VII

The Land and Fresh-Water Birds of the New Hebrides and Banks Islands¹

THERE are about 54 native species of land and fresh-water birds known from this region. The Banks Islands belong zoologically to the New Hebrides; in fact not a single species of bird occurs on these islands that is not also known from the New Hebrides. However, both the Banks Islands and the southern New Hebrides (Erromanga, Tanna, Aneiteum) have a poorer fauna than the central islands (Efate and particularly Espiritu Santo).

All species and genera marked with an asterisk are treated in more detail in the systematic section (Chapter 3, "The Land and Fresh-Water Birds of the Southwest Pacific") of Part I.

GREBES

*Australian Dabchick (Podiceps novaehollandiae): The New Hebrides subspecies (leucosternos Mayr 1931) has been recorded from Dolphin Isl., Espiritu Santo, and Gaua.

HERONS

Only 2 species are known from the New Hebrides. They cannot be mistaken for any other bird since no storks or cranes occur in the area.

*Little Mangrove Heron (Butorides striatus): See Plate 1: 6. Seems to be rare in the New Hebrides and has been reported only from Santo and from the Torres group (Hiu) (probably diminutus Mayr 1940).

*Reef Heron (Demigretta sacra): Occurs throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls. The white phase seems exceptional.

DUCKS

*Australian Gray Duck (Anas superciliosa pelewensis Hart-laub and Finsch): See Plate 1: 7. This is the only common duck in the New Hebrides.

Australian White-eyed Duck (Nyroca australis): Head and breast chestnut brown; back and wings dull brown. White areas: a broad belly band, the under tail-coverts, and a wing-stripe. Iris white; bill bluish. Females are duller brown with a brown iris. Differs from the Australian Gray Duck by the uniformly rufous brown head, by the color of the speculum, and by its habits.

The subspecies extima Mayr 1940 has been recorded from the Banks Isls. (Gaua) and New Hebrides (Santo, Erromanga, Tanna). This diving duck seems to be restricted to a few fresh-water lakes and lowland streams.

HAWKS

Australian Goshawk (Accipiter fasciatus): See New Caledonia. Reported in the New Hebrides only from Aneiteum (vigilax Wetmore 1926).

*Swamp Harrier (Circus approximans): The subspecies approximans Peale has been reported from Aneiteum, Tanna, Erromanga, Efate, and Santo.

FALCONS

*Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus): Recorded from Efate, Erromanga, and Tanna (nesiotes Mayr 1941).

MEGAPODES

*Incubator Bird (Megapodius freycinet): The subspecies layardi Tristram occurs on the Banks Isis., northern and central New Hebrides, south to Efate.

RAILS

The 4 species of rails of the New Hebrides are easily told apart. The largest is the Purple Swamphen, of the size of a fowl, with a heavy red bill and red legs. The plumage is uniformly dark (purple or blackish) except for the white under tail-coverts. The Banded Rail has a whitish gray superciliary, black and white barred flanks, and mottled upperparts. The White-browed Rail is long-legged, but with a body the size of a thrush. The whitish gray underparts, brownish back, white eyebrow, and black line through the eye are diagnostic. The small Sooty Rail, not much bigger than a sparrow, is grayish black below and dark rufous brown above. No endemic rails are known from the New Hebrides in addition to these 4 widespread species.

*Banded Rail (Rallus philippensis): The subspecies seth-smithi Mathews 1911 probably occurs on all the islands but has been reported so far only from Pentecost, Santo, Epi, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna, and Ancitcum.

*Sooty Rail (Porzana tabuensis): This secretive rail has been recorded in the New Hebrides only from Tanna and Anciteum (tabuensis Gmelin).

*White-browcd Rail (Poliolimnas cinercus): In the New Hebrides recorded only from Tanna (tannensis Forster).

*Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyria): See Plate 1: 10. The subspecies aneiteumensis Tristram probably occurs throughout the Banks Isls. and New Hebrides, but has been recorded so far only from Santo, Malekula, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna, and Aneiteum.

PIGEONS AND DOVES

Eight species of this family are represented in the New Hebrides.

