nor Chris Musser ever informed David of the arrangement. Ibid.
30. “I had nothing to do with the decision to move Japanese nationals and Japanese-Americans from the Pacific coast,” Milton told Bela Kornitzer. “When the decision was made, I was asked by the President to establish an agency that would be responsible for bringing about the movement of some hundred and twenty thousand men, women, and children in about three months.” Later Milton wrote, “I have brooded over this episode on and off for the past three decades. It need not have happened.” Kornitzer, Great American Heritage 232.
31. Lyon, Eisenhower 38.
32. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ike’s Letters to a Friend: 1941–1958, Robert Griffith, ed. (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1984).
33. DDE, At Ease 104.
34. Kenneth S. Davis, one of the earliest biographers of Eisenhower, postulated that Ike spent the summer of 1910 worrying about attending one of the service academies given his mother’s faith. Numerous biographers have followed Davis’s lead, but there is not a shred of evidence to substantiate his assertion. At a presidential press conference on July 7, 1954, Eisenhower said the stories of his parents’ objections were totally incorrect. “She [Ida] never said one single word to me.” The New York Times, July 8, 1954. Compare Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 107–8.
35. DDE to Bristow, August 20, 1910, in Dwight D. Eisenhower, Eisenhower: The Prewar Diaries and Selected Papers, 1905–1941 8, Daniel D. Holt and James W. Leyerzapf, eds. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998).
36. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life 26 (New York: Henry Holt, 1990).
37. DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 8.
38. Pulsifer joined Ike in the Class of 1915, graduated 116th of 164 (Eisenhower ranked 61st), and retired from the Army because of a disability in 1920 with the rank of major. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 116.
39. Bristow to DDE, October 24, 1910, Joseph L. Bristow Papers, Kansas State Historical Society Archives.
40. DDE to Bristow, October 25, 1910, ibid.
41. DDE, At Ease 108.
42. Ibid. 8.
43. Ibid. 5.
44. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 34.
45. General Hugh Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier 420 (New York: Century, 1928).
46. Quoted in Edward M. Coffman, The Hilt of the Sword: The Career of Peyton C. March 186 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966).
47. “The graduates of West Point,” wrote Eliot, “did not escape, with few exceptions, from the methods they had been taught and drilled in during peace. The methods of fighting were in the main new, and the methods of supply and accounting ought to have been new. The red tape methods [of the peacetime Army] were very mischievous all through the actual fighting and remain a serious impediment to the efficiency of the War Department to this day.” The New York Times, May 9, 1920.
48. Quoted in T. Bentley Mott, “West Point: A Criticism,” Harpers 478–79, March 1934.
49. William Manchester, American Caesar: Douglas MacArthur, 1880–1964 121 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1978). “I am not the most rabid worshipper of MacArthur that there is in this world,” said Lucius D. Clay. “But I give him a tremendous amount of credit for recognizing the need for change at the Military Academy to meet the change in the whole national outlook and environment. He knew it had to be changed, and he changed it—against a good deal of opposition from members of his own faculty.” Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 39.
50. Ibid. Eisenhower inclined to the more conventional view. “One thing that has struck me very forcibly … is the frequency with which one finds the older officer of today [January 31, 1944] to be merely a more mature edition of the kid [we] knew as a Cadet. This is not always so and sometimes the exceptions are so glaring as to prove the rule.… Frequently, I get a lot of fun checking up my present impressions of people with the impressions I had of them when they were very young and I am amazed to find how often these impressions are identical.” Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 45.
51. DDE, interview by Edgar F. Puryear, Jr., May 2, 1963, quoted in Puryear, 19 Stars: A Study in Military Character and Leadership 13 (Orange, Va.: Green Publishers, 1971).
52. DDE, At Ease 10, 12. During World War II, Eisenhower expressed incredulity when he learned one of his classmates had been promoted to brigadier general. “Christ,” he said, “he’s always been afraid to break a regulation.” Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 48.
53. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 29.
54. DDE, At Ease 16–17.
55. Gunther, Eisenhower 29.
56. Marty Maher, Bringing Up the Brass 177 (New York: McKay, 1951).
57. Dwight D. Eisenhower, In Review: Pictures I’ve Kept; A Concise Pictorial “Autobiography” 14 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1969).
58. DDE, At Ease 16. Omar Bradley, a classmate of Ike’s and a member of both the varsity baseball and football teams, said much the same. “No extracurricular endeavor I know of could better prepare a soldier for the battlefield.” Omar N. Bradley and Clay Blair, A General’s Life: An Autobiography 34 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983).
59. Alexander M. “Babe” Weyand, “The Athletic Cadet Eisenhower,” Assembly 11, Spring 1968.
60. Brigadier General Carl C. Bank to Edgar F. Puryear, Jr., January 13, 1963, in Puryear, 19 Stars 19.
61. Francis T. Miller, Eisenhower: Man and Soldier 149–50 (Philadelphia: John C. Winston, 1944).
62. Lieutenant Colonel Morton F. Smith, Commandant of Cadets, 1915 USMA Efficiency Report, DDE Personnel File, Eisenhower Library (EL), Abilene, Kansas.
63. In 1915 the Army totaled 106,764 men, of whom 4,948 were officers. Expenditures totaled $115,410,000. Those figures did not increase significantly until 1917. United States Department of the Army, The Army Almanac 692 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950); United States Bureau of the Census, The Statistical History of the United States from Colonial Times to the Present 736 (Stamford, Conn.: Fairfield Publishers, 1965).
64. DDE, At Ease 24.
65. Ibid. 25.
66. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 43.
67. Colonel Herman Beukema to DDE, April 1946, EL.
68. Ibid.
The epigraph is a comment made by Lieutenant Colonel Eisenhower to his classmate Major Norman Randolph upon learning of the armistice on the western front, November 11, 1918. Randolph to DDE, June 20, 1945, EL.
1. On September 19–20, 1863, the 19th Infantry held the center of George Thomas’s line at Chickamauga, earning for itself and General Thomas the epithet “Rock of Chickamauga.” When the fighting ended, the regiment, still holding its position, had but forty men and four officers remaining, and was commanded by a second lieutenant.
2. R. S. Baker, 4 Woodrow Wilson: Life and Letters 289 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1931). The best recent survey of Wilson’s intervention in Mexico is John S. D. Eisenhower’s Intervention! The United States Involvement in the Mexican Revolution, 1913–1917 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993). His earlier So Far from God: The United States War with Mexico, 1846–1848 (New York: Random House, 1989) is an equally good assessment of the Mexican War under Polk.
3. Eisenhower was joined in the 19th Infantry by his classmate Thomas F. Taylor, who was soon posted to the 16th Infantry at Del Rio, along the Mexican border.
4. Lieutenant General Walker was killed in a vehicle accident in Korea and did not attain the rank of full general.
5. DDE, At Ease 121.
6. Ibid. 122.
7. Vivian Cadden, “Mamie and Ike Talk About Fifty Years of Marriage,” McCall’s, September 1966; Steve Neal, The Eisenhowers: Reluctant Dynasty 35 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
8. DDE, At Ease 113.
9. Mabel Frances [Doud] Moore, interview by Merle Miller, quoted in Miller, Ike the Soldier 141.
10. Mamie Doud Eisenhower Oral History, EL. Quoted in Marilyn Irvin Holt, Mamie Doud Eisenhower: The General’s First Lady 6 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007).
11. Funston was the area commander, but the War Department took the unusual step of prescribing to him who should command the expedition. It did so because General Hugh Scott, Army chief of staff, believed Pershing less volatile than Funston, and more capable of handling a situation that required diplomacy. American forces were violating Mexican sovereignty, and the Wilson administration wanted to avoid a war if possible. John S. D. Eisenhower, Intervention 235.
12. DDE, At Ease 121.
13. Ibid. 122.
14. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 149. Fifty years later, celebrating his wedding anniversary with Mamie, Eisenhower was asked the secret of their marital success. He attributed it to a sense of humor, “and not insist[ing] on being right. Being right all the time is perhaps the most tiresome quality anyone can have.” Cadden, “Mamie and Ike Talk About 50 Years of Marriage.”
15. Years later Mamie said, “I got out of [Abilene] in a hurry, I’ll tell you, every time I got the chance.” MDE Oral History, EL.
16. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 59.
17. Maureen Clark, Captain’s Bride, General’s Lady 24 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956).
18. For the text of Wilson’s speech, see The New York Times, April 3, 1917.
19. DDE, At Ease 131.
20. DDE efficiency report, December 2, 1917, EL. Ironically, the 57th Infantry never made it overseas and spent the war on garrison duty at Fort Sam Houston.
21. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike: Memories and Reflections on the Life of Mamie Eisenhower 43 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1996).
22. DDE to MDE, September 25, 1917, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 13–14. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.) Ike’s reference to “Sheltering Palms” is to the hit song “Down Among the Sheltering Palms,” published in 1914. Music by Abe Olman; lyrics by James Brockman.
23. DDE to MDE, September 26, 1917, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 15.
24. DDE efficiency report, February 22, 1917, to November 26, 1917, EL.
25. Lieutenant Edward C. Thayer to his mother, January 1918, Presidential Papers, EL.
26. Fitzgerald twice submitted “The Romantic Egotist” to Scribner’s and both times it was rejected. Major portions later appeared in This Side of Paradise. Arthur Mizener, The Far Side of Paradise: A Biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald 75–77 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). Also see Fitzgerald to Edmund Wilson, January 10, 1918, in The Letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald 321–24, Andrew Turnbull, ed. (New York: Scribner, 1963).
27. DDE efficiency report, December 15, 1917, to January 3, 1918, EL.
28. British artillery was classified by the weight of the projectile, in this case six pounds, or 2.7 kilograms, and the gun had a muzzle velocity of 720 meters per second. In World War II, twin six pounders were a standard British coast artillery weapon.
29. Quoted in Michael Korda, Ike: An American Hero 137 (New York: HarperCollins, 2007).
30. DDE, At Ease 136.
31. Ibid. 137.
32. Ibid.
33. A separate tank corps was established in France under the command of Brigadier General Samuel D. Rockenbach with an authorized strength of 14,827 officers and men. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 168.
34. DDE, At Ease 137, 135.
35. Ibid. 138.
36. Ibid.
37. Neal, Eisenhowers 45.
38. DDE, At Ease 140.
39. Francis T. Miller, Eisenhower 172.
40. Gettysburg Times, June 7, 1918.
41. DDE to Lieutenant Colonel F. Summers, August 26, 1943, EL. Eisenhower’s foreword, also written on August 26, stated:
More than a quarter of a century ago, the tank made its debut upon the battlefield as a clumsy, belly-crawling monster whose weakness in locomotion and whose structural frailties were so glaring as to drive from the ranks of its adherents all except men of vision, of faith, and of fortitude. To those that were able to see in early failures only challenge to greater effort, we are indebted for the hastening of the German defeat in 1918.
But more than this, imbued with a conviction that modern science stood ready to offer to armies speed of movement in battle with protection against the inevitable hail of small arms fire, they urged that there was thus presented an opportunity through which the wise would prosper and the ignorant would meet disaster. Their number was all too few, but, fortunately, they persisted. Among them, none was more eloquent nor more farseeing than those distinguished soldiers that have contributed to this book. In a very marked sense, we owe to them the overwhelming nature of the Allied Tunisian victory—to say nothing of the triumphal odyssey of the British Eighth Army that began at El Alamein and has already reached Catania.
42. The estimates are from Gina Kolata, Flu: The Story of the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918 and the Search for the Virus That Caused It 6–21 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999). The term “Spanish flu” derives from the fact that it was first detected in San Sebastián, Spain, in the winter of 1918.
43. DDE, At Ease 149.
44. Ibid. 150.
45. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States 735.
46. Ernest F. Miller (Corps of Engineers), who graduated fourth in the Class of 1915, was promoted to lieutenant colonel on September 28, 1918—two weeks before Eisenhower.
47. DDE efficiency report, March 15, 1918, to November 15, 1918, EL.
48. Quoted in Alden Hatch, Red Carpet for Mamie 116 (New York: Henry Holt, 1954).
49. DDE, At Ease 151.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Randolph to DDE, June 20, 1945, EL.
53. Citation, DSM, EL. Although Welborn recommended Eisenhower for the Distinguished Service Medal immediately after the war, he did not receive it until 1924. James B. Ord, Class of 1915, received the DSM for service with Pershing in Mexico, and four of Ike’s classmates were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for valor in France: Charles W. Ryder, Sidney C. Graves, John W. Leonard, and Harry Harvey (posthumously).
