Chapter 3 Chapter 3It was around the year 1250 B.C.E., that the Children of Israel gathered at Sinai to receive God’s commandments, an occasion celebrated during the holiday of Shavuot. Following this monumental occurrence, the Israelites spent forty years wandering in the desert, until they finally entered Canaan, where they would become a unified nation and would assume their identity as the Jewish people, an identity they have held onto until this very day.
After deliverance at the Sea of Reeds, the Israelites did not follow a direct path to Mount Sinai, but instead traveled about the region beginning with the Shur Desert, where they took a respite in an area called Marah. The Jewish oral tradition teaches that while the Israelites were in Marah, God instructed them in certain mitzvot (commandments) such as honoring the Sabbath, respecting parents, and an assortment of civil laws. After a while, the Hebrews moved on and traveled to Ailam, and then through the Seen Desert. Finally, less than two months after they departed from Egypt, they arrived at the foot of Mount Sinai.
The biblical narrative informs us that when the Israelites ran out of food, God provided manna for them to eat. Like dew, manna fell from the sky during the night and had to be gathered before sunrise, or else it melted in the sun. It remains uncertain exactly what manna was. According to Rashi’s biblical commentary, the word manna comes from the Hebrew for “what is it?”
It should be noted that the territory surrounding Mount Sinai was occupied by the Midianites, with whom Moses had lived before returning to Egypt as God’s messenger and where he had married Tziporah, daughter of the Midianite priest Jethro. At Sinai, Moses was reunited with Jethro, and many Midianites joined the Children of Israel, for a total population of two to three million people.
For the most part, what we know about the events at Mount Sinai is limited to the biblical narrative and the oral traditions. According to one scenario accepted among religious Jews, each and every one of the Israelites had an encounter with God, and out of this experience, shared by the entire people, was born a nation with a Jewish national identity. Shortly after, this nation received, with the intercession of Moses, the commandments that would govern all aspects of their life.
One of the great misconceptions about receiving the commandments is that Moses only received ten. In fact, when Moses spent forty days on Mount Sinai, God taught him the 613 commandments that would be recorded in the Torah. What many people think of as commandments is a mistranslation of “Ten Words,” “Ten Statements,” or “Ten Utterances.” The Decalogue, as it has also come to be known, is only the heart of what is an elaborate system of laws that can be divided into three groups:
Laws that deal with relations between God and humans.
Laws that deal with relations among people.
Laws that deal with relations between parents and children, considered to be a bridge between the first two types of commandments.
It is believed that the Ten Statements were inscribed directly by God onto stone tablets which Moses brought with him when he descended the mountain on the seventeenth day of Tammuz.
The Ten Statements appear twice in the Torah, in Exodus 20:2–14 and Deuteronomy 5:2–18. (There are a few minor discrepancies between the two.) The following list is taken from Exodus:
I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, the house of bondage: You shall have no other gods beside Me.
You shall not make for yourself a sculptured image, or any likeness of what is in the heavens above, or on the earth below, or in the waters under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or serve them. For I the Lord your God am an impassioned God, visiting the guilt of the fathers upon the children, upon the third and upon the fourth generations of those who reject Me, but showing kindness to the thousandth generation of those who love Me and keep My commandments.
You shall not swear falsely by the name of the Lord your God; for the Lord will not clear one who swears falsely by His name.
Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. Six days you shall labor and do all your work, but the seventh day is a Sabbath of the Lord your God: you shall not do any work—you, your son or daughter, your male or female slave, or your cattle, or the stranger who is within your settlements. For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth and sea, and all that is in them, and He rested on the seventh day; therefore, the Lord blessed the Sabbath day and hallowed it.
Honor your father and mother, that you may long endure on the land which the Lord your God is giving you.
You shall not murder.
You shall not commit adultery.
You shall not steal.
You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor.
You shall not covet your neighbor’s house: you shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male or female slave, or his ox or his ass, or anything that is your neighbor’s.
The Ten Statements.
Forty days after scaling Mount Sinai, Moses returned, bearing the tablets on which God had inscribed the Ten Statements. This was supposed to be a joyous occasion, with the Israelites welcoming God’s gift and thanking him for delivering them from Egypt and slavery. Instead, the seventeenth day of Tammuz became a cursed day that would coincide with other calamitous events that would befall the Jewish people.
On the seventeenth of Tammuz many years after the incident at Sinai, the walls of Jerusalem were breached by the Babylonians, and the First Temple was destroyed. And on another anniversary of that fateful day, the Romans sacked Jerusalem and destroyed the Second Temple, beginning the 2,000-year Diaspora.