Key to New Hebrides and Banks Isls. Pigeons and Doves

(1) Small (8-9). Terrestrial or in low bushes ................................ 2
Small or large. Arboreal ................................ 3

(2) Mantle bright glossy green; no distinct breast shield; bill orange ................................ Chalcophaps
Mantle purplish brown or olive brown; throat and breast shield vinaceous white (♂), or tawny cinnamon ♀; bill black ................................ Gallicolumba

(3) Short-tailed. Small (7-11); prevailing color green ................................ 4
Rather long-tailed. Medium or large; prevailing color gray or brown ................................ 5

(4) Very small (7-9). Adults with red crown and spot on belly; reddish orange under tail-coverts ................................ Ptilinopus greyii
Larger (9½-11). Head yellowish olive; some inner wing-feathers with yellow tips; under tail-coverts pale yellow with green tips; no red in plumage ................................ Ptilinopus tannensis

(5) Bill red; cheeks and throat pure white ................................ Columba
Bill blackish; cheeks and throat not pure white ................................ 6

(6) Smaller. Tail as long as body; normally dark rufous brown above, cinnamon below ................................ Macropygia
Larger. Tail half as long as body; head grayish ................................ 7

(7) Head and neck ash gray. Mantle, wings, and tail dull glossy greenish or bluish black; underparts vinaceous gray; under tail-coverts chestnut. Large black knob at base of bill ................................ Ducula pacifica
Head, back, and wings blackish slate gray; collar across back and breast dark chestnut; abdomen rufous brown; under tail-coverts cinnamon. No knob at base of bill ................................ Ducula bakeri

*Red-bellied Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus greyii Bonaparte): Throughout the area.

Tanna Fruit Dove (Ptilinopus tannensis Latham): Females are like the males, but lack the grayish white spots on the shoulders and have more yellow on the lower abdomen. Iris yellow; bill bluish; feet red. New Hebrides (except Aneiteum) and Banks Isls. (Gaua, Vanua Lava).

Voice unknown. Lives from sea level to mountaintops, in original forest and in wooded patches in the grasslands. Feed? on figs and other fruits.

*Pacific Pigeon (Ducula p. pacifica Gmelin): See Plate 2:13. Throughout the area.

Baker's Pigeon (Ducula bakeri Kinnear 1928): Large (15). Iris yellowish; bill black; feet red. No knob on bill. Differs from D. pacifica by the uniformly dark upperparts and by the dark throat and breast. Differs from Columba vitiensis by the blackish bill and gray upper throat. Larger islands of northern New Hebrides (Santo, Pentecost, Ambrym, Aurora) and Banks Isls. (Vanua Lava, Gaua, Bligh).

Frequents the mountain forest. Not known whether it also occurs in the lowlands. Has a characteristic single-noted ascending call.

*White-throated Pigeon (Columba vitiensis): The New Hebrides race (leopoldi Tristram) is found in the southern and central New Hebrides (from Aneiteum to Ambrym, Malekula, Malo, and Santo) and in the Torres group (Lo, Hiu). Underparts grayish or chestnut. Throat of females dull white or grayish. Iris yellow, bill and feet red.

*Rufous-brown Pheasant Dove (Macropygia mackinlayi): Cf. Plate 2: 14. The subspecies mackinlayi Ramsay is found throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls. Its uniform brown color (darker above) and the long tail are diagnostic. A peculiar dirty gray color phase (pale gray below) is rare on several islands but comprises about 30 per cent of the population on Tanna Isl.

Green-winged Ground Pigeon (Chalcophaps indica): Small (9-10). Head, upper back, and throat purplish rufous (vinaceous), abdomen paler and more grayish. Back and inner half of wing golden green; wing- and tail-feathers brown. Lower back blackish brown with 2 gray crossbars. A whitish gray spot on the wing-bend. Females duller, wing-bend grayish. Immatures are barred with black underneath and the wing-feathers are edged with rufous cinnamon. Iris brown; bill orange red; feet cherry red.

The subspecies sandwichensis Ramsay occurs in the Loyalty Isls., all the New Hebrides, Banks Isls., Torres group, and Santa Cruz group.

This terrestrial dove forages on the ground and settles only rarely on bushes or low trees even when flushed. The nest, containing 2 eggs, is generally about 4-15 feet up. Breeds from September to November. Flushed birds dart off with a startling and loud clapping of. the wings, flying with great agility and rapidity through the tangled vines of the under-growth.

Santa Cruz Ground Pigeon (Gallicolumba sanctaecrucis Mayr 1935): Small (9-10). Male and female very different. Male. Brownish black above with reddish purple gloss. A strongly glossy violaceous patch on wing-bend. Head grayish. A large white throat and breast shield, tinged with pinkish buff, more grayish on the side. Abdomen chocolate brown. Iris brown; bill black; feet purplish red.