The epigraph is an observation made by Eisenhower discussing demobilization after World War I. DDE, At Ease 152.
1. DDE, At Ease 151–52.
2. Ibid. 155.
3. MDE Oral History, EL.
4. DDE, At Ease 156. Also see John E. Wickman, “Ike and the Great Truck Train—1919,” Kansas History 139–47, Autumn 1990.
5. Vaughn Smartt, “1919: The Interstate Expedition,” 55 Constructor 18–25 (August 1973).
6. DDE, At Ease 157.
7. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Report on Transcontinental Trip,” November 3, 1919, EL.
8. DDE, At Ease 163–65.
9. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 59.
10. Dorothy Barrett Brandon, Mamie Doud Eisenhower: A Portrait of a First Lady 106–8 (New York: Scribner, 1954).
11. DDE, At Ease 166–67.
12. Martin Blumenson, 1 The Patton Papers 24 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972).
13. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 70.
14. As Mark Clark put it, “Ike was not an envious man.” Mark Clark, interview by Merle Miller, quoted in Miller, Ike the Soldier 184.
15. DDE, At Ease 169–70.
16. Dwight D. Eisenhower, unpublished assessments of World War II personalities, Post-Presidential Papers, EL.
17. George S. Patton, “Tanks in Future Wars,” 16 Infantry Journal (May 1920).
18. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “A Tank Discussion,” 17 Infantry Journal 453–58 (November 1920).
19. DDE, At Ease 173.
20. John Eisenhower, interview by Merle Miller, quoted in Miller, Ike the Soldier 186.
21. Beatrice Patton’s books included Légendes Hawaiiennes, a compilation of Hawaiian lore that she wrote in French; Blood of a Shark, a historic novel set in Hawaii, and Reminiscences of Frederick Ayer, about her father. She also translated French Army manuals into English for the War Department and wrote the stirring “Second Armored Division March.” George commanded the 2nd Armored in North Africa in 1943.
22. Julie Nixon Eisenhower, Special People 199–200 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1977).
23. MDE Oral History, EL.
24. DDE to Elivera Doud, November 16, 1919, in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 61.
25. DDE, At Ease 176.
26. Kevin McCann, quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 191.
27. DDE, At Ease 180.
28. Ibid. 180–81.
29. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 67.
30. DDE, At Ease 181.
31. Ibid.
32. Neal, Eisenhowers 64–65.
33. D’Este, Eisenhower 156.
34. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 75.
35. Julie Nixon Eisenhower, Special People 198–99.
36. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 738. U.S. Statutes at Large, ch. 227, 66th Cong., 2d sess., 1920.
37. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States 736.
38. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 49.
39. George F. Hofmann, “The Demise of the U.S. Tank Corps,” Military Affairs, February 1973.
40. Pershing’s date of rank as General of the Armies (a six-star rank) was September 2, 1919. Marshall, MacArthur, Eisenhower, Arnold, and Bradley were five-star Generals of the Army.
41. “No commander had an abler Chief of Operations,” Pershing later said of Conner. “I could have spared any other man in the A.E.F. better than you.” Quoted in Michael E. Bigelow, “Brigadier General Fox Conner and the American Military Forces” (master’s thesis, Temple University, 1984).
42. DDE, interview by Stephen Ambrose, quoted in Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 75.
43. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 187. Eisenhower would later note that perhaps the greatest reward of his friendship with George Patton was meeting Conner that Sunday afternoon in the autumn of 1920. Carlo D’Este, Patton: A Genius for War 294 (New York: HarperCollins, 1995).
44. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 474.
45. DDE, At Ease 178.
46. The documents pertaining to the misappropriated $250.76 are in Eisenhower’s Army 201 file. Lengthy excerpts are reprinted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 196–206.
47. Ibid. 202.
48. DDE, At Ease 182.
49. Conner to Pershing, n.d., reproduced in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 202.
50. General McRae’s reprimand stated:
The Secretary of War directs:
1st. That a letter, substantially as follows be sent to Major Dwight D. Eisenhower, Infantry, through the Chief of Infantry.
With respect to the charges preferred against you for violation of the 94th and 98th Articles of War, in that you did draw commutation of quarters, heat and light for a dependent son while your lawful wife was resident with you at Camp Meade, Md. and did, with you, during the period for which commutation was drawn for your son, actually occupy public quarters, heated and lighted from public funds, the decision of the Secretary of War is that you not be brought to trial on those charges but be reprimanded instead. In arriving at this decision, due weight has been given to your disclaimer of any intent to defraud the Government and to the fact that you voluntarily subjected yourself to investigation nearly a year after the commutation was drawn by you. Your admitted ignorance of the law, however, is to your discredit, and your failure to take ordinary precautions to obtain from proper authority a decision as to the validity of your claims, is in an officer of your grade, likewise to your discredit. Opinions of the Judge Advocate General and decisions of the Comptroller General are appropriately published for the guidance of all officers. A failure to conform to these opinions and decisions has, in the present case, led to these grave charges being properly preferred against you.
A copy of this letter will be filed with your record.
2nd. That all accompanying papers then be returned to the Office of the Inspector General for file.
51. DDE efficiency reports, March 31, 1921, and January 6, 1922, EL.
52. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 208.
53. Lester David and Irene David, Ike and Mamie: The Story of a General and His Lady 90 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1981).
54. DDE, At Ease 185; DDE, diary entry (1933) quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 208.
55. DDE, interview by Charles H. Brown, quoted in Brown, “Fox Conner: A General’s General,” John Ray Skates, ed., Journal of Mississippi History 205, August 1987.
56. Ibid. 209.
57. DDE, At Ease 187.
58. Ibid. 194.
59. Virginia Conner, What Father Forbad 120–21 (Philadelphia: Dorrance, 1951).
60. Quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 83.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid. 85.
63. DDE efficiency reports, June 30, 1922, June 30, 1923, June 30, 1924, and August 31, 1924, EL.
64. Conner, What Father Forbad 120.
65. Eisenhower was not normally caustic in his memoirs, yet he was unforgiving when describing his assignment to Meade in 1924:
The whole thing may have started in a heavy think session of staff officers as an attempt to (what is now called) “improve the image” of the Army. On the other hand, it may all have come about because some bright young junior officer, relaxing with his seniors after a golf game, remarked for lack of anything more constructive to say, “Wouldn’t it be dandy to get an Army team together that could play an undefeated, untied season and smear the Marines?”
Such a casual question, if dimly comprehended by a senior officer who nods his head in silent acquiescence as the easiest way of being good company, can result in an amazing amount of activity. A younger man, loaded with energy, interprets the nod as official approval to start things moving. In no time at all, a Big Project is under way. The initiator simply announces that the General wants it. The same thing, I am sure, happens in other human organizations. But I suspect that it happened most easily in the Army of forty years ago when hot lines of communications were unknown and a hint that the old man wanted something done was a peremptory summons to action.
66. Ibid. 198.
67. Ibid. 199.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid. 200.
70. Quoted in ibid. 201.
71. Hatch, Red Carpet for Mamie 141.
72. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 79.
73. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 89.
74. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “On the Command and General Staff School,” August 1926, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 43–58.
75. DDE, At Ease 202.
76. GSP to DDE, July 6, 1926, reproduced in Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 801. Patton was then G-1 of the Pacific Division at Schofield Barracks in Hawaii.
77. A Young Graduate, “The Leavenworth Course,” Infantry Journal 60, June 1922.
The epigraph is a comment by Mamie Eisenhower to Dr. John Wickman, MDE Oral History, EL.
1. MDE, interview by John Wickman, EL.
2. Ibid. The comment is by Marjorie Clay, wife of General Lucius D. Clay, who was subsequently CEO of Continental Can Corporation and then the managing partner of Lehman Brothers—scarcely a stranger to an affluent lifestyle. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 72.
3. American Battle Monuments Commission, A Guide to the American Battle Fields in Europe (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1927). The Guide was sold by the Superintendent of Documents for 75 cents.
4. United States Army, Center of Military History, American Armies and the Battlefields of Europe (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1992).
5. MDE, interview by John Wickman, EL.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.
8. D’Este, Eisenhower 192.
9. Perret, Eisenhower 99.
10. Pershing to Major General Robert H. Allen, August 15, 1927, DDE 201 File, EL.
11. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Memorandum for the Assistant Commandant, Army War College, Subject: An Enlisted Reserve for the Regular Army, March 15, 1928. Reprinted in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 62–79. Also see Benjamin Franklin Conkling, “Dwight D. Eisenhower at the Army War College, 1927–1928,” 1 Parameters 26–31 (1975).
12. DDE efficiency report, June 30, 1928, EL.
13. War Department Special Orders 284, November 30, 1927, EL.
14. DDE, At Ease 205.
15. War Department Special Orders 298, December 16, 1927, EL. The styling of Eisenhower’s orders, “By order of the President,” was not customary and suggests Pershing applied his influence outside the chain of command to have Ike join him.
16. Ernest Hemingway, “Living on $1,000 a Year in Paris,” Dateline, Toronto: The Complete Toronto Star Dispatches, 1920–1924 88, William White, ed. (New York: Scribner’s, 1985).
17. Premier étage should not be translated as “first floor.” The ground (first) floor of most European apartment buildings is occupied by the portier and his or her family, plus various tradespeople. The next floor up, the premier étage (or piano nobile in Italian), is the preferred floor in the building, usually with higher ceilings, larger windows, and greater ornamentation.
18. Quoted in Hatch, Red Carpet for Mamie 150.
19. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 241.
20. DDE, At Ease 206.
21. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 94.
22. Colin Jones, Paris: The Biography of a City 385 (New York: Viking, 2005).
23. T. Gerald Kennedy, Imagining Paris: Exile, Writing, and American Identity 12 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1993).
24. Jones, Paris 388.
25. Hart Crane, postcard to Samuel Loveman, in Americans in Paris: A Literary Anthology 335, Adam Gopnik, ed. (New York: Library of America, 2004). Americans in Paris includes a delightful collection of Paris articles by noted American authors ranging from Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson to Art Buchwald, James Baldwin, A. J. Liebling, and Jack Kerouac.
26. Rosalind Massow, “Ike and Mamie Talk About 50 Years of Marriage,” Parade, June 26, 1966.
27. DDE, At Ease 206.
28. On May 11, 1929, the Paris Tribune noted that “Major and Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower entertained a few friends [sixteen couples] yesterday evening, commencing with a cocktail party at their home in the Quai d’Auteuil taking their party later to the dinner dance at the Union Interalliée.” The Paris Herald carried a similar report. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 98.
29. George A. Horkan, Jr., interview, EL.
30. DDE, At Ease 205.
31. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 304 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974).
32. John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ike: A Personal Reminiscence 143–75 (New York: Free Press, 2003).
33. Vernon A. Walters, Silent Missions 489–91 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
34. Janet Flanner, Paris Was Yesterday 52–54 (New York: Viking Press, 1972).
35. John J. Pershing, My Experiences in the World War, 2 vols. (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1931).
36. DDE, At Ease 208.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid. 208–9.
39. Ibid. 205.
The epigraph is General MacArthur’s comment on Eisenhower’s efficiency report, June 30, 1933, EL. MacArthur always wrote Ike’s efficiency reports in longhand.
1. On February 18, 1933, Major General George Van Horn Moseley wrote Ike: “Over three years ago when I arrived here and found myself in need of expert assistance you, a stranger to me, were recommended and I had you brought to the Office of The Assistant Secretary of War. What a great blessing you have been!” EL. Also see Moseley to DDE, September 26, 1935, and D’ Este, Eisenhower 203.
2. National Defense Act, June 4, 1920, 41 Stat. 759.
3. According to Eisenhower, Payne “attends every tea-dance and reception to which he is invited. Likes also to appear at conventions, dinners, etc., where he is invited to speak but cares very little what material appears in the speech. His thrill comes from the invitation itself.” DDE diary, labeled as “Chief of Staff Diary,” EL.
4. Ibid., November 9, 1929.
5. DDE to Assistant Secretary of War, “Report of Inspection of Guayule Rubber Industry,” June 6, 1930, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 126–38.
6. The original of the 1930 Plan for Mobilization is at the Hoover Presidential Library in West Branch, Iowa. A copy is at the EL. For a useful analysis of Ike’s role, see Kerry E. Irish, “Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan,” 70 Journal of Military History 31–61 (January 2006). By 1940 the plan was dreadfully outdated. “I don’t recall ever looking at it,” said General Lucius D. Clay, who was in charge of all military procurement in World War II. Clay, interview, Columbia Oral History Project, Columbia University (COHP).
