Introduction
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The history of the term “straight edge” in the hardcore punk community has been much more colorful and long-lasting than Ian MacKaye could have ever imagined. MacKaye, at the time singer in the Washington, DC, band Minor Threat, wrote the lyrics to the song “Straight Edge” in 1981:
Against both expectations and intentions, these lyrics would not only provide a label embraced by scores of drug-free hardcore punk kids, they came to spawn a self-identified straight edge movement spreading around the world and remaining a vital part of the hardcore punk community to this day.
The US history of the movement has recently been traced by Ross Haenfler in the book Straight Edge: Clean-Living Youth, Hardcore Punk, and Social Change (2006), a study that is highly recommended to anyone interested in the straight edge phenomenon.
A superb history of straight edge from an international perspective is provided by the Brazilian band Point of No Return in their essay “Bending to Stay Straight,” which is included in this volume.
Roughly speaking—numerous exceptions will be encountered throughout the book—straight edge history can be divided into four phases:
A more detailed timeline, intended to help situate the contributions to this book, is included above.
While the core of straight edge identity has always been the abstinence from alcohol, nicotine, and common illegal drugs such as cannabis, amphetamines, LSD etc., there have been considerable variations on how far to take the interpretations of “abstaining from intoxicants” or “living drug-free.” Many heated discussions have concerned the consumption of caffeine, the use of animal products, or sexual conduct. Disagreements often relate to the primary reasons for living straight edge. Is it simply to remain “sober”? Is it to “avoid cruelty”? Is it to be “anti-consumerist”? Is it to attain “moral purity”? These questions—and many others—will be discussed in this collection.
Straight edge politics have varied significantly, from the explicitly revolutionary to the outright conservative. It is the latter strain that has dominated—at least in public perception.
The overall impression of straight edge within radical political circles has been negative as well. While the early Washington, DC, hardcore punk underground is usually praised for its commitment to positive social change, both the youth crew movement of the 1980s and the vegan straight edge movement of the 1990s have drawn much criticism. While the critique of the former largely focused on male bonding (“brotherhood,” “wolfpack”), martial posturing (“true till death,” “nailed to the X”), and the lack of political perspective beyond vague affirmations of “youth” and “unity,” the latter was criticized for self-righteous militancy, a reductionist focus on animal rights and environmental issues, and an ethical fundamentalism that, in its worst forms, resembled reactionary Christian doctrines: condemnation of premarital sex, abortion, homosexuality etc.
Both movements have been accused of extreme male dominance, violent behavior, intolerance, and an inability to detach their sober principles from a moralistic puritan tradition. These images seemed further confirmed by severe clashes between straight edge youth and rival groups in Salt Lake City, Utah, and Reno, Nevada, which left people badly injured and even dead. The subsequent classification of straight edge as a “gang” by the cities’ police departments was much exploited by the corporate media.
For all these reasons, straight edge has been approached by many radical activists with a strong dose of skepticism, often ridicule, and sometimes unabashed hostility. Despite the ideologically less dogmatic and more multifaceted character of contemporary straight edge, reservations remain strong.
However, there has always been a “different edge”: engaged in political struggle and social transformation, but not judgmental, belligerent, or narrow-minded. This is what will be presented in this book. The aim is not to define the “true meaning” of straight edge. There is no intention to engage in pointless definitional battles. The intention is to demonstrate that there has always been a strain of radical, politically conscious straight edge culture that has manifested itself in many different forms.
Needless to say, understandings of “radical” differ. In the context of this book, the attribute refers to people who a) actively pursue a fundamental (radical) social change in order to create free and egalitarian communities, and b) maintain a clear distance to politically ambiguous ideologies. Hence straight edge activists affiliated to religious groups or belief systems will be as much absent as those representatives of the 1990s vegan straight edge scene whose political legacy remains in doubt. This is neither to deny the progressive potentials of religious movements nor to pass judgment on any particular scene. It is merely an expression of the frame that I, as an editor, felt most comfortable with. I understand and appreciate that other frames could have been used—and hope others understand and appreciate the one I have chosen.
Apart from an involvement in radical politics in its myriad forms, all the contributors to this volume are or have been connected in one way or another to hardcore punk straight edge culture: as artists, organizers, or activists. This is why the book is about straight edge and radical politics, not about sobriety or drug-free living and radical politics. The latter book would be very different, accounting for a wide range of radicals, from Andalusian anarchist teetotalers to American Indian Movement activists advocating abstinence to conscious hip hop artists like Dead Prez. Although I very much hope for such a book to be published, the focus of this volume is more specific.