Female. Lighter, more brownish. Head, neck, and breast shield tawny chestnut. Back, tail, and wings with a greenish gloss. Abdomen gray brown. Differs from Chalcophaps by the uniformly dull gloss of the upperparts (including rump and tail), by the rufous tawny, not vinaceous brown, head and throat, and by the black bill. Rare. Known only from Tinakula and Utupua in the Santa Cruz Isls. and from Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides.

PARROTS

Two lories are the only representatives of this family in the New Hebrides, the red-breasted Coconut Lory, and a little, long-tailed, green lorikeet, the Palm Lorikeet.

*Coconut Lory (Trichoglossus haematodus): See Plate 2:16. The subspecies massena Bonaparte occurs throughout the entire New Hebrides and Banks Isls.

Green Palm Lorikeet (Vim palmarum Gmelin): Small (7) with a long tail. Entirely green; tip of tail yellow. Usually a few red feathers on chin and cheeks. Iris yellow; bill and feet orange yellow.

Santa Cruz Isls., Banks Isls., all New Hebrides. The green plumage makes this a hard bird to see. Lives in pairs or flocks in treetops, feeding on nectar, blossoms, and fruit. More common in the hills than in the lowlands. Call a shrill piping whistle. Might possibly be confused with the bamboo-finches (Erythrura), (for which see, for differences in color of head, tail, and bill).

CUCKOOS

There are 3 species in the New Hebrides, 2 of them resident and one a migrant visitor from New Zealand. The 3 are so different as not to be mistaken for one another.

*Fan-tailcd Cuckoo (Cacomantis pyrrhophanus): The sub-species schistaceigularis Sharpe has a gray throat contrasting with the deep rufous breast and abdomen. The barred immatures are very different. The slender body form, blackish upperparts, rufous breast, and white pattern on tail are diagnostic.

Ranges from Tanna northward through the entire New Hebrides to the Banks Isls. (Gaua and Valua).

*Shining Cuckoo (Chalcites lucidus): The New Caledonian subspecies layardi Mathews 1912 ranges through the Loyalty Isls. and New Hebrides north to the Banks Isls. (Gaua and Vanua Lava) and Santa Cruz Isls. (Utupua). The distribution is closely correlated with that of its favorite foster species, Gerygone flavolateralis. Birds observed on Fotuna and Erromanga may have been visitors. Crown and nape of this race are dull purple with little gloss. Barring of throat inconspicuous and practically absent in immatures.

*Long-tailed New Zealand Cuckoo (Eudynamis taitensis Sparrman): See Figure 8. Rather rare in the New Hebrides and not yet reported from the Banks Isls.

BARN OWLS

*Barn Owl (Tyto alba): Cf. Figure 9. The subspecies inter-posita Mayr 1935, with buff or ochraceous underparts, is found in the Santa Cruz Isls. (Vanikoro), Banks Isls. (Vanua Lava), and northern New Hebrides (Pentecost, Santo, Male-kula, Epi, and Efate). Birds from the southern New Hebrides (Erromanga, Tanna, Aneiteum) are more whitish.

No other nocturnal birds (owls or nightjars) have been recorded from the New Hebrides.

SWIFTS

*Vanikoro Swiftlet (Collocalia vanikorensis): The subspecies vanikorensis Quoy and Gaimard is found throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls.

*White-rumped Swiftlet (Collocalia spodiopygia): Cf. Plate 2:20. The subspecies leucopygia Wallace is found throughout the New Hebrides, but is apparently not yet recorded from the Banks Isls. May have seasonal movements from island to island.

*Glossy Swiftlet (Collocalia esculenta): The New Hebridean race uropygialis Gray differs from leucopygia by the characters mentioned in the key.* This is probably the most common of the 3 swiftlets. It has been recorded throughout the New Hebrides, Banks and Torres Isls.