7. Moseley to DDE, February 18, 1933, EL. On Ike’s efficiency report dated December 30, 1930, Moseley described him as “a powerfully built fellow—a strong body supporting an unusually fine mind. An outstanding personality in any group, and one of the coming men in the Army.” EL.
8. DDE diary, June 14–August 10, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 225–26.
9. When Moseley retired in 1938, Marshall wrote, “I know you will leave behind a host of younger men who have a loyal devotion to you and for what you have stood for. I am one of that company, and it makes me very sad to think that I cannot serve with you and under you again.” Marshall to Moseley, September 9, 1938, in 3 The Papers of George Catlett Marshall 626, Larry I. Bland, ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). Also see Forrest C. Pogue, 2 George C. Marshall 12–13 (New York: Viking, 1986); Ed Cray, General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman 6–7, 118, 479 (New York: Norton, 1990).
10. D. Clayton James, 1 The Years of MacArthur 383–84 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970).
11. DDE, At Ease 213.
12. Moseley to Payne, October 9, 1930, Moseley Papers, Library of Congress.
13. Moseley to General Malin Craig, May 18, 1938, ibid. Also see New York Herald Tribune, May 14, 1938; Atlanta Constitution, May 24, 1938.
14. Moseley’s rancid views are captured in unexpurgated form in his unpublished four-volume memoir, “One Soldier’s Journey,” among the Moseley papers at the Library of Congress. The quotation is from volume four, pages 215–19. Also see Moseley’s speech to the National Defense Meeting in Philadelphia, March 28, 1939, published by the Pelley Publishers of Asheville, N.C.
15. DDE to Moseley, January 24, 1934, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Papers 261–62.
16. DDE to Moseley, August 27, 1942, EL. For a remarkable survey of anti-Semitism in the Army, see Joseph W. Bendersky’s The “Jewish Threat”: Anti-Semitism of the U.S. Army (New York: Basic Books, 2000). I am indebted to Professor Bendersky for his analysis of Ike’s relations with General Moseley.
17. DDE, At Ease 213. Moseley, for his part, later recognized that he was a liability for Ike. As he wrote on September 29, 1943:
You must always keep me far in the background and unknown as far as our friendship is concerned. As you know, I spoke over the country in ’38 and ’39, attacking the subversive and un-American elements and attempting to show how peace could be maintained. I made many enemies. Thus, I am a liability and must not be mentioned in any way in connection with your brilliant career.
On October 7, Eisenhower generously replied, “Never doubt my pride in our friendship that has endured so many years.” EL.
18. Kate Hughes, interview by Barbara Thompson Eisenhower, quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 110.
19. Neal, Eisenhowers 78.
20. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 857.
21. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 8.
22. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 111.
23. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 6.
24. Department of the Army, Army Almanac 52–62.
25. James, 1 Years of MacArthur 366.
26. Moseley wrote: “When the undersigned was selected for Deputy Chief of Staff, The Assistant Secretary of War, Mr. Payne, after going over the situation carefully, stated that Major Eisenhower was his first choice for my place. Only the fact that Major Eisenhower was a major and could not be jumped to a grade appropriate to the position, prevented him from having the place.” DDE efficiency report, December 20, 1930, EL. Also see Eisenhower’s diary entry of November 24, 1930, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 146.
27. Public Resolution Number 98, 71st Cong., 2d sess., H.J. Res. 251.
28. In addition to the secretary of war, the commission included Secretary of the Navy Charles Francis Adams, Secretary of Agriculture Arthur M. Hyde, Attorney General William D. Mitchell, Secretary of Commerce Robert P. Lamont, and Secretary of Labor William N. Doak; Senators David A. Reed (R., Pa.), Arthur Vandenberg (R., Mich.), Joseph Robinson (D., Ark.), and Claude A. Swanson (D., Va.); Representatives John J. McSwain (D., S.C.), Ross Collins (D., Miss.), William P. Holaday (R., Ill.), and Lindley H. Hadley (R., Wash.).
29. DDE diary, March 13, 1931, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 168.
30. Ibid., May 18, 1931, page 171. Said MacArthur:
The [War] Department holds to the belief that a reasonable preparation for defense is one of the best guarantees of peace. In our attempts to equalize the burdens of, and remove the profits from, war, we must guard against the tendency to over-emphasize administrative efficiency and underemphasize national effectiveness.… It is conceivable that war might be conducted with such regard for individual justice and administrative efficiency as to make impossible those evils whose existence in past wars inspired the drafting of Public Resolution 98…. It is also conceivable that the outcome of such a war would be defeat.
May 13, 1931, Records of the Secretary of War, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
31. MacArthur to DDE, November 4, 1931, EL.
32. Eisenhower provided Senator Arthur Vandenberg with the text of a proposed amendment to the “taking clause” of the Fifth Amendment (which prevents the government from taking private property for public use without just compensation).
Change the period to a semi-colon and add the following:
Provided, however, that in time of war Congress may regulate or provide for the regulation of prices, rent, or compensation to be exacted or paid by any person in respect of the sale, rent or use of any real or personal property, tangible or otherwise, without regard to any limitation contained in this Article or any other Article of the Constitution.
Memorandum for Senator Arthur Vandenberg, March 7, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 220–21.
33. DDE, interview by Raymond Henle, July 13, 1967, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library.
34. Dwight D. Eisenhower, “War Policies,” 40 Cavalry Journal 25–29 (1931).
35. DDE diary, March 28, 1931, EL.
36. Ibid. April 27, 1931.
37. Report of Lieutenant Colonel M. A. Dailey, Assistant Chief of Medical Service, Walter Reed General Hospital, August 25, 1934, EL.
38. DDE diary, December 20, 1931 (Eisenhower’s emphasis).
39. Ibid. February 15, 1932.
40. DDE to John Doud, undated, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 212–13. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
41. 1 Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant 138 (New York: Charles L. Webster, 1885).
42. Ibid. 139.
43. Manchester, American Caesar 129–30; cf. James, 1 Years of MacArthur 291–92. Professor James cites journalist Robert Considine, who quotes Louise after her wedding night that MacArthur “may be a general in the Army, but he’s a buck private in the boudoir,” 669n38. Biographer Geoffrey Perret believed Louise’s comment was a compliment, suggesting that MacArthur made love with reckless abandon. Old Soldiers Never Die: The Life of Douglas MacArthur 127 (New York: Random House, 1996). Professor Carol Morris Petillo, in Douglas MacArthur: The Philippine Years, states that although MacArthur was already past forty when he married, “there is little evidence to suggest that he had ever known a woman intimately, and considerable reason to believe that he had not.” At page 140 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981). Douglas and Louise were divorced in 1929.
44. DDE diary, June 15, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 230.
45. Ibid.
46. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 258–59.
47. DDE, At Ease 213–15.
48. Herbert Hoover, 3 Memoirs 55–56 (New York: Macmillan, 1952).
49. 113 Literary Digest 6 (November 12, 1932).
50. Ernest Lindley, The Roosevelt Revolution: First Phase 87–89 (New York: Viking Press, 1933).
51. World War Adjusted Compensation Act, May 19, 1924, 43 Stat. 121.
52. The most complete coverage of the Bonus Army affair is provided by Paul Dickson and Thomas B. Allen in their superb book The Bonus Army: An American Epic (New York: Walker, 2004), to which I am deeply indebted.
53. Time, April 11, 1932. The Patman papers are at the LBJ Presidential Library in Austin, Tex. For Patman’s role in the bonus fight, see Nancy Beck Young, “Wright Patman’s Entrepreneurial Leadership in Congress,” in Franklin D. Roosevelt and Congress: The New Deal and Its Aftermath 79–97, Thomas P. Wolf, William D. Pederson, and Byron W. Daynes, eds. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2001).
54. 72nd Cong., 2d sess., H.J.R. 1, 1932.
55. Dickson and Allen, Bonus Army 317.
56. Fleta Campbell Springer, “Glassford and the Siege of Washington,” 145 Harper’s 641–55 (1932). Also see John Dos Passos, “The Veterans Come Home to Roost,” 71 The New Republic 177 (1932); Donald J. Lisio, The President and Protest: Hoover, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot (New York: Fordham University Press, 1994).
57. Reflecting on the episode in his Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote, “The [bonus] movement was actually far deeper and more dangerous than an effort to secure funds from a nearly depleted federal treasury. The American Communist Party planned a riot of such proportions that it was hoped the United States Army, in its effort to maintain peace, would have to fire on the marchers. Red organizers infiltrated the veteran groups and presently took command of their unwitting leaders.” Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences 93 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964). The record does not support General MacArthur’s contention. The quotation is reprinted to illustrate MacArthur’s mind-set.
58. Moseley, 2 “One Soldier’s Journey” 557–64, unpublished memoir, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress. Later that day Moseley wrote his bleak estimate of the situation to his friend Herbert Corey.
Intensive investigations of the past months have disclosed that we are harboring a very large group of drifters, dope fiends, unfortunates and degenerates of all kinds, that had become “a distinct menace” to the nation. For years we have been breeding and accumulating a mass of inferior people, still a minority it is true, but tools ready at hand for those seeking to strike at the very vitals of our institutions. Liberty is a sacred thing, but it ceases to be liberty when under its banner minorities force their will on the majority.
59. Moseley to MacArthur, November 3, 1942, quoted in James, 1 Years of Mac-Arthur 679. Also see Moseley 2 “One Soldier’s Journey” 138–39.
60. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 895.
61. James F. and Jean H. Vivian, “The Bonus March of 1932: The Role of General George Van Horn Moseley,” Wisconsin Magazine of History 31, Autumn 1967.
62. Secretary of War to All Corps Area Commanders (in code), June 10, 1932. Adjutant general’s files, 1926–1939, Bonus Marchers, RRG 94, NARA.
63. Joan M. Jensen, Army Surveillance in America, 1775–1980 203 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991). Also see Colonel James Totten to AG, June 27, 1932, in Adjutant General’s files, supra.
64. J. Edgar Hoover to Colonel William H. Wilson, Military Intelligence Division, General Staff, July 11, 1932.
65. Harry C. Lar to Moseley, June 4, 1932, quoted in U.S. Military Intelligence Reports: Surveillance of Radicals in the U.S., 1917–1941, Randolph Boehm, ed. (Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1984).
66. Lisio, President and Protest 90–111, 194–225, 310–11. Also see Dickson and Allen, Bonus Army 124ff.
67. James, 1 Years of MacArthur 394. Illustrative of the Army’s paranoia, Major General Courtney Whitney wrote that the BEF ranks were swollen with “a heavy percentage of criminals, men with prison records for such crimes as murder, manslaughter, rape, robbery, burglary, blackmail and assault. A secret document which was captured later disclosed that the Communist plan covered even such details as the public trial and hanging in front of the Capitol of high government officials. At the very top of the list was the name of Army Chief of Staff MacArthur.” There was no such document, except in Army lore handed down to Whitney. Courtney Whitney, MacArthur: His Rendezvous with History 513 (New York: Knopf, 1955).
68. Report to the Secretary of War, August 15, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 234–35. The report was written by Ike for MacArthur’s signature. “A lot of furor has been stirred up,” wrote Eisenhower, “but mostly to make political capital. I wrote the General’s report, which is as accurate as I could make it.”
69. DDE diary, August 10, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 233.
70. The text of Hurley’s order to MacArthur, reprinted in The New York Times, July 29, 1932, reads as follows:
TO: General Douglas MacArthur, Chief of Staff, U.S. Army.
The President has just informed me that the civil government of the District of Columbia has reported to him that it is unable to maintain law and order in the District.
You will have United States troops proceed immediately to the scene of disorder. Cooperate fully with the District of Columbia police force which is now in charge. Surround the affected area and clear it without delay.
Turn over all prisoners to the civil authorities.
In your orders insist that any women and children who may be in the affected area be accorded every consideration and kindness. Use all humanity consistent with the due execution of this order.
PATRICK J. HURLEY
Secretary of War
71. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 895.
72. DDE, At Ease 216.
73. Perret, Eisenhower 112–13. Other recent biographers are equally skeptical. See Brendon, Ike 63–64; Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 266–67; D’Este, Eisenhower 223–24.