To his dismay and outrage, instead of a solemn throng preparing to embrace the Law, Moses witnessed the Israelites engaged in an orgy and worshipping a Golden Calf they had fashioned out of the jewels and gold they had brought from Egypt. In his shock, Moses dropped the stone tablets and proceeded to smash the Golden Calf. Then, he ordered the Levites to execute those responsible for the transgression. Yet, despite his disappointment, Moses didn’t turn against the Israelites. The Bible tells us that when God threatened to blot them out and make a new nation, Moses reminded him of his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and God relented.
Tradition holds it that on Mount Sinai Moses received the Torah, which includes the 613 mitzvot (or commandments). According to the Book of Exodus, God had dictated the commandments to Moses in order to provide the framework for a way of life for the people with whom God had established a covenant.
The term “Torah” has several meanings. In Hebrew, it means “law” or “doctrine,” so it can be used to refer to Jewish Law as a whole. Often, Jewish people use it to refer to the Hebrew Bible. However, another—narrower—definition is the Pentateuch, or the first five books of the Bible given to Moses at Sinai.
The Talmud recognizes that Moses could not have received the Torah in its present form at Mount Sinai since it describes events that hadn’t yet happened at that time. The sages explain that Moses received the mitzvot orally and the Torah was compiled later. Nevertheless, we can still say that the Jews received the Torah at Sinai.
In Judaism, the rules that the Jews must obey are known collectively as the halakha, and it is astonishing how comprehensive they are. Halakha is an interesting mixture of the secular and the religious. Some rules concern themselves with worshipping God and civic matters, while others cover such topics as dietary habits, hygiene, and sexuality. Some of the commandments apply exclusively to certain individuals or groups of people, such as the kohanim (temple priests) while others are pertinent only to the land of Israel.
A significant portion of these commandments are not germane to contemporary times. And yet, many of them still apply to Jews today. Being familiar with these laws is helpful in grasping what it was that united the Jewish people all over the world during the 2,000-year Diaspora. The following categories will provide you with an overview of the extent to which these commandments pervade Jewish life:
| • | God | • | Criminal laws |
| • | Torah | • | Punishment and restitution |
| • | Signs and symbols | • | Prophecy |
| • | Prayer and blessings | • | Idolatry and idolatrous practices |
| • | Love and brotherhood | • | Agriculture and animal husbandry |
| • | The poor and unfortunate | • | Clothing |
| • | Marriage, divorce, and family | • | The firstborn |
| • | Sexual relations | • | Kohanim and Levites |
| • | Times and seasons | • | Tithes and taxes |
| • | Dietary laws | • | The Temple and sacred objects |
| • | Business practices | • | Sacrifices and offerings |
| • | Employees, servants, and slaves | • | Ritual purity and impurity |
| • | Vows, oaths, and swearing | • | Lepers and leprosy |
| • | Sabbatical and Jubilee years | • | The king |
| • | Court and judicial procedures | • | Nazarites |
| • | Injuries and damages | • | Wars |
| • | Property and property rights |
Interestingly enough, not all of these commandments are prohibitions. What makes halakha unique as a social and moral code of law is that in addition to prohibitions, it also contains obligations—of the 613 mitzvot, 248 are obligations.
The revelation of the Torah to Moses is commemorated by the Jewish holiday of Shavuot. Shavuot is Hebrew for “weeks”; it occurs exactly seven weeks after the second day of Passover, a time period that represents the interval when the Israelites left Egypt but had not yet received the Torah. The interval between Passover and Shavuot is a time of solemnity, study, and meditation.
Starting with the second day of Passover, religious Jews practice the custom of counting the Omer (Hebrew for “sheaves of a harvested crop”). When they reach the fiftieth day, it’s time to celebrate Shavuot. Traditionally, the counting was done in order to know when to begin harvesting, because Shavuot also celebrates the harvest.
Despite the deeply religious significance of Shavuot, the Torah itself first mentions Shavuot as an agricultural festival that marked the transition between the barley harvest and the start of the wheat-ripening season. Before the destruction of the Temple, Jews used this brief respite from work to travel to Jerusalem, where they celebrated the Torah and offered sacrifices at the Temple. After the destruction of the First Temple, many pilgrims continued to come to Jerusalem. Communities that could not send all their members dispatched a representative delegation.
After the razing of the Second Temple in 70 C.E., pilgrimages to fulfill the earlier purpose of Shavuot became impossible. Hence, the focus of the holiday shifted from its dual agricultural and spiritual importance to emphasize the spiritual aspect.
Shavuot is known by many names: Hag Habikkurim (the Festival of the First Fruits), Hag Matan Torateinu (the Festival of the Giving of Our Torah), and Hag Hakatzir (the Feast of the Harvest).
There are many customs and traditions associated with Shavuot that have been practiced for centuries and are embedded in Jewish heritage. During this festival, which lasts for seven days, certain blessings are recited and ceremonies are held in the home. Traditionally, the first Shavuot dinner is a dairy meal, and no meat is served.