KINGFISHERS

Only 2 species (Halcyon) are found in the New Hebrides:

(1) Upperparts greenish blue with a whitish or cinnamon collar. Underparts white or washed with ochraccous on flanksand belly ................................ H. chloris

(2) Crown black, back deep purplish blue; collar white; throat white; breast and abdomen deep tawny rufous ............................... H. farquhari

*White-collared Kingfisher (Halcyon chloris): Cf. Plate 2: 22. The 5 subspecies recognized in this area differ mainly in the extent of the rufous ocher wash of superciliary, nuchal collar, flanks, and abdomen. Beginning with the whitest and lightest race, the following sequence can be established: torresiana Mayr 1931 (Torres Isls.) very bright bluish or greenish; santoensis Mayr 1931 (Banks Isls. and northern New Hebrides) and juliae Heine (central New Hebrides, Efate to Malekula and Aoba) intermediate; erromangae Mayr 1938 (Erromanga, ?Aneiteum) flanks and abdomen in males washed with pale ochraceous; and tannensis Sharpe (Tanna) with the male deep ochraceous below.

Chestnut-bellied Kingfisher (Halcyon farquhari Sharpe): Small (7-8). Head black; a white spot on either side of forehead and a dark purplish blue eye-stripe continuing back of the eye. Back, wings, and tail dark purplish blue; rump brighter. Throat and nuchal collar white; breast and abdomen deep ocher to chestnut. Iris brown; bill black above, horn color below; feet black. Females have a white patch on the lower abdomen.

Known only from Malekula, Malo, and Espiritu Santo. Probably a bird of the true forest. Habits unknown.

SONGBIRDS

There are at least 24 species of native songbirds known from the New Hebrides and one or 2 introduced species. To make a key for all these species (including the 2 sexes, immature plumages, and geographical races) would be cumbersome. The following rough color key, however, will help in quick identification. It will assist in narrowing down the number of alternatives.

Color Key to"NewHebrides Songbirds

Species with red (including pink or scarlet) in plumage: Petroica multicolor, Myzomela cardinalis, Erythrura cyanovirens.

Species with yellow, green, or olive in plumage: Gerygone flavolateralis, Pachycephala pectoralis, Uchmera incana, Myzomela cardinalis (♀, imm.), Zosterops flatrifrons, Zosterops lateralis, Erythrura trichroa, Erythrura cyanovirens.

Species with dark gray, soft black, or glossy black in plumage: Hirundo tahitica, Lalage maculosa, Lalage leucopyga, Coracina caledonica (dark blue gray), Turdus poliocephalus, Petroica multicolor, Neolalage banksiana, Rhipidura spilodera, Rhipidura fuliginosa, Myiagra caledonica, Pachycephala pectoralis, Artamus leucorhynchus, Aplonis zelandicus, Guadalcanaria notabilis, Myzomela cardinalis.

Species with brown or rust color in plumage: Hirundo tahitica, Lalage maculosa (♀), Lalage leucopyga (♀), Turdus polio-cephalus, Cichlornis whitneyi, Petroica multicolor, Rhipidura spilodera, Rhipidura fuliginosa, Myiagra caledonica (♀), Clytorhynchus pachycephaloides, Pachycephala pectoralis (♀), Aplonis santovestris, Aplonis zelandicus, Guadalcanaria notabilis, Myzomela cardinalis (♀). Immatures of some of these species are even more brownish than the adults, particularly in the species marked ♀

Species with white in plumage (including wings and tail): Lalage maculosa, Lalage leucopyga, Turdus poliocephalus (Erromanga, Tanna only), Gerygone flavolateralis, Petroica multicolor, Neolalage banhjiana, Rhipidura spilodera, Rhipidura fuliginosa, Myiagra caledonica, Pachycephala pectoralis, Artamus leucorhynchus, Guadalcanaria notabilis, Zosterops flavifrons (eye-ring only), Zosterops lateralis (eye-ring and lower abdomen).

SWALLOWS

*Pacific Swallow (Hirundo tahitica): See Plate 3: 23. The subspecies subfusca Gould is widespread throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls. Can be confused only with the swift-lets (Collocalia). Differs from C. esculenta uropygialis and C. spodiopygia leucopygia by a blue-black rump and by the chestnut forehead and throat. Differs from C. vanikorensis by the glossy blue-black upperparts and the chestnut throat.