74. Miles to MacArthur, August 4, 1932, quoted in James, 1 Years of MacArthur 398–99. In the after-action report Eisenhower wrote for MacArthur’s signature, Ike said, “I accompanied the troops in person, anticipating the possibility of such a serious situation arising that necessary decisions might lie beyond the purview of responsibility of any subordinate commander, and with the purpose of obtaining a personal familiarity with every phase of the troops’ activities.” DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 238.
75. Perry L. Miles, Fallen Leaves: Memories of an Old Solider 307 (Berkeley, Calif.: Wureth, 1964). In his Reminiscences, MacArthur said he went with the troops “in accordance with the President’s request.” At page 95.
76. Before meeting the press, MacArthur and Hurley went to the White House to brief President Hoover on what had occurred. There is no record of the meeting, but Hoover later told F. Trubee Davison, the assistant secretary of war for air, that he was furious with MacArthur and had “upbraided” him for disobeying orders. F. Trubee Davison, interview, Oral History Collection, Herbert Hoover Presidential Library.
77. The New York Times, July 29, 1932.
78. MacArthur for Hurley (written entirely by DDE), July 1930, reprinted in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 233–47. In At Ease, Eisenhower writes somewhat more sympathetically of the veterans than he did at the time. He further suggests that he recommended that MacArthur not speak to the press, but this, too, seems unlikely. Eisenhower concludes his treatment of the affair by noting that some accounts call it “one of the darkest blots on the MacArthur reputation. This, I feel, is unfortunate.” At pages 216–18.
79. Blumenson, 1 Patton Papers 900.
80. Lucian K. Truscott, Jr., The Twilight of the U.S. Cavalry: Life in the Old Army, 1917–1942 130, Colonel Lucian K. Truscott III, ed. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989).
81. The Washington Daily News, July 29, 1932.
82. DDE diary, April 26, 1934, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 268–69.
83. General Lucius D. Clay, in Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 57.
84. DDE diary, November 30, 1932, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 247.
85. Ibid. 247–48, February 28, 1933.
86. Ibid. 249, March 10, 1933.
87. Milton Eisenhower, quoted in Neal, Eisenhowers 94.
88. DDE diary, April 20, 1933, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 251–52.
89. Ibid. 253–54, October 29, 1933. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
The epigraph, a family legend, is reported by Susan Eisenhower in Mrs. Ike 143.
1. Charles H. Brown, “Fox Conner: A General’s General,” John Ray Skates, ed., Journal of Mississippi History 208, August 1987.
2. “General Moseley hates the President,” wrote Colonel Herman Bukema to Professor William Myers, September 28, 1934. Quoted in Bendersky, “Jewish Threat” 468.
3. “I hear your name mentioned [for the position] possibly more frequently and more favorably than anyone else’s,” Eisenhower wrote Moseley on September 24, 1934, “but I honestly think that no one but the President knows exactly what is to be done and he will make his announcement in his own good time.” DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 276.
4. Press Conference 164, December 12, 1934. 4 Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt 268–69 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1972). For MacArthur’s desire for an extension, see Eisenhower memo in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 97.
5. William Manchester states that FDR extended MacArthur’s term for a year to pass over General George Simonds. Simonds was born in 1874, as was Moseley. But FDR’s primary aim was to short-circuit Moseley’s chances. Manchester, American Caesar 159.
6. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 133–38.
7. 48 Stat. 456, PL 73–127 (1934).
8. MacArthur to FDR, September 9, 1935. Also see FDR to MacArthur, August 31, 1935; MacArthur to FDR, September 2, 1935. Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (FDRL).
9. War Department Special Orders 220, September 18, 1935.
10. One of the best reports of arrangements leading to MacArthur’s appointment was written by Eisenhower (“Philippine diary”) in November 1935, and is reprinted in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 286–93. Geoffrey Perret, citing “Memorandum of the Terms of Agreement Between the President of the Philippine Commonwealth and General MacArthur,” notes that MacArthur would also receive .46 of 1 percent of Philippine defense spending through 1941. That translates into an additional $23,000 annually, given a budget of $8 million. Old Soldiers Never Die 188.
11. DDE, At Ease 219–20.
12. DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 284.
13. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 133–34.
14. DDE to Elivera Doud, August 8, 1935, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 281–82.
15. DDE, At Ease 221.
16. MacArthur to DDE, September 30, 1935, DDE 201 file, EL.
17. War Department Special Orders 220, September 18, 1935.
18. FDR to Secretary of War, July 18, 1935, FDRL.
19. Woodring to MacArthur, October 2, 1935, MacArthur Memorial Bureau of Archives (MMBA), Norfolk, Virginia.
20. DDE, At Ease 223.
21. MacArthur to FDR, October 2, 1935, FDRL; MacArthur to Craig, October 2, 1935, MMBA.
22. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 77.
23. Ibid. 78.
24. DDE Philippine diary, December 1935, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 292.
25. Joint Army and Navy Basic War Plan Orange, August 1924, Record Group 165, NARA.
26. War Plan Orange, March 1929, Record Group 407, NARA.
27. MacArthur to Bonner Fellers, June 1, 1939, MMBA; Moseley, 2 “One Soldier’s Story” 153.
28. War Plan Orange, June 13, 1933, Record Group 407, NARA. According to marginal notes on the plan, “Genl MacA” stated his belief that such reinforcement was possible because the Japanese would not seek to capture the Philippines so long as the U.S. fleet stood guard. MacArthur predicted “that war would be declared (if at all) by the enemy and initiated by a surprise attack on our fleet if surprise were possible.” Quoted in Brian McAllister Linn, Guardians of Empire: The U.S. Army and the Pacific, 1902–1940 176 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
29. Current Estimate, War Plan Orange, 1936, Record Group 407, NARA.
30. War Plan Orange, 1939, Record Group 407, NARA. Quoted in Linn, Guardians of Empire 182.
31. DDE Philippine diary, December 27, 1935, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.
32. Ibid., January 20, 1936.
33. Ibid., February 6, 1936.
34. Ibid., January 20, 1936.
35. Ibid.
36. James, 1 Years of MacArthur 506. On April 5, 1939, Eisenhower reported a three-hour conversation with President Quezon at the presidential palace. The conversation was at Quezon’s request.
He said he bitterly opposed the appointment [of MacArthur as field marshal], although he did not say he opposed it openly to General MacA. He did say that the incident made his government look ridiculous! I was astounded, since General MacA’s account of the same affair was exactly the opposite.… Somebody certainly has lied. The Gen. said he accepted the appointment with great reluctance and only because refusal would have mortally offended the Pres!! Wow!!
(DDE Philippine diary, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.)
37. DDE Philippine diary, February 15, 1936.
38. DDE, interview by Peter Lyon, August 1967, quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 78.
39. John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ike 27–28.
40. DDE Philippine diary, July 1, 1936, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.
41. War Department Special Order, July 1, 1936.
42. DDE, At Ease 280.
43. William L. Lee, interview, EL.
44. Brigadier General Hugh A. Parker, interview, EL.
45. John S. D. Eisenhower, General Ike 26.
46. Jesus A. Villamor, “He Knew How to Take It,” The American Legion Magazine 14–15, 42–43, September 1960.
47. DDE to Hugh A. Parker, February 4, 1936, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 420–22.
48. MacArthur to Major General William D. Connor, September 15, 1936, EL.
49. DDE to Colonel George A. Lincoln, September 6, 1967, EL.
50. W. B. Courtney, “Can We Hold the Richest Land on Earth?” Collier’s 12–13, 54–56, July 1, 1939.
51. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 144–45.
52. Ibid. 137.
53. MDE to the Douds, March 31, 1936, EL.
54. D’Este, Eisenhower 241.
55. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 143.
56. Ibid. 145.
57. MDE to the Douds, February 8, 1938, EL.
58. DDE to Moseley, April 26, 1937, EL.
59. DDE to John Doud, April 29, 1937, EL.
60. Craig to MacArthur, August 16, 1937, MMBA.
61. DDE Philippine diary, August 25, 1937, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.
62. MacArthur to Craig, August 22, 1937, MMBA.
63. Craig to MacArthur, August 24, 1937, MMBA.
64. “These comic opera wars never center about any problem incident to the ‘job,’ ” Eisenhower continued. “They invariably involve something personal to the Gen. I too could be the fair-haired boy if I’d only yes, yes, yes!!” DDE Philippine diary, August 25, 1937, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
65. MacArthur to Craig, September 10, 1937; MacArthur to the Adjutant General, September 16, 1937, MMBA.
66. FDR to MacArthur, October 11, 1937, FDRL. “The other day we got the Gen.’s order for retirement,” Ike wrote in his diary on October 15, 1937. “The Pres. of the U.S. sent him a flowery telegram which was, of course, promptly released to the press. His retirement, to take effect on Dec. 31, will leave him a free agent so that he can continue to live in the Penthouse, draw his munificent salary—do no work—and be protected against possible transfer to another station.”
67. DDE efficiency report, December 31, 1937, EL.
68. DDE Philippine diary, December 21, 1937, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries. When the Philippine government sought to increase Ike’s per diem allowance, MacArthur blocked it. Eisenhower took it personally.
He [MacArthur] knows we know he had prevaricated in his administration of the defense plan, for the sole purpose of assuring his hold on $33,000 and a penthouse, and all expenses. He has come to regard us as a menace to him and his soft berth.… The popular notion of his great ability as a soldier and leader, is, of course, not difficult to explain to those who know how wartime citations were often secured. These, plus direct intervention of Sec[retary of War Newton D.] Baker to give him his first star (Regular) have been parlayed … to a reputation of wisdom, brilliance and magnificent leadership.
69. Quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 247.
70. In At Ease, Eisenhower attributed the crash to the inexperienced Filipino pilot. But in the letter he wrote to Mrs. Ord immediately afterward, Ike exonerated the pilot: “Lieut Cruz, a very fine flyer with whom many of us ride regularly.” His subsequent diary entry blamed the crash on “a combination of unfortunate circumstances, rather than of any one particular thing.” At Ease 227–28. Compare DDE to Emily Ord, January 31, 1938, and Philippine diary, February 15, 1938, both in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 373–76.
71. DDE Philippine diary, February 15, 1938, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.
72. DDE, At Ease 228.
73. MDE to the Douds, March 9, 1938, EL. (Mamie’s emphasis.)
74. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 154.
75. Charles A. Willoughby and John Chamberlain, MacArthur: 1941–1951 35 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954).
76. George C. Kenney, General Kenney Reports 151–52 (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1949).
77. Romulo to William Manchester, October 18, 1977, cited in Manchester, American Caesar 184.
78. D’Este, Eisenhower 248.
79. DDE Philippine diary, June 18, 1938, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries.
80. DDE, At Ease 228–29.
81. Daniel D. Holt, “An Unlikely Partnership and Service: Dwight Eisenhower, Mark Clark, and the Philippines,” 13 Kansas History 149, 157 (Autumn 1990).
82. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 80.
83. Ibid. 80–81.
84. DDE, At Ease 229–30.
85. DDE to Mark Clark, May 27, 1939, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 434–35.
86. DDE Philippine diary, July 16, 1939, in ibid.
87. DDE, At Ease 231. “The President, and his Malacañan assistants appear to be genuinely sorry that I am going,” Ike wrote in his diary on November 15, 1939. “I hope they are sincere, but the Malay mind is still a sealed book to me. They may be secretly delighted. However, I’m tempted to believe them.”
88. MacArthur to DDE, December 9, 1939, EL.
89. DDE to Colonel Norman Randolph, October 6, 1941, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 547–48.
The epigraph is a question directed at Eisenhower by General Marshall during a chance meeting while the chief of staff was attending Fourth Army maneuvers south of Monterey, California, in January 1940. It was the second occasion on which Marshall and Eisenhower met, the first being in Paris in 1929. DDE, At Ease 236.
1. DDE to Captain Hugh A. (“Lefty”) Parker, December 13, 1940, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 515.
2. General DeWitt was still the senior Army commander on the West Coast at the time of Pearl Harbor and was the prime mover behind the War Department’s recommendation to FDR that Japanese Americans living in the Pacific war zone be relocated inland. “The Japanese race is an enemy race and while many second and third generation Japanese born on United States soil have become Americanized the racial strain is undiluted.” DeWitt to War Department, February 14, 1942. Also see Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans 85 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Jean Edward Smith, FDR 549–52, 773–74 (New York: Random House, 2007).
3. DDE Philippine diary, January 25, 1940, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries. Although Eisenhower was back in the United States, he continued to write his impressions in his Philippine diary.