One explanation for this custom is that it serves as a reminder of God’s promise to deliver the Israelites into a land flowing with milk and honey (Exodus 3:8). Another reason offered is that when they received the Torah (which includes dietary laws), the Israelites did not yet have separate meat and dairy dishes and restricted themselves to dairy until they could have proper utensils. A more symbolic explanation is that the Jews eat dairy because at Sinai, the Israelites were as innocent as newborns whose only food is milk.
It is common practice on Shavuot to decorate both the home and synagogue with flowers, plants, and tree branches, because Shavuot is the holiday of the harvest. Other explanations exist as well. The plants are reminiscent of the foliage at Mount Sinai, which was forested and lush with greens, and may also serve as a reminder that Pharaoh’s daughter found Moses among reeds in the Nile.
In the synagogue, the weekly Torah reading includes the revelation at Mount Sinai and the giving of the Ten Statements, and a portion of the Ten Statements is recited in a special chant.
It is also customary to read from the Book of Ruth, which relates the inspiring story of a Moabite woman who, after the death of her Jewish husband and her father-in-law, voluntarily chooses Judaism in order to stay with her mother-in-law. Likely as not, you will have heard some version of Ruth’s famous unselfish pledge to her mother-in-law: “For wherever you go, I will go; wherever you lodge, I will lodge; your people will be my people and your God my God” (Ruth 1:16).
Observant Jews follow another Shavuot tradition—staying awake all night to study the Torah. This practice is called Tikkun Leil Shavuot, and it began sometime in the sixteenth century in Safed, Israel, where Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah), flourished (more on that in Chapter 16).
The saga of Ruth is particularly relevant to Shavuot because Ruth voluntarily accepts the Torah and Judaism as the Israelites did at the foot of Mount Sinai. Because it is central to Jewish belief that all Jews—past, present, and future—were present at Sinai, each and every Jew, like Ruth, freely takes upon himself or herself the privileges and responsibilities connected with accepting the Torah. And there is another reason for our remembering of Ruth. According to the Bible, Ruth was the great-grandmother of King David, who in turn would be the forefather of the messiah.
The Torah relates that one of God’s commandments to the Israelites was to construct the Ark of the Covenant, a sanctuary for God’s spirit that would provide a dwelling place where God could make His presence known to the Israelites while they traveled. To this extent, the Ark of the Covenant was the only physical manifestation of God’s presence.
The Ark was a wooden acacia box two and a half cubits in length (one cubit is approximately eighteen inches), one and a half cubits in height, and one and a half cubits wide. The box was plated in pure gold both inside and out, and four gold rings were affixed to the bottom through which two acacia poles coated in gold could be attached. Appended to the box’s gold covering (kapporet) were two sculptured golden cherubs that faced each other with their wings touching.
When at rest, the Ark was situated within a large tent known as the Tent of the Meeting or Tabernacle. In the tent, there was an outer room that held a seven-branched candelabra, or menorah, a table with twelve loaves of bread on it, and an incense altar. The Ark was situated in an inner room called the Holy of Holies. When the Israelites kept on moving, they carried the Ark with them, hoisted upon the shoulders of the family of Kehath, of the tribe of Levi.
The construction of the Ark did not go against the prohibition to worship “a sculptured image” or any “likeness” of God. The Ark of the Covenant was not in itself the object of veneration, though it was believed that the Spirit of God dwelt within it.
The contents of the Ark remain a mystery that has piqued the interest of many throughout the centuries. Traditionally, it is believed that the Ark contained two sets of the Ten Statements—both the first set that was broken and the second, intact, set inscribed by Moses. Another version of the story relates that there might have been two Arks, each containing one set of the Ten Statements.
Many Jews carry the name of Cohen, Kohen, Kagan, Kahana, Kaplan, Rappaport, Aaronson, or Katz, as well as many other variations. Any one of these names signals that the person who carries it may be a kohein, or priest.
At Sinai, God designated Moses’ brother Aaron as the priest and proclaimed that Aaron’s descendants would be responsible for priestly duties. The kohanim were in charge of performing sacrifices specified by God in his commandments and carrying the Ark of the Covenant. Later, the kohanim would take on the responsibility in conducting services at the Temple in Jerusalem. Because of their special role, the kohanim were subject to the special mitzvot that had to do with ritual cleanliness and purity.
Today, most Jews don’t know for certain whether they are direct descendants of Aaron, but those who carry the kohein names still adhere to the prohibitions specified in the Torah. One such restriction forbids kohanim from touching the dead or even passing through a cemetery. Kohanim are also afforded special honor. For instance, during religious services they are the first ones to be called up to read the Torah.
Under the leadership of Moses, the Hebrews wandered in the wilderness for forty years, gradually moving through the Sinai Desert and toward Canaan. Why did it take them forty years to reach the Promised Land? One explanation is that it was their punishment for refusing to enter Canaan after the spies they sent ahead returned with a deceitful report, claiming the inhabitants were too fierce to be overcome. According to another explanation, God waited until the generation of those who were slaves in Egypt passed away so that the Israelites who would enter the Promised Land would be those who were born free.