CUCKOO-SHRIKES

This family is represented in the New Hebrides by 3 species: 2 black and white trillers (Lalage), and the large, crow-like Melanesian Graybird (Coracina). The skinned specimens of the 2 trillers are very similar; it is as yet unknown whether they differ conspicuously in habits. In the Santa Cruz Isls. only maculosa is found, in the southern New Hebrides (Aneiteum to Erromanga), Banks and Torres Isls. only leucopyga is found. The 2 species overlap in the central and northern New Hebrides (from Efate northward). They can probably be differentiated in the field as follows:

Adult male. L. leucopyga is solid glossy black above except for a well-defined grayish white rump and sometimes a rather indistinct eye-stripe. Wings black except for a whitish patch on the shoulder. Underparts pure or buff y white. Lower mandible black. L. maculosa. Crown with white streaks; back faintly barred with white; lower back and rump grayish white; broad eye-stripe, continued to nape. Extensive white shoulder patch, wing-feathers edged with white. Sides of breast and flanks frequently barred with black. Lower mandible yellowish brown. Apparently a plumper bird.

Female and immature. L. maculosa is rather pale brownish above, L. leucopyga brownish black. The iris is brown in both species.

*Polynesian Triller (Lalage maculosa): Cf. Plate 3: 24. Two races in the New Hebrides: modesta Mayr and Ripley 1941 (Espiritu Santo, Malo, Pauuma, and Epi) with more barring on the sides of the breast and sometimes with a buff y wash of underparts; ultima Mayr and Ripley 1941 (Efate) with more mottling of upperparts, more extensive light area on rump and almost pure white underparts.

*Long-tailed Triller (Lalage leucopyga): Three races: simil-lima Sarasin 1913 (Loyalty Isls., Aneiteum, Tanna, Erromanga) with black lores and no eye-stripe, rump whitish gray; albiloris Mayr and Ripley 1941 (central and northern New Hebrides, from Efate northward) with white lores and sometimes an eye-stripe, rump more grayish; deficient Mayr and Ripley 1941 (Banks and Torres Isls.) with little or no white on lores, no eye-stripe, rump gray.

Neolalage banksiana, the only other New Hebrides bird that somewhat resembles the trillers, can be distinguished at once by the black breast band and the orange buff abdomen.

*Melanesian Graybird (Coracina caledonica): Two races in the New Hebrides: seiuncta Mayr and Ripley 1941 (Erromanga) somewhat paler and grayer than thilenii Neumann 1915 (Espiritu Santo, Malo and Malekula). The color of the iris is doubtful, either brown or yellow.

Recognizable by undulating direct flight with discontinuous wing beats and by a piercing single-noted call. In large trees of all types of landscape.

THRUSHES

*Island Thrush (Turdus poliocephalus): At least 8 different subspecies in the New Hebrides. Young of all races olive brown, underparts with tawny, white, and black spots.

pritzbueri Layard (Tanna) sooty black; head and throat creamy white in adult males, gray brown in females; albifrons Ramsay (Erromanga) like pritzbueri, but head whiter, some white on lower belly. The other 6 races are of a single color: vanikorensis Quoy and Gaimard (Espiritu Santo, Malo), efatensis Mayr 1941 (Efate), and whitneyi Mayr 1941 (Gaua) are sooty black (at least the adult males), while beefy Mayr 1941 (Mai, Epi, Lopevi, Pauuma), malekulae Mayr 1941 (Malekula, Ambrym, Pentecost), and placens Mayr 1941 (Vanua Lava, Bligh Isl.) are more grayish or brownish in varying degrees. Females and immature males are lighter and more brownish.

Differs from the shrikebill (Clytorhynchus) by yellow bill and feet and by the short, blackish tail (no white); differs from the Rusty-winged Starling (Aplonis) also by the yellow color of bill and feet and by lacking the rust-colored patch on the wings. There are additional differences of voice and habits.

WARBLERS

Thicket Warbler (Cichlornis whitneyi Mayr 1933): A slender, long-tailed bird of the size of a Reed Warbler or Catbird (6½). Upperparts brown; conspicuous eye-stripe; under-pays ochraceous; wings and tail dark brown. Iris brown; bill and feet black. Secretive in the dense undergrowth of the primeval mountain forest, above 2400 feet. Occurs only in the mountains of Espiritu Santo where it was discovered by the Whitney Expedition in 1926.

Fantail Warbler (Gerygone flavolateralis): A typical small (4) warbler. Upperparts olive; head olive gray; feathers on eyelids white; throat whitish gray; flanks and abdomen lemon yellow. Wings and tail olive brown; lateral tail-feathers with subterminal white spots. The entire underparts are yellowish in immatures.