4. Ibid.; John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 28–29; Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 160–61.
5. DDE to Leonard T. Gerow, August 23, 1940, DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 489–90. By the end of September, the regiment would be 1,300 men understrength as troops were constantly being transferred to staff new units. DDE, Fort Lewis diary, September 26, 1940, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 493–95.
6. DDE to Everett Hughes, November 26, 1940, EL.
7. DDE to Omar Bradley, July 1, 1940, EL.
8. DDE to Gerow, August 23, 1940, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 489–90; DDE, At Ease 237; DDE to Hughes, November 26, 1940, EL.
9. DDE, At Ease 237.
10. GSP to DDE, October 1, 1940, in Blumenthal, 2 The Patton Papers 15.
11. DDE to GSP, September 17, 1940, EL. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
12. GSP to DDE, November 1, 1940, EL.
13. DDE to Mark Clark, October 31, 1940, EL.
14. DDE to T. J. Davis, October 31, 1940, EL. Eisenhower also wrote to James Ulio on the adjutant general’s staff, but that letter has been lost.
15. DDE to T. J. Davis, November 14, 1940, EL.
16. DDE, At Ease 238.
17. Lyon, Eisenhower 82.
18. Eisenhower’s letter to Gerow, November 18, 1940, is reprinted in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 503–5.
19. For Gerow’s telegram, see DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 508n1.
20. DDE to Gerow, November 25, 1940, EL.
21. DDE to Mark Clark, November 28, 1940, EL.
22. DDE to Hughes, November 26, 1940, EL.
23. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe 7–8 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1948).
24. Robert Lovett, interview by Jean Edward Smith, March 30, 1971, COHP.
25. Russell F. Weigley, Eisenhower’s Lieutenants: The Campaign of France and Germany, 1944–1945 22–28 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981).
26. Jean R. Moenk, A History of Large-Scale Army Maneuvers in the United States, 1935–1964 25, 39 (Fort Monroe, Va.: Continental Army Command, 1969). In 1939, Hugh Drum was the candidate of the Army’s Old Guard to succeed Malin Craig as chief of staff, but Roosevelt passed over him to name Marshall. “I’m tired of hearing Drum beat the drum for Drum,” FDR told Harry Hopkins. After Pearl Harbor, Secretary Stimson and Marshall offered Drum the position of chief of staff to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, heading the American effort in the China theater. Drum, who saw himself as Pershing’s successor in Europe, declined in a stormy scene with Marshall. Having overplayed his hand, Drum was retired without fanfare in 1943, when he reached the mandatory retirement age. After the row with Drum, Marshall selected Joseph Stilwell for the China post. Pogue, 2 Marshall 356–60; Noel F. Bush, “General Drum,” Life 96, June 16, 1941.
27. Kent Roberts Greenfield, Robert R. Palmer, and Bell I. Wiley, The Organization of Ground Combat Troops 12, 271–76 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 2004).
28. AC of S (G-4) [General George R. Spalding] to C of S [General Malin Craig], October 30, 1936, subject: Research and Development for FY 1939, NARA.
29. Chief Signal Officer to C of S [Marshall], February 20, 1940, NARA.
30. U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical History of the United States 736.
31. Public Law 190, July 29, 1941. To ensure fairness in the elimination of unfit officers, Marshall entrusted the final decision to a board of six retired officers, headed by former chief of staff Malin Craig. In 1941, the board discharged 31 colonels, 117 lieutenant colonels, 31 majors, and 16 captains. During the war years, Marshall sacked almost 500 full colonels as unfit to command. Mark Skinner Watson, Chief of Staff: Prewar Plans and Preparations 241–47 (Washington, D.C.: Historical Division, Department of the Army, 1950).
32. Pogue, 2 Marshall 98; James F. Byrnes, All in One Lifetime 113–14 (New York: Harper, 1958). Another of Marshall’s reforms was to break the autocratic hold on assignments exercised by the chief of infantry, the chief of cavalry, and the chief of artillery. Those offices were abolished when Marshall reorganized the War Department on March 9, 1942. The assignment and promotion authority moved to Marshall and the adjutant general’s office.
33. MDE to the Douds, March 11, 1941, quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 167.
34. DDE Fort Lewis diary, April 4, 1941, in DDE, Eisenhower: Prewar Diaries 516.
35. DDE to Colonel Charles H. Corlett, June 1941, ibid. 517–20.
36. DDE to Gerow, July 18, 1941, EL.
37. Krueger to Marshall, June 11, 1941; Marshall to Krueger, June 13, 1941. Also see Pogue, 2 Marshall 163; Kevin C. Holzimmer, General Walter Krueger: Unsung Hero of the Pacific War 71 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007).
38. Brigadier General John S. D. Eisenhower, who is the executor of his parents’ estates, has deposited their complete financial records at the Eisenhower Library, but has refused to open them for inspection. (The financial records of FDR, Eleanor, and Sara are fully available at the Roosevelt Library at Hyde Park.) When the National Archives and Records Administration prepared to open Ike’s financial records in 2010, John threatened to bring suit to keep them closed. Nevertheless, it would appear that Ike returned to the United States with roughly $10,000 ($130,000 in current dollars) in his account at Washington’s Riggs National Bank. DDE Philippine diary, November 15, 1939, EL.
39. John S. D. Eisenhower, Strictly Personal 35. According to John, one member of the class was Asian.
40. Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 267–68.
41. Ibid. 268–69.
42. DDE, Crusade in Europe 133–34.
43. Friedrich Immanuel, The Regimental War Game, Walter Krueger, trans. (Kansas City, Mo.: Hudson Press, 1907); General Julius K. L. Merteus, Tactics and Techniques of River Crossings, Walter Krueger, trans. (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1918); and William Balck, Tactics, 2 vols., Walter Krueger, trans. (Fort Leavenworth: U.S. Cavalry Association, 1911). Krueger’s World War II memoir, From Down Under to Nippon: The Story of Sixth Army in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Combat Forces Press, 1953), is a remarkable, rancor-free account of Sixth Army’s ground war in the Pacific.
44. DDE, Crusade in Europe 11.
45. Krueger Papers, United States Military Academy. Quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 274–75.
46. Ibid. 275.
47. DDE to George Van Horn Moseley, August 28, 1941, EL.
48. The details of MacArthur’s recall remain murky. The most complete account is that provided by Watson in Chief of Staff 434–38. Also see Manchester, American Caesar 188–90; Pogue, 2 Marshall 181, 466.
49. DDE to Brigadier General Wade Haislip, July 28, 1941, EL. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
50. Pogue, 2 Marshall 89. The approximate cost of the Louisiana maneuvers was $28.6 million (roughly $350 million currently). Christopher R. Gabel, The U.S. Army GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 50 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1992).
51. George C. Marshall, Speech to the National Guard Association of the United States, October 27, 1939, in 2 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 94–99.
52. Gabel, GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 4.
53. Ibid. 59.
54. DDE to Gerow, August 5, 1941, EL.
55. DDE to Joyce, September 15, 1941, EL.
56. DDE to Gerow, September 26, 1941, EL.
57. The New York Times, September 29, 1941.
58. Gabel, GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 111.
59. DDE, At Ease 244.
60. John S. D. Eisenhower Oral History, EL, quoted in D’Este, Eisenhower 280. Colonel D’Este explores the reaction of General Krueger to the fame that Ike acquired at pages 280–81.
61. Gabel, GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 115–25.
62. “General Krueger didn’t have a thing to do with logistics and neither did Ike,” said Lutes. “Ike said, ‘You handle it.’ And Krueger said, ‘You handle it.’ And I couldn’t take a single question to them. They didn’t want it. All they wanted to know was how I did it.” Lutes Oral History, EL. After the maneuvers, Lutes was promoted by General Marshall directly to the rank of brigadier general, skipping the intermediate step of colonel. DDE to Lutes, December 5, 1941, EL.
63. Gabel, GHQ Maneuvers of 1941 187.
64. Mark Clark, Calculated Risk 16 (New York: Harper, 1950); Clark, interview by Merle Miller, cited in Miller, Ike the Soldier 328–29.
65. MDE Oral History, EL.
66. D’Este, Eisenhower 281.
67. Ibid.
68. Eisenhower, Crusade in Europe 12–13.
69. Ibid. 13–14.
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid.
72. DDE efficiency report, June 30, 1940, EL.
73. Ibid., March 5, 1941, EL.
74. Ibid., June 21, 1941, EL. (Joyce’s emphasis.)
75. Ibid., December 19, 1941, EL.
During his tour in War Plans, Eisenhower jotted down his thoughts on a notepad he kept on his desk. The epigraph was written by Ike on January 4, 1942. It is reprinted in The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 1, The War Years 39, Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970). Cited subsequently as 1 War Years.
1. Krueger, From Down Under to Nippon 4.
2. DDE, Crusade in Europe 16.
3. Pogue, 2 Marshall 238. Also see Louis Morton, The Fall of the Philippines 30 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1953).
4. Stephen E. Ambrose, The Supreme Commander: The War Years of Dwight D. Eisenhower 4 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970).
5. DDE, Crusade in Europe 18.
6. Ibid.
7. Eisenhower’s December 14, 1941, memo, “Assistance to Far East,” is in 1 War Years 5–6.
8. DDE, Crusade in Europe 21–22.
9. Pogue, 2 Marshall 239.
10. Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Addresses Delivered at the Dedication Ceremonies of the George C. Marshall Research Library, May 24, 1964, 14.
11. DDE, Crusade in Europe 22–24.
12. Ibid. 30.
13. Ibid.
14. DDE, in Addresses Delivered at Dedication 14–15.
15. DDE, At Ease 195.
16. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 338–39.
17. Katherine Marshall, interview by Vernon Waters, quoted in ibid. 340.
18. Lucius D. Clay (LDC), interview, COHP.
19. DDE to S. A. Akin, June 19, 1942, EL.
20. DDE, Crusade in Europe 24.
21. Quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 175.
22. MDE to the Douds, February 7, 1942, EL.
23. DDE to Krueger, December 20, 1941, 1 War Years 16–17.
24. Krueger to DDE, December 23, 1941, EL.
25. DDE to Lutes, December 31, 1941, 1 War Years 33.
26. Pogue, 2 Marshall 244; DDE, Crusade in Europe 25. Also see Russell D. Buhite, Patrick J. Hurley and American Foreign Policy 101–2 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1973).
27. Ibid. Also see DDE, memo pad entry, January 17, 1942, 1 War Years 61–62.
28. United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Washington, 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943 81–82 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1968). Cited subsequently as FRUS: Washington and Casablanca.
29. Meeting of the U.S.-British chiefs of staff, December 25, 1941, ibid. 93.
30. Pogue, 2 Marshall 276–77.
31. Eisenhower’s draft letter of instructions for the supreme commander, Southwestern Pacific Theater, December 26, 1941, is at 1 War Years 28–31. For Marshall’s change, see 30–31n3.
32. Pogue, 2 Marshall 278.
33. Stimson diary, December 29, 1941, Yale University.
34. DDE diary, February 16, 1942, in 1 War Years 109. In his final efficiency report on Ike, Gerow said he considered Eisenhower “the best officer of his rank in the entire Army,” and that in wartime he should be entrusted with “the highest command.” DDE efficiency report, February 14, 1942, EL.
35. DDE to Lieutenant Colonel William Lee, February 24, 1942, EL.
36. Pogue, 2 Marshall 289, 290.
37. Adjutant General’s Office, Official Army Register, January 1, 1942 4–5 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1942).
38. DDE, At Ease 249–50.
39. DDE diary, March 28, March 30, 1942, in DDE, The Eisenhower Diaries, Robert H. Ferrell, ed., 52–53 (New York: Norton, 1981).
40. MDE to the Douds, March 13, 1942, EL.
41. DDE diary, March 11, 1942, in DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 51.
42. Ibid., March 12, 1942. Upon his return from the Philippines in December 1939, Eisenhower commenced sending his parents $20 monthly (approximately $250 currently). This continued until his mother’s death. DDE to Edgar N. Eisenhower, April 13, May 1, 1942, EL.
43. DDE, Crusade in Europe 46.
44. Ibid. “Tom Handy and I stick to our idea that we must win in Europe,” Ike wrote in his diary on January 27, 1942. “We can’t win by sitting on our fannies giving our stuff in driblets all over the world.”