Moses was denied entry as well, as a punishment for a transgression that remains unclear to this day. The reason most frequently offered has to do with a biblical episode when the Hebrews demanded water and God instructed Moses to order a nearby rock to provide water to the Israelites. Instead of speaking, however, Moses struck the rock with his rod, thereby deviating from God’s specific directions. Embellishing upon this incident, others have postulated Moses’ infraction had more to do with giving the impression that he and Aaron supplied the water. In any event, Moses did not enter the Promised Land.
Given their migratory habits during this period, the Israelites lived in temporary dwellings, or sukkot (plural of sukkah, a booth or tent). In Leviticus 23:42–43, God commanded: “You shall live in booths seven days in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelite people live in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt.” And up to this day, the Jews celebrate the seven-day holiday of Sukkot, which usually is in the fall.
Historically, Sukkot was also a festival of the fall harvest, sometimes referred to as Chag Ha-Asif (the Festival of the Ingathering). When farmers completed their harvest, they would make a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem to celebrate and offer God their gratitude for a good harvest. Traditionally, they spent seven days in Jerusalem, during which time they lived in sukkot.
Dwelling in a sukkah has a symbolic element. Just as God protected the Israelites during the forty years wandering in the desert with the “clouds of glory” that enveloped them from above, below, and all around, the sukkah surrounds and protects whoever enters it.
Even though residing in a sukkah at least for a period of time during the seven-day holiday is a mitzvah, there are exemptions to this duty. For example, if sitting inside the sukkah causes physical discomfort—if, for instance, it’s raining heavily or killer bees are swarming about—it’s okay to abandon it for the comfort and safety of your home. Nevertheless, building a sukkah and spending some time in it is usually an enjoyable experience and is something many Jews look forward to. It is time to get away from our busy lives and also a time of contemplation.
The primary function of the sukkah today is to eat there. In fact, there is a special obligation to eat in the sukkah on the first night of the holiday even if it is raining (although the elderly and sick, as well as mothers with small children, are not bound to keep this commandment). A bride and groom are also exempt from dwelling in the sukkah.
Many Jews invite guests to their sukkah, to fulfill the mitzvah of hospitality (ha-chnasat orechim). In accordance with another custom, called ushpizin, seven symbolic biblical guests are invited to the sukkah each day: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron, and David. Recently, some Jews have begun extending this invitation to female biblical figures—Sarah, Rachel, Rebecca, Leah, Miriam, Abigail, and Esther.
The construction of a sukkah is subject to very specific requirements. The sukkah must be at least three feet high and at least twenty-six inches in length and in width. The walls cannot exceed thirty feet in height (although some sources specify that they may be as tall as forty feet). A sukkah can be constructed from cinder blocks, lumber, canvas, or nylon sheeting attached to a frame of wood, metal piping, or any other suitable material.
The rules governing the sekhakh (covering) are very explicit. Because the sukkah is meant to be a booth, the sekhakh must be temporary, and the material allowed for its construction is limited. Only organic material such as wood, leafy branches, and evergreens can be used for the sekhakh.
The sekhakh must be spaced evenly, with gaps no wider than eleven and a half inches, so that the covering is ample enough to provide shade. Furthermore, the boards or beams used should be no wider than sixteen inches, so that people inside can still see the stars at night. Should it rain, more material may not be added to fill the gaps on the sekhakh. Otherwise, the sukkah will no longer be kosher.
When the sukkah is complete, it’s time for decoration. The Talmud (a collection of biblical commentaries and oral traditions) includes a number of suggestions for decorating a sukkah: hanging carpets and tapestries, nuts, peaches, grape branches, and wreaths made from ears of corn. More contemporary decorations are fruits, Indian corn, pictures of Jerusalem and other Jewish symbols, and New Year greeting cards.
God commanded that on the first day of Sukkot, “you shall take the product of goodly trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook, and you will rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Leviticus 23:40). These are known as the Four Species:
Etrog, a citrus fruit, resembling a lemon, native to Israel.
Lulav, a dried palm branch.
Aravot, two willow branches.
Hadasim, three myrtle branches.
The lulav, aravot, and hadasim are bound together in a precise manner and may be referred to collectively as the lulav. During specific times of the synagogue service, the congregants shake and wave the lulav and etrog. According to tradition, the Four Species may symbolize four types of Jews. The etrog has taste and smell, and stands for those who possess knowledge and good deeds; the lulav has taste but no smell, representing knowledge but not good deeds; the myrtle, having smell but no taste, portrays those who have good deeds but no knowledge; the willow has neither taste nor smell and represents those without either good deeds or knowledge. 