Differs from Zosterops flavifrons by smaller size, dark gray crown, and whitish throat, from Uchmera incana by much smaller size, short tail and bill, and by the yellow flanks. Iris dull crimson; bill and feet black. This species is the favorite foster parent of the parasitic cuckoo Chalcites.

The subspecies correiae Mayr 1931 has been recorded from the New Hebrides (Mai, Epi, Lopevi, Ambrym, Male-kula, Aoba) and Banks Isls. (Gaua, Vanua Lava). Frequents the treetops of the forest, in second growth and native plantations. Has a characteristic pleasing song which has never been adequately described. The nest of all Gerygone is a neat structure of plant wool, spider webs, and lichens, with a lateral entrance. Usually 8-15 feet above the ground, it contains 3 or 4 eggs.

FLYCATCHERS

Spotted Fantail (Rhipidura spilodera): See Plate 3: 26. Small (6½-7) with a long tail. Upperparts dark, grayish on head and tail, brownish on back and wings; a broad eye-stripe and a short line behind the eye white. Underparts whitish; throat with partly concealed triangular blackish spots; flankswashed with buffy ochraceous. Lateral tail-feathers with white tips.

The subspecies spilodera Gray occurs throughout the central and northern New Hebrides, from Efate northward, and in the Banks Isls. (Gaua, Vanua Lava). Habits those of the genus.* Common in all habitats.

Collared Fantail (Rhipidura fuliginosa): Small (6). Upper-parts slate gray, more blackish on tail; white eye-stripe and short white line behind the eye. The white throat is separated sharply by a black breast band from the ochraceous buff lower breast and abdomen. Lateral tail-feathers narrowly tipped with white. Two inconspicuous white wing-bars. Differs from spilodera by smaller size, the gray back, and the color of the underparts.

The subspecies brenchleyi Sharpe occurs throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls. Lowlands and mountains, second growth and true forest.

Broad-billed Flycatcher (Myiagra caledonica): Small (6). Male black with greenish gloss; abdomen white. Female with gray head, brownish wings and tail, and olive-brown back. Throat and upper breast ochraceous orange; abdomen white. Iris brown; broad, flatbill bluish gray.

The subspecies melanura Gray (Aneiteum, Tanna, Erromanga) is slightly larger than marina Salomonsen 1934 (New Hebrides from Efate northward, Banks Isls., Torres Isls.). Habits those of the genus.* More common in the open country and near the coast than in the mountains.

Buff-bellied Flycatcher (Neolalage banksiana Gray): A small (5½), pied bird. Crown, back, part of wing, base of tail black. Upper throat, face, sides of head, rump, part of wing, and tip of tail white. A black band across the breast. Lower breast and abdomen orange buff. Iris brown; bill black; feet blue gray. Immature similar, but the black colors are replaced by brownish and grayish, and the white colors are less pure. The white face, black pectoral band, and orange-buff abdomen distinguish adults of this species from all other New Hebrides birds.

New Hebrides (from Efate northward) and Banks Isls. (Vanua Lava). Habits similar to those of Monarcha.* Friendly, with a melodious song. Near human habitations, in second growth, and along the edge of plantations.

Southern Shrikebill (Clytorhynchus pachyccphaloides): Medium (7½). A rufous-brown to olive-brown bird with broad white tips on the lateral tail-feathers; lighter and more grayish underneath. A large, wedge-shaped bluish white bill; gape yellow. Iris brown; feet bluish gray. Bill of immatures brown. The subspecies grisescens Sharpe lives throughout the New Hebrides (from Erromanga northward), Banks Isls., and Torres Isls. (Hiu).

Hunts for insects in the substage of the true forest. "Frequents the most dense and gloomy forest, whence its melancholy long-drawn whistle sounds in mournful cadence" (Layard). Can be lured by imitating this call note. Nest unknown. Usually more frequent in the mountains or even restricted to them on some of the islands. A vigorous and pugnacious bird.

*Scarlet Robin (Petroica multicolor): See Figure 14. These chunky little birds with scarlet breasts and short bill and tail cannot be mistaken for any other species. There are 5 races in the New Hebrides. Sexual dimorphism present in sitnilis Gray (Tanna, Aneiteum) and in ambrynensis Sharpe (Tongoa, Lopevi, Pauuma, Ambrym, Aoba, and Santo, New Hebrides, and Meralav and Gaua, Banks Isls.). In the 3 other races the males are brown above, like the females, and differ only by a white spot on the forehead and by more scarlet on throat and lower abdomen: cognata Mayr 1938 (Erromanga), feminina Mayr 1934 (Efate, Mai), and soror Mayr 1934 (Vanua Lava, Banks Isls.).