45. DDE, Crusade in Europe 46.
46. Ibid.
47. Memorandum for the Chief of Staff, February 28, 1942, DDE, 1 War Years 149–55.
48. DDE, Crusade in Europe 47.
49. Winston S. Churchill, The Hinge of Fate 189–94 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1950).
50. Stimson diary, March 6, 1942, Yale University. Secretary Stimson went on to say that the main problem was the U.S. Navy, which was “getting wedded to fighting in the Pacific where they had the lead. Eisenhower was quite strong to the effect that Admiral King’s proposition of a slow step by step creeping movement through the Island of New Caledonia, New Britain, etc., would not get anywhere in solving the big situation as it is being fought out in Europe.”
51. Memorandum for the Chief of Staff, “Critical Points in the Development of Coordinated Viewpoint as to Major Tasks of War,” March 25, 1942, 1 War Years 205–7.
52. Ibid. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
53. Pogue, 2 Marshall 305–6; Stimson diary, March 25, 1942, Yale University; Ray S. Cline, Washington Command Post: The Operations Division 155–58 (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 2003).
54. OPD Exec. 10, Item 30 A, in Cline, Washington Command Post 157–58. In addition to ROUNDUP, Ike and his staff prepared an ancillary plan (SLEDGEHAMMER) for an immediate but smaller landing in 1942, should it be necessary to stave off a Russian collapse. Also see Maurice Matloff and Edwin C. Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941–1942 183–87 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, 1953).
55. Stimson diary, April 1, 1942, Yale University. Also see Henry Harley Arnold, Global Mission 305 (New York: Harper, 1949).
56. Stimson diary, April 1, 1942, Yale University.
57. Former Naval Person from the President, April 1, 1942, Walter F. Kimball, ed., 1 Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence 437 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984). The Hopkins and Roosevelt cables are also reprinted in Robert E. Sherwood’s Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History 521 (New York: Harper, 1948).
58. WSC to FDR, April 12, 1942, Kimball, 1 Churchill and Roosevelt 448–49.
59. FDR to WSC, April 21, 1942, ibid. 466–67.
60. Marshall to McNarney, April 13, 1942, in Pogue, 2 Marshall 318.
61. DDE diary, April 20, 1942, EL.
62. Memo, Captain John L. McCrea [FDR’s naval aide] to JCS [Joint Chiefs of Staff], May 1, 1942, in Snell and Matloff, Strategic Planning 217.
63. Eisenhower’s memo (signed Marshall), May 4, 1942, is at 1 War Years 276–77.
64. Marshall to FDR, May 6, 1942, “Pacific Theater versus BOLERO,” in Snell and Matloff, Strategic Planning 218–19. Marshall’s letter was written by Eisenhower.
65. FDR to Marshall, May 6, 1942, Snell and Matloff, Strategic Planning 219.
66. Roosevelt sent memorandums on May 6, 1942, to the secretaries of war and Navy, the three chiefs of staff, and Hopkins, emphasizing his basic strategy of holding in the Pacific and taking the offensive against Germany. COS TS Decimal File, 1941–43, 381, Sec. 1.
67. DDE diary, May 5, 1942, EL. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
68. Ibid., May 21, 1942.
69. Pogue, 2 Marshall 339.
70. DDE, Crusade in Europe 49.
71. Ibid. 50; Kay Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 16 (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1948).
72. Quoted in Martin Blumenson, Mark Clark 57 (New York: Congdon and Weed, 1984).
73. Mark Clark, Calculated Risk 19.
74. DDE diary, May 27, 1942, EL.
75. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting: My Love Affair with Dwight D. Eisenhower 28 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976).
76. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 4; Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 31–32.
77. Korda, Ike 272; Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 31.
78. “When the King told me this story, he laughed uproariously.” DDE, At Ease 277–78. Also see Harry C. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower: The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR, Naval Aide to General Eisenhower, 1942 to 1945 17–18 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946).
79. Arnold, Global Mission 315.
80. Ibid.
81. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 10; Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 37.
82. DDE to GCM, “Command arrangements for BOLERO,” June 3, 1942, 1 War Years 327–28. Eisenhower recommended that Major General Robert L. Eichelberger replace McNarney as deputy chief of staff.
83. DDE to GCM, “Command in England,” June 6, 1942, 1 War Years 331–32.
84. Directive for the Commanding General, ETO, June 8, 1942, ibid. 334–35.
85. The directive explicitly specified that “the commanding general, European theater, will keep the Chief of Staff U.S. Army fully advised of all that concerns his command and will communicate his recommendations freely and directly to the War Department.” Ibid.
86. Lyon, Eisenhower 124; Clark, Calculated Risk 20.
87. Pogue, 2 Marshall 339, 476n52.
88. Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 299–300.
89. DDE diary, June 8, 1942, EL. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
90. DDE, 1 War Years 337.
91. Adjutant General’s Office, Official Army Register, 1942, 4.
92. DDE to GSP, July 20, 1942, EL.
93. DDE, Crusade in Europe 51.
94. Jean Edward Smith, FDR 546–47n.
95. Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 302–3.
96. Eisenhower diary, June 20, 1942, EL.
97. Carol M. Petillo, “Douglas MacArthur and Manuel Quezon: A Note on an Imperial Bond,” 48 Pacific Historical Review 107–17 (1979). Professor Petillo discovered the payments while working in the Richard K. Sutherland papers at the Library of Congress. The payments were made while the decision was pending on whether to evacuate Quezon and his family from Corregidor by submarine, and the paperwork was backdated to January 3, 1942. Stimson and FDR appear to have been aware of the payments and made no objection. Under the terms of MacArthur’s 1935 appointment as military adviser to the Philippine government, the payments would have been permissible. But on July 26, 1941, the military adviser’s office was abolished and MacArthur returned to active duty as commander of U.S. Army forces in the Philippines. From that date onward, he and his staff were bound by Army regulations, which explicitly prohibit such gifts, loans, or emoluments. (Army Regulations 600–10, Par. 2e [9], December 6, 1938.) Also see Paul P. Rogers, “MacArthur, Quezon, and Executive Order Number One—Another View,” 52 Pacific Historical Review 93–102 (1983); Petillo, Douglas MacArthur 208–13; Perret, Old Soldiers Never Die 271–72.
98. DDE to Kenyon Joyce, June 22, 1942, EL.
99. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 219.
The epigraph is from a letter from DDE to GSP, September 5, 1942, in 1 War Years 541–42.
1. Michael J. McKeogh and Richard Lockridge, Sgt. Mickey and General Ike 29 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1946).
2. Quoted in Kenneth S. Davis, Soldier of Democracy 314; also see Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 5–6.
3. McKeogh and Lockridge, Sgt. Mickey 39.
4. DDE to MDE, June 26, 1942, in DDE, Letters to Mamie 23–24, John S. D. Eisenhower, ed. (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1978).
5. DDE, Letters to Mamie 12.
6. Richard G. Davis, Carl A. Spaatz and the Air War in Europe 3–89 (Washington, D.C.: Center for Air Force History, 1992).
7. DDE diary, June 29, 1942, EL.
8. Pogue, 2 Marshall 408. Smith’s maternal grandfather served in the cavalry during the Franco-Prussian War, and his spiked helmet was prominently displayed in the Smith home. D. K. R. Crosswell, The Chief of Staff: The Military Career of General Walter Bedell Smith 4 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1991).
9. Drew Middleton, interview by Merle Miller, quoted in Miller, Ike the Soldier 394. George Patton, who had to work with Smith, considered him “an s.o.b. of the finest type: selfish, dishonest, and very swell-headed.” GSP diary, November 11, 1943, Library of Congress.
10. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 393.
11. Quoted in ibid. 394. According to Smith’s biographer, “Although their relationship remained friendly, their personalities were not compatible.” Crosswell, Chief of Staff 139.
12. DDE to GCM, June 26, 1942, 1 War Years 359–61.
13. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 12.
14. DDE diary, June 27, 1942, in DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 67. The reference is presumably to Colonel Iverson B. Summers, Eisenhower’s West Point classmate and a member of the adjutant general’s division.
15. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 41–42.
16. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 21.
17. DDE to GCM, June 30, 1942, 1 War Years 366–67.
18. The New York Times, June 12, 1942.
19. Pogue, 2 Marshall 329.
20. Stimson diary, June 17, 1942, Yale University.
21. WSC to FDR, June 20, 1942, quoted in Winston S. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 381–82. The full text of the memo is reprinted in Kimball, 1 Churchill and Roosevelt 515–16.
22. Mark A. Stoler, The Politics of the Second Front: American Military Planning and Diplomacy in Coalition Warfare, 1941–1943 55 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1977).
23. Quoted in Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War 425 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948). Also see Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 600–601.
24. For documents and minutes pertaining to ARGONAUT, see FRUS: Washington and Casablanca 419–86.
25. Williamson Murray and Allan R. Millett, A War to Be Won: Fighting the Second World War, 1937–1945 273–78 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2000). The carriers Lexington, Yorktown, Wasp, and Hornet had been sunk; Saratoga and Enterprise were badly damaged and out of service. Only the Ranger, in the Atlantic, was ready for duty.
26. FDR to Hopkins, Marshall, and King, July 16, 1942, reprinted in full in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 603–5.
27. DDE to GCM, July 17, 19, 21, 1942, in 1 War Years 388–404.
28. Pogue, 2 Marshall 345.
29. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 29.
30. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 610–11.
31. DDE to Major General Orlando Ward, April 15, 1951, in Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 286. Eisenhower’s orders from the Combined Chiefs of Staff designating him supreme commander were dated August 13, 1942. Ibid. 287n74.
32. FDR to WSC, July 27, 1942, in Kimball 1 Churchill and Roosevelt 543–44.
33. Minutes, 34th meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, July 30, 1942, cited in Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 282–83.
34. Memo, Gen. [Walter Bedell] Smith for JCS, 1 August 1942, sub: Notes of Conf Held at White House, 8:30 p.m., July 30, 1942, quoted in Matloff and Snell, Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 283–84.
35. Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943 16 (New York: Henry Holt, 2002).
36. For General Sir Alan Brooke’s opinion of Marshall, see Arthur Bryant, The Turn of the Tide: A History of the War Years Based on the Diaries of Field-Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff 290 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1957).
37. Eisenhower’s remark is quoted in Arthur L. Funk, The Politics of TORCH: The Allied Landings and the Algiers Putsch, 1942 100 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1974).
38. FDR to WSC, September 5, 1942, and WSC to FDR, September 6, 1942, in Kimball, 1 Churchill and Roosevelt 592.
39. DDE to GSP, September 5, 1942, 1 War Years 541–42.
40. DDE diary entry, September 2, 1942, 1 War Years 524–27.
41. Quoted in Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 50.
42. Marshall, interview by Forrest C. Pogue, November 15, 1956, quoted in Pogue, 2 Marshall 330.
43. DDE, Crusade in Europe 71.
44. “I cannot tell you how much I appreciate your making [Gruenther] available for duty in this theater,” Ike wrote Krueger on July 30, 1942. “When I talked to General Marshall about Gruenther I told him that you had voluntarily called me just before I left Washington and stated that you stood ready to make available the very best men in your command in order that they might be placed where their talents are badly needed. He seemed highly pleased and it was because of your assurance that I had the nerve to put down Gruenther’s name.” In 1953, General Gruenther succeeded Eisenhower as supreme Allied commander in Europe. 1 War Years 400.
45. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 388.
46. DDE, Letters to Mamie 40–41.
47. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 6–7.
48. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 206.
49. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 378.
50. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 65–66. Also see Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 30–32.
51. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 137. Butcher recommended a Dandie Dinmont, but Eisenhower preferred “the attitude of independence struck by a strutting Scottie.”
52. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 77.
53. Korda, Ike 286–87.
54. DDE to MDE, October 13, 1942, Letters to Mamie 45–46.
55. FDR to WSC, August 30, 1942, Kimball, 1 Churchill and Roosevelt 583–84.
56. DDE, Directive to Naval Task Force Commander, Western Task Force [Rear Admiral Henry K. Hewitt], October 13, 1942, 1 War Years 611–12.
57. Winston S. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 628.
58. Quoted in Korda, Ike 316.
59. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 99.
60. Charles de Gaulle, 1 War Memoirs (New York: Simon and Schuster) 10.
61. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 106. Washington columnist Walter Lippmann characterized Murphy as “a most agreeable and ingratiating man whose warm heart causes him to form passionate, personal, and partisan attachments rather than cool and detached judgments.” New York Herald Tribune, January 19, 1943.
62. Arthur L. Funk, Charles de Gaulle: The Crucial Years, 1943–1944 34–35 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1959).
63. Jean Edward Smith, FDR 566.
64. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 100.
65. DDE to GCM, September 19, 1942, 1 War Years 562–63.
66. Ibid.
67. Blumenson, Mark Clark 78–89. Clark’s Calculated Risk 67–89 presents a meretricious account of the meeting.
68. Patton’s hastily assembled force was composed of the 2nd Armored Division, and the 3rd and 9th Infantry divisions. The divisions were brought to full strength by ransacking eight other stateside divisions for the necessary personnel. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 36.
69. Ladislas Farago, Patton: Ordeal and Triumph 195 (New York: Ivan Obolensky, 1963).
70. GSP diary, October 23, 1942, Library of Congress.
71. Marshall’s September 26, 1942, message objecting to Hartle was evidently hand-carried to Eisenhower by Clark, 1 War Years 593n1. Marshall’s list included Courtney Hodges, William H. Simpson, and John P. Lucas as possible alternatives. 3 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 367–68; Pogue, 2 Marshall 407.
72. DDE, Crusade in Europe 83. General Anderson spent much of his prewar career with the Seaforth Highlanders.
73. Ibid. 89.
74. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 91. In My Three Years with Eisenhower, Butcher fails to list Kay among those who accompanied Ike. (At page 147.)
75. Ibid 80. “The exercises that I witnessed had both encouraging and discouraging aspects,” Eisenhower told Marshall. “The men looked fine and were earnest in trying to do the right thing. Their greatest weakness is uncertainty.” DDE to GCM, October 20, 1942, 1 War Years 626–28.
76. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 78.
77. Clark, Calculated Risk 90.
78. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 36. Also see Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 158.
79. DDE to GCM, October 29, 1942, 1 War Years 639–43.
80. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 81–82. Also see Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 37–38. Butcher mentions the dinner in his diary but once again neglects to list Summersby among the attendees. My Three Years with Eisenhower 160.
81. DDE to GCM, November 1, 1942, 1 War Years 651.
82. FDR to Secretary of War, November 2, 1942, 1 War Years 651n6. On behalf of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Leahy wired Murphy, “The decision of the President is that the operation will be carried out as now planned and that you will do your utmost to secure understanding and cooperation of the French officials with whom you are in contact.” Quoted in Langer, Our Vichy Gamble 335–36 (New York: Knopf, 1947).
83. DDE, Letters to Mamie 50–52.
The epigraph is from a letter that Eisenhower wrote to his son John, February 19, 1943, in The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 2, The War Years 967–68. Cited subsequently as 2 War Years.
1. DDE to Smith, November 6, 1942, in 1 War Years 658–59.
2. Quoted in DDE, Crusade in Europe 97.
3. Ibid. 95.
4. Ibid. 99. The text of Murphy’s offer to Giraud, November 2, 1942, is reprinted in Langer, Our Vichy Gamble 333–34. Murphy, as Professor Langer points out, was shooting from the hip. The State Department did not receive a copy of Murphy’s letter until the spring of 1943.
5. DDE, Crusade in Europe 101.
6. DDE to GCM, November 8, 1942, 2 War Years 669–72.
7. DDE, Crusade in Europe 100.
8. Ibid.
9. DDE to GCM, November 8, 1942, 2 War Years 669–72.
10. DDE, Crusade in Europe 181.
11. DDE to GCM, November 8, 1942, 2 War Years 669–72.
12. GCM to DDE, November 8, 1942, ibid., note 6.
13. DDE to GCM, November 8, 1942, ibid. 673–74.
14. Korda, Ike 324.
15. DDE to Smith, November 9, 1942, 2 War Years 677–78.
16. DDE, “Worries of a Commander,” November 8, 1942, ibid. 675.
17. DDE to Smith, November 9, 1942, EL.
18. DDE to Smith, November 11, 1942, 2 War Years 693–95.
19. DDE to Mabel Frances [“Mike”] Moore, December 4, 1942, ibid. 796–98.
20. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 92.
21. De Gaulle, 1 War Memoirs 49.
22. Charles W. Ryder, Oral History, March 1949, U.S. Army Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.
23. DDE to Smith, November 9, 1942, 2 War Years 677–78. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
24. DDE, Crusade in Europe 104. In his postpresidential memoirs, Ike wrote that Giraud “proved wholly incapable of influencing anyone.” DDE, At Ease 258.
25. Clark, Calculated Risk 109.
26. Quoted in Richard Lamb, Churchill as War Leader 211 (New York: Carroll and Graf, 1993).
27. De Gaulle, 1 War Memoirs 49–50. Rick Atkinson, in his elegant account of the North African landings, states that “sixty years after TORCH, a precise count of Allied casualties remains elusive,” and then cites ballpark figures similar to those above. Army at Dawn 159.
28. George S. Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944 282–84 (New York: Knopf, 1972); Funk, Charles de Gaulle 40–41.
29. DDE to Clark, November 12, 1942, 2 War Years 698.
30. Kenneth Pendar, Adventure in Diplomacy: The Emergence of General de Gaulle in North Africa 119 (London: Cassell, 1966).
31. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 125–26.
32. Robert Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors 118 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964).
33. Winston S. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 637.
34. Quoted in Milton S. Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 137 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974). Also see Ambrose, Supreme Commander 130.
35. De Gaulle, 1 War Memoirs 57.
36. 12 The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt with Special Material and Explanatory Notes by Samuel I. Rosenman 479–82 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950). (Emphasis added.)
37. FDR’s message to Eisenhower was first published in Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 654.
38. DDE to John S. D. Eisenhower, December 20, 1942, 2 War Years 855–56.
39. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 159.
40. Quoted in Langer, Our Vichy Gamble 372.
41. Murphy, Diplomat Among Warriors 150–51.
42. Winston S. Churchill, Hinge of Fate 641.
43. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 651.
44. F. H. Hinsley, 2 British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations 466–67 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
45. Anthony Martienssen, Hitler and His Admirals 147 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1949).
46. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 167.
47. Clark, Calculated Risk 134–35.
48. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 187.
49. Ibid. 184.
50. DDE to Smith, November 18, 1942, 2 War Years 732–34.
51. DDE to British War Office, November 22, 1942, ibid. 761–64.
52. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 191.
53. WSC to DDE, November 22, 1942, 2 War Years 767n2.
54. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 197.
55. DDE to MDE, November 27, 1942, Letters to Mamie 66.
56. Lyon, Eisenhower 185.
57. DDE to GSP, November 26, 1942, 2 War Years 774–75.
58. Quoted in Korda, Ike 353.
59. Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield: Monty’s War Years, 1942–1944 145 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1983).
60. Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 135. Patton went on to say he almost thought Ike was “timid. When he goes out, a peep [jeep?] full of armed men precedes and follows his armed limousine.”
61. Ibid. 137–38 (December 10, 1942).
62. Bryant, Turn of the Tide 430.
63. GCM to DDE, December 22, 1942, 3 Papers of George Catlett Marshall 488.
64. DDE to GCM, December 26, 1942, 2 War Years 867–68.
65. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 249.
66. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 228–29.
67. Funk, Charles de Gaulle 48–51.
68. Robin W. Winks, Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939–1961 183–84 (New York: William Morrow, 1987). Professor Winks, the Randolph W. Townsend, Jr., Professor of History at Yale, was afforded access to Professor Coon’s papers at the University of Pennsylvania (they are restricted), and discusses Coon’s view of the efficacy of political assassinations at some length. Also see Carleton S. Coon, A North Africa Story: The Anthropologist as OSS Agent, 1941–1943 (Ipswich, Mass.: Gambit, 1980). Stephen Ambrose and Richard Immerman relate the story in Ike’s Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Establishment 48–56 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1981). Neither Murphy nor Professor Coon was willing to be interviewed by Ambrose.
69. Leahy to DDE, December 25, 1942, EL.
70. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 98–99.
71. Ibid. 101.
72. Major General Everett J. Hughes diary, December 30, 1942, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. The reference to Summersby’s reputation in London pertains to the fact that she took up with Captain Richard (“Dick”) Arnold of the U.S. Corps of Engineers while her divorce from Mr. Summersby was still pending. Arnold was also married at the time.
73. DDE to MDE, December 30, 1942, Letters to Mamie 74–75.
74. DDE to MDE, December 31, 1942, ibid. 76. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
75. WSC to FDR, December 31, 1942, Kimball, 2 Churchill and Roosevelt 98–99.
76. WSC to DDE, December 31, 1942, 2 War Years 883n2. Also see Martin Gilbert, 7 Winston S. Churchill 286 (London: Heinemann, 1986).
77. For the proceedings of the Casablanca conference, see FRUS: Washington and Casablanca. Eisenhower’s presentation to the third session of the Combined Chiefs is at pages 567–69.
78. Ibid. 567.
79. Ibid. 568–69.
80. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 283.
81. Bryant, Turn of the Tide 448.
82. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 676.
83. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 243.
84. Quoted in Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 79 (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1946).
85. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 689.
86. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 286.
87. Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 154–55.
88. Bryant, Turn of the Tide 430–31.
89. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 677.
90. FRUS: Washington and Casablanca 660.
91. DDE to GCM, January 17, 1943, and GCM to DDE, January 18, 1943, 2 War Years 908–11. The fact that Marshall told Ike about the appointment of Alexander two days before Brooke made the formal proposal suggests they had discussed it beforehand.
92. Quoted in Bryant, Turn of the Tide 454–55.
93. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 258–59.
94. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 110.
95. Ibid. 107–8.
96. Hughes diary, February 12, 1943, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress
97. DDE to MDE, February 20, 1943, Letters to Mamie 97. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
98. Margaret Bourke-White, “Women in Lifeboats: Torpedoed on an African-bound Troopship, a Life Photographer Finds Them as Brave in War as Men,” Life 48–54, February 22, 1943.
99. Quoted in Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 204–5.
100. DDE to MDE, March 2, 1943, Letters to Mamie 104–5. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
101. DDE to AGWAR [Adjutant General, War Department], 1013 hrs, February 13, 1943, quoted in Atkinson, Army at Dawn 337.
102. DDE to GCM, February 15, 1942, 2 War Years 955–57. II Corps’ operations log contained the entry “General disposition of forces was satisfactory to General Eisenhower on February 13.” Atkinson, Army at Dawn 332.
103. DDE to GCM, February 15, 1942, 2 War Years 956.
104. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 346.
105. Bernard Law Montgomery, The Memoirs of Field-Marshal the Viscount Montgomery of Alamein 142 (Cleveland: World Publishing, 1958).
106. John Ellis, Brute Force: Allied Strategy and Tactics in the Second World War 304 (New York: Viking, 1990).
107. Ibid. 298
108. Ibid. 304.
109. LDC interview, COHP.
110. Martin Van Creveld, Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton 201 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
The epigraph was recorded by George S. Patton in his diary, September 21, 1943, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. The comment pertains to the “slapping incidents” in Sicily.
1. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 268.
2. Ibid. 265; DDE, Crusade in Europe 147.
3. Allied Force Headquarters, Commander-in-Chief’s Dispatch, “North African Campaign, 1942, 1943,” 37, Army War College, Carlisle, Pa.
4. GSP diary, January 28, 1943, et seq.
5. DDE to GCM, March 3, 1943, 1 War Years 860–61.
6. Atkinson, Army at Dawn 412–13.
7. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies: Pearl Harbor to D-Day 304 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1982).
8. DDE to Major General Alexander Day Surles, April 6, 1943, 2 War Years 1080–81.
9. DDE to Charles Moreau Harger, publisher of the Abilene Reflector, April 23, 1943, ibid. 1099–1100.
10. DDE to Leonard Gerow, February 24, 1933, ibid. 985–87.
11. Quoted in Rick Atkinson, The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944 49 (New York: Henry Holt, 2007).
12. D. Clayton James and Anne Sharp Wells, A Time for Giants: Politics of the American High Command in World War II 95 (New York: Franklin Watts, 1987).
13. Harold Macmillan, War Diaries: Politics and War in the Mediterranean 260 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984).
14. FRUS: Washington and Casablanca 711–16.
15. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 123–24.
16. Bradley and Blair, A General’s Life 133, 133n.
17. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 118.
18. Holt, Mamie Doud Eisenhower 56.
19. Susan Eisenhower, Mrs. Ike 205.
20. DDE to MDE, June 11, 1943, DDE, Letters to Mamie 127–28.
21. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 128.