WHISTLERS

*Golden Whistler (Pachycephala pectoralis): See Plate 3: 29, 30. Medium (7). Adult male. Crown black; back, wings, and tail olive green. White throat separated from lemon-yellow abdomen by a black breast band. Female. Crown hair brown; back, wings, and tail dull brownish olive; throat white; abdomen yellowish, faint indication of a brownish or gray breast band. Immatures similar to females, but more rufous in plumage, particularly on wing.

Six subspecies in the New Hebrides. They differ (mainly in the female plumage) by characters hardly apparent to the field student: cucullata Gray (Anciteum), chlorura Gray (Erromanga), efatensis Mayr 1938 (Efate), brunneipectus Mayr 1932 (Mai, Tongariki, Epi, Lopevi, Pauuma, Ambrym), infacta Sharpe (Malekula, Malo, Santo, Aoba), and banksiana Mayr 1932 (Aurora, Pentecost, and Banks Isls.).

WOOD-SWALLOWS

*White-breasted Wood-Swallow (Artamus leucorhynchus): Cf. Plate 3: 31. Habits and color pattern are diagnostic. Differs from the trillers by the black throat and the absence of white on the wing. The subspecies tenuis Mayr 1943 occurs throughout the New Hebrides and Banks Isls.

STARLINGS

Mountain Starling (Aplonis santovestris Harrisson and Marshall 1937): Size of a starling (7). Brown throughout. Crown blackish brown; lower back and rump rufous chestnut. Underside warm rufous brown. Wings and tail blackish brown. Iris gray green; bill and feet brownish black.

Restricted to the mountains of Espiritu Santo (above 3000 feet). Usually found singly or in pairs. Frequents the under-growth of the cloud forest, where it searches for its food of fruits and seeds. The 1 white eggs are placed in a hole of a tree close to the ground. Sits silently on low boughs and stumps, flitting swiftly away through the dripping foliage when disturbed.

Rusty-winged Starling (Aplonis zelandicus): A small staring (7) with heavy bill and short tail. Upperparts dark gray brown; rump rufous brown. Underparts dark gray with a buff tone. Wings and tail dark brown; a bright rufous chestnut patch on the wing. Iris brown; bill and feet dark.

The subspecies rufipennis Layard occurs in the central and northern New Hebrides (from Pauuma-Lopevi northward) and in the Banks Isls. (Bligh and Gaua). An arboreal bird of the lowland forest.

*Indian Myna (Acridotheres tristis Linnaeus): Probably introduced on some of the islands of the New Hebrides.

HONEY-EATERS

White-bellied Honey-eater (Guadalcanaria notabilis): A medium-sized honey-eater (7-8) with a long, strongly curved black bill. Upperparts rufous or olive brown; crown black; a more or less distinct white eye-stripe. Underparts white; throat grayish white, lower breast and abdomen purer white, but with long, thin brownish streaks, particularly on sides of breast and flanks. Iris brown; feet blue gray. Young birds with light streaks above and without the dark streaks below.

Two subspecies, notabilis Sharpe (Banks Isls., also Aoba and Santo) and superciliaris Mayr 1932 (Aurora, Pentecost, Malekula, Ambrym, Pauuma, Epi). Habitat and life history unknown.

Silver-eared Honey-eater (Lichmera incana): See Figure 16. A small (6), slender bird with long tail and curved bill. Crown dark brownish gray; ear-coverts silver gray; back, wings, and tail olive. Throat scaly, grayish; abdomen dirty olive white. Females similar, but much smaller and rarer.

The subspecies flavotincta Gray occurs in the central New Hebrides (Erromanga, Efate, Makura, Mai, Tongoa, Epi, Lopevi, Pauuma, Ambrym, and Malekula).

A common bird in flowering trees, particularly in second growth, mangroves, native gardens, and near human habitations. Very partial to coconut trees. The reason why 90 per cent of the observed birds are males is unknown. Perhaps their feeding habits are slightly different (preference for coconut trees). Has a pleasing warbled song. Seems to be territorial on its nesting tree. Lays 2 eggs. Has protracted breeding season and probably several broods per year.