22. Ibid. 131.
23. Ibid. 132.
24. Ibid. 133–34.
25. Ibid. 137.
26. DDE, Crusade in Europe 166.
27. DDE, At Ease 265.
28. DDE to GCM, June 11, 1943, 2 War Years 1185–86.
29. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 247–48.
30. For the text of the statement of the National Council of the Resistance, see de Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 112–13.
31. Ibid. 120–21.
32. FDR to WSC, June 17, 1943, in Kimball, 2 Churchill and Roosevelt 255.
33. De Gaulle, 2 War Memoirs 143.
34. Ibid. 132–33.
35. Harry C. Butcher diary, July 8, 1943, EL.
36. Quoted in Atkinson, Day of Battle 58.
37. Ernie Pyle, Brave Men 13 (New York: Henry Holt, 1944).
38. DDE, Crusade in Europe 172.
39. DDE to GCM, July 9, 1943, 2 War Years 1247.
40. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 348.
41. Quoted in Vincent Orange, Tedder: Quietly in Command 225 (London: Frank Cass, 2004).
42. DDE to MDE, July 9, 1943, DDE, Letters to Mamie 134–35.
43. Albert N. Garland and Howard McGaw Smyth, Sicily and the Surrender of Italy 181 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1965).
44. Atkinson, Day of Battle 109–10. Wartime censorship prevented the losses from being known until well after the end of the hostilities.
45. Ibid. 115.
46. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 363.
47. Quoted in Hanson Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won: Great Campaigns of World War II 460–61 (New York: Harper and Row, 1966).
48. Ambrose, 1 Eisenhower 250.
49. Atkinson, Day of Battle 168.
50. Hugh Pond, Sicily 220 (London: W. Kimber, 1962).
51. Quoted in Ralph Bennett, ULTRA and the Mediterranean Strategy 234–35 (New York: William Morrow, 1989).
52. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 531–32. Also see Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 197–98.
53. Letter, GSP to his wife, Beatrice, September 28, 1918, in Blumenson, 2 Patton Papers 616–17.
54. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 229. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
55. DDE to GSP, August 17, 1943, 2 War Years 1340–41.
56. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 230.
57. DDE to GSP, August 17, 1943, 2 War Years 1340–41. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
58. Ladislas Farago, Patton 346.
59. DDE to GCM, August 24, 1943, 2 War Years 1353.
60. Ibid. 1353–54.
61. DDE to GCM, August 27, 1943, 2 War Years 1357–58.
62. DDE to GCM, September 6, 1943, ibid. 1387–90.
63. Ibid.
64. Quoted in Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 541.
65. Ibid. Also see Crosswell, Chief of Staff 201.
66. DDE, Crusade in Europe 182.
67. In September, Colonel Herbert S. Clarkson, the theater inspector general, after conducting a full investigation, recommended that Marshall be notified of the incidents in case the matter should become public and the War Department embarrassed. There is no record that Marshall was informed, but the Army’s informal system of communication makes it highly likely that he was generally aware of the incident. Like many senior officials, Marshall was accomplished in not letting it be known that he knew what he was not supposed to know. Marshall’s message to Ike, November 23, 1943, is reported at The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 3, The War Years 1573n1. Cited subsequently as 3 War Years.
68. DDE to GCM, November 24, 1943, 3 War Years 1571–72.
69. Stimson and Bundy, On Active Service 499.
70. Stimson to Reynolds, December 3, 1943, in 89 Congressional Record 10567, 78th Cong., 1st sess.
71. 22 Complete Presidential Press Conferences of Franklin D. Roosevelt 227–28.
72. DDE to GSP, December 1, 1943, 3 War Years 1576.
73. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 145.
The epigraph is a comment President Roosevelt made to Kay Summersby when she and Ike and FDR stopped for a picnic lunch near Carthage, in Tunisia, November 21, 1943. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 94.
1. DDE to Mountbatten, September 14, 1943, 3 War Years 1423.
2. Merle Miller, Ike the Soldier 639.
3. James M. Gavin, On to Berlin: Battles of an Airborne Commander, 1943–1946 142 (New York: Viking, 1978).
4. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life 151; Montgomery, Memoirs 484.
5. Harold Macmillan, The Blast of War, 1939–1945 308 (New York: Harper and Row, 1968).
6. DDE to Mountbatten, September 14, 1943, 3 War Years 1420–23. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
7. Atkinson, Day of Battle 140.
8. Pietro Badoglio, Italy in the Second World War: Memories and Documents 46 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976).
9. The intricate negotiations leading to the Italian surrender are superbly chronicled in Garland and Smyth, Sicily and the Surrender of Italy 435–55.
10. Peter Tomkins, Italy Betrayed 271 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966).
11. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 415.
12. Atkinson, Day of Battle 243–44.
13. The QUADRANT conference is fully reported in United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States: Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970). The agreement to rearm the French is at pages 939–40. Also see Marcel Vigneras, Rearming the French 91–98 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1957).
14. Quoted in Funk, Charles de Gaulle 158.
15. “Reminiscences of George C. Dyer” 330, United States Naval Institute, Oral History Department, Annapolis, Md.
16. Clark’s comment was to Major General Lucian Truscott. Quoted in Atkinson, Day of Battle 182.
17. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 270.
18. Maxwell Taylor, interview by Nigel Hamilton, October 17, 1981, quoted in Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 400.
19. Bedell Smith, interview by H. M. Smyth, May 13, 1947; Eisenhower, interview by Smyth, October 27, 1947. Both in Office of the Chief of Military History Collection, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa.
20. “Alexander was very optimistic and was obviously prepared to think that the Italians would do all they said,” Montgomery recorded in his diary on September 5, 1943.
I took him aside for a talk. I told him my opinion was that when the Germans found out what was going on, they would stomp on the Italians. The Italian soldiers were quite useless and would never face up to the Germans.
I said he should impress on all senior commanders that we must make our plans so that it would make no difference if the Italians failed us, as they most certainly would.
The Germans were in great strength in Italy and we were very weak. We must watch our step very carefully, do nothing foolish. I said the Germans could concentrate against AVALANCHE quicker than we could build up; that the operation would need careful watching. (Montgomery, Memoirs 175–76.)
21. Henry Kent Hewitt Papers, Naval Historical Center, Washington, D.C., quoted in Atkinson, Day of Battle 200.
22. Quoted in ibid. 199.
23. Ibid. 207.
24. Clark to Alexander, September 12, 1943, Army Center of Military History, Fort McNair, Washington, D.C.
25. Butcher diary, September 15, 1943, EL. When Butcher published his diary in 1946 as My Three Years with Eisenhower, he omitted Ike’s chilling criticism of Clark.
26. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 420.
27. Andrew Browne Cunningham, A Sailor’s Odyssey: The Autobiography of Admiral of the Fleet, Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope 570 (London: Hutchinson, 1951).
28. Wesley Frank Craven and James Lea Cate, eds., 2 The Army Air Forces in World War II 350–55 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949).
29. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War 356 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963).
30. Blumenson, Salerno to Casino 144 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, U.S. Army, 1969).
31. Eisenhower, interview by H. M. Smyth, February 2, 1949, Office of the Chief of Military History Collection, Military History Institute, Carlisle, Pa. Bedell Smith, interview by Smyth, May 13, 1947, ibid; Clark, interview by Smyth, October 29, 1947, ibid. Also see Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower; and Mark Clark, Calculated Risk 199–200.
32. Quoted in Atkinson, Day of Battle 236.
33. See especially DDE to Dawley, September 22, 1943. “I want you to know, definitely, that your relief from VI Corps does not reflect in the slightest degree upon your character, your loyalty, or your sincere devotion to duty,” wrote Ike. 3 War Years 1447–48.
34. Alan Williamson, “Dawley Was Shafted” 10, typewritten manuscript, Texas Military Forces Museum, Austin, Tex.
35. Ibid. Also see Atkinson, Day of Battle 235.
36. WSC to DDE, September 22, 1943, 3 War Years 1283n; also see Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 423.
37. GCM to DDE, September 22, 1943, Papers of George Catlett Marshall 136.
38. Ibid.
39. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 423.
40. DDE to GCM, September 24, 1943, 3 War Years 1452–54.
41. Montgomery, Memoirs 171–76; Nigel Hamilton, Master of the Battlefield 393. According to Hamilton, “Eisenhower, for all his political panache, utterly failed to see the absurdity of ‘Baytown’—for to his inexperienced eye, frustrated by desk-soldiering, the mainland across the Straits of Messina simply demanded Allied occupation.” (Hamilton’s emphasis.)
42. Butcher, My Three Years with Eisenhower 424–25.
43. Crosswell, Chief of Staff 202.
44. DDE, Crusade in Europe 194.
45. Ibid. 197.
46. John S. D. Eisenhower, Allies 388.
47. The 58,000-ton Iowa was a sister ship of the New Jersey, the Wisconsin, and the Missouri. The vessels were 888 feet long, 108 feet wide, and armed with nine 16-inch guns. The ships had a top speed of 33.5 knots, and a crew of 2,636 men. Iowa was commanded by Captain John L. McCrea, the president’s first naval aide in the White House.
48. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 133.
49. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 676–77.
50. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 136–37.
51. Kay Summersby Morgan, Eisenhower Was My Boss 89.
52. Ibid. 91.
53. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 137.
54. Kay Summersby Morgan, Eisenhower Was My Boss 93.
55. Korda, Ike 421.
56. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 152.
57. Summersby, Eisenhower Was My Boss 94.
58. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 152.
59. Korda, Ike 422.
60. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 137–38.
61. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 770.
62. DDE, Crusade in Europe 197.
63. General Pershing’s letter to FDR and the president’s reply are published in Katherine Tupper Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife 156–57 (New York: Tupper and Love, 1946).
64. William D. Leahy, I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman: Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time 192 (New York: Whittlesey House, 1950).
65. On September 15, 1943, Republican senators Warren Austin (Vt.), Styles Bridges (N.H.), and Chan Gurney (S.Dak.) called on Stimson at his home to remind the secretary that they relied heavily on Marshall to win support from their colleagues for controversial measures to aid the Army. Austin, Bridges, and Gurney were the ranking Republican members of the Senate Military Affairs Committee. The intense Washington lobbying to retain Marshall as chief of staff is covered extensively in Pogue, 3 Marshall 263–78.
66. DDE, Crusade in Europe 197.
67. Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, War Diaries, 1939–1945 459, Alex Dencher and Daniel Todman, eds. (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001).
68. Pogue, 3 Marshall 307. The official minutes of the November 24, 1943, session, which are not verbatim, omit the exchange between Marshall and Churchill. United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, The Conferences at Cairo and Tehran, 1943 329–34 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961). Cited subsequently as FRUS: Cairo and Tehran.
69. Marshall told Forrest Pogue, his official biographer, that Lord Ismay had to stay up with Churchill all night to calm him down. Pogue, 3 Marshall 307.
70. Elliott Roosevelt, As He Saw It 144.
71. Ibid. 144–45.
72. Ibid. 166.
73. FRUS: Cairo and Tehran 361. Colonel Dragoljub Mihajlovic´, leader of the Chetniks, a Serbian resistance group, initially enjoyed the support of the Yugoslav government in exile. But following Ike’s presentation at Cairo, combined with growing British skepticism, the Allies withdrew their support in December 1943, and from that point on Mihajlovic´’s forces limited their role. Tito’s partisans gained the upper hand, and in 1946 Mihajlovic´ was executed for treason and war crimes.
74. Ambrose, Supreme Commander 305.
75. DDE, At Ease 266.
76. Kay Summersby Morgan, Eisenhower Was My Boss 102–3.
77. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 160.
78. Korda, Ike 393; cf. Kay Summersby Morgan, Past Forgetting 147–48.
79. A photograph of the card from Ike appears in Kay Summersby Morgan’s Past Forgetting at page 161.
80. Hopkins’s remarks were made in Teheran to Lord Moran, Churchill’s personal physician. Charles McMoran Wilson Moran, Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940–1965, Taken from the Diaries of Lord Moran 143 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966).
81. FRUS: Cairo and Tehran 535–37; Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 788–89; Moran, Churchill 147.
82. Moran, Churchill 147.
83. Ibid.
84. Leahy, I Was There 208.
85. Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History, 1929–1969 148 (New York: Norton, 1973).
86. FRUS: Cairo and Tehran 542.
87. Sherwood, Roosevelt and Hopkins 803; Forrest C. Pogue, The Supreme Command 32 (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1954).
88. Pogue, 3 Marshall 321.
89. Ibid. 321–22.