*Cardinal Honey-eater (Myzomela cardinalis): See Plate 3: 36. Adult males in their scarlet and black plumage are unmistakable. Females and immatures with their more or less olive plumage might be mistaken for Gerygone, Petroica, or Zosterops. They can be distinguished by the thin, curved bill, by the scarlet wash of upper throat and crown, and by the absence of white on tail, forehead, and around the eye.

The subspecies cardinalis Gmelin (Aneiteum, Tanna, Erromanga) is larger than tenuis Mayr 1937 from the northern New Hebrides (from Efate northward) and the Banks Isls.

WHITE-EYES

There are 2 widespread species in the New Hebrides, which are easily told apart:

(1) flavifrons —entirely yellowish green, more greenish above, more yellowish underneath.

(2) lateralis —middle of back gray; throat and under tail-coverts greenish yellow; breast and flanks brownish gray; middle of abdomen white.

Both species have broad white eye-rings. The color of the soft parts also seems identical. The iris is brown, the bill yellowish horn-color with a blackish tip, the legs are greenish, grayish, or brownish. Little is known about differences between the 2 species in habitat selection, habits, or song. Z. lateralis seems primarily a species of the open country, rare and absent in the true forest. Z. flavifrons occurs in all habitats and is perhaps the most numerous bird of the New Hebrides.

Yellow White-eye (Zosterops flavifrons): See Plate 3:38. Size of a warbler (4H-5). Differs from other greenish yellow New Hebrides birds (Gerygone, Erythrura, Lichmera, Pachyccphala 9) by the rich yellow underparts, the yellowish olive upperparts with a yellowish forehead, the broad white eyering, and the short slender bill.

Three subspecies are bright and clear yellow below, yellowish olive above, and with a yellow forehead: gauensis Murphy and Mathews 1929 (Gaua, Banks Isls.), efaten sis Mayr 1937 (Efate, Erromanga), and flavifrons Gmelin (Tanna, Aniwa). Four other subspecies are more greenish yellow below, darker above, and with little yellow on the forehead: perplexa Murphy and Mathews 1929 (Meralav and Vanua Lava, Banks Isls.; Pentecost, Ambrym, Aurora, Aoba, Pauuma, Lopevi, Epi, Tongoa), brevicauda Murphy and Mathews 1929 (Malo, Santo) macgillivrayi Sharpe (Malckula), and majuscula Murphy and Mathews 1929 (Aneiteum).

*Gray-backed White-eye (Zosterops lateralis): Three subspecies: macmillani Mayr 1937 (Tanna, Aniwa) with much gray on the back and much black below the eye; vatensis Tristram (northern New Hebrides from Erromanga northward, Banks Isls. [except Valua], Torres group) intermediate; and valuensis Murphy and Mathews 1929 (Valua, Banks Isls.) with almost no gray on the warbler-green back.

WEAVER-FINCHES

Two parrot-finches or bamboo-finches of the genus Erythrura are the only 2 native weaver-finches in this area. The adults differ as follows:

(1) trichroa —long, pointed, rust red tail; forehead and sides of face blue; underparts bright green.

(2) cyanovirens —head and tail crimson red; throat and sometimes also abdomen and back bluish.

The immatures are more difficult. In trichroa the bill is small and dark, the underparts rather pale olive ochraceous, the legs yellowish. In cyanovirens the bill is swollen and thick, yellow at the base, the underparts are bluish green, hardly paler than the back; there always seems to be some red on the crown. There is considerable variation in the immature plumage.

*Blue-faced Parrot-Finch (Erythrura trichroa): The subspecies cyancifrons Layard is known from the Banks Isls. (Gaua), New Hebrides (Aoba, Ambrym, Lopevi, Efate, Erromanga, Tanna, Aneiteum) and Loyalty Isls. (Lifu, Maré). Prefers grasslands and other open areas, but occasionally found in glades in the forest. Feeds on grass seeds.

Red-headed Parrot-Finch (Erythrura cyanovirens): See Samoa. The blue or greenish plumage with crimson head and tail, and green wings are diagnostic. Females have less blue.

Three subspecies: regia Sclater (Mai, Tongoa, Epi, Lopevi, Pauuma and Gaua) with back and abdomen blue in adult males; efatensis Mayr 1931 (Efate); and serena Sclater (Aneiteum) with breast and nape blue, back and abdomen green.

Footnote

1 All literature on birds of the New Hebrides is either strictly technical or refers only to a single species; it has therefore not been listed.