The volume’s contributors represent influential straight edge bands, scenes, and labels as much as radical political projects with straight edge sympathies and leanings. Despite shared convictions, the authors and interviewees cover a range of perspectives: from conceiving straight edge as a “lifestyle” to objecting to such a definition; from questioning the straight edge label to defending it; from describing straight edge as a central part of political activism to declaring it above all a personal choice. The contributors also differ in their interpretations of hardcore punk, the culture that straight edge is rooted in. Many readers will have their own understanding of the term. For those not versed in the culture and its vocabulary, the following very general definitions may serve as guidelines:
Hardcore punk eventually split into several sub-genres. Relevant for this volume are mainly the following (descriptions are necessarily simplified and further personal research is strongly recommended):
Important hardcore punk periodicals include:
Hardcore punk scenes, including straight edge scenes, have always been predominantly male. In Western societies they have also remained largely white, despite notable exceptions—see, for example, James Spooner’s documentary Afro-Punk (2003).
The image of male and white dominance has further been reinforced by the fact that many histories of hardcore punk have solely focused on North America. In this book, a conscious effort has been made to include voices that are often underrepresented. This means a strong international focus as well as a relatively strong presence of routinely overlooked minority groups within the scene. However, there seems little point in denying the demographics of straight edge culture by assembling an overly misrepresentative cast of contributors. Admitting to the culture’s problems and engaging in critical debate seems mandatory.
The respective chapters only serve as vague markers. There are plenty of overlaps: the members of former straight edge bands talk about local scenes as much as the “Manifestos” reflect on straight edge culture or the chapter on “Perspectives” adds information to hardcore history. The chapters’ main purpose lies in avoiding a completely random order of the volume’s complex and rich contributions.
Chapter 1, Bands, provides a historical overview of political straight edge culture along the lines of highly influential bands: Ian MacKaye of Minor Threat talks about the origins of straight edge in the early Washington, DC, punk hardcore scene, critically reflects on the development of a “straight edge movement,” and offers his own understanding of the term. Michiel Bakker, Olav van den Berg, and Paul van den Berg tell the story of the “original communist straight edge band,” ManLiftingBanner, hailing from the Netherlands in the early 1990s. Dennis Lyxzén revisits the exploits of Sweden’s unique punk hardcore outfit Refused and the strong impact it had on the Swedish vegan straight edge movement of the 1990s—one of the strongest left-wing straight edge movements in history. The interview is accompanied by the liner notes to the last Refused record, The Shape of Punk to Come (1998). Frederico Freitas of São Paulo’s celebrated radical vegan straight edge band Point of No Return provides an overview of Latin American straight edge culture with a focus on its political ramifications. The interview is preceded by “Bending to Stay Straight,” a Point of No Return essay about the history, values, and politics of the straight edge movement, originally included in the 2002 release Liberdade Imposta, Liberdade Conquistada/Imposed Freedom, Conquered Freedom. Bruno “Break” Teixeira, singer of Portugal’s main straight edge export, New Winds, talks about the band’s history, his personal blend of drug-free living and radical activism, and one of Europe’s strongest recent political straight edge scenes.
Chapter 2, Scenes, focuses on countries and regions where significant radical straight edge scenes have developed: Jonathan Pollack, co-founder of Anarchists Against the Wall, an Israeli direct action group in support of Palestinian resistance, talks about the intriguing anarchist straight edge scene that appeared in Israel in the 1990s. Tanja, a longtime radical straight edge activist, provides further insight into Sweden’s vegan straight edge movement of the same decade, while Gabriel Cárdenas adds an update on political straight edge in Sweden today. Robert Matusiak, founder of Warsaw’s Refuse Records, one of the most important international labels for political straight edge, provides a sketch of the Eastern European straight edge scene and its conflicting political orientations reaching from antifascist crews to white power factions, particularly in Russia. Finally, Kurt Schroeder, a veteran of the US vegan straight edge scene of the 1990s and founder of Catalyst Records, globally renowned for its blend of straight edge hardcore and radical politics, reflects on developments in North America.
Chapter 3, Manifestos, brings together documents that have drawn explicit links between radical politics and sober living: “The Antifa Straight Edge” was published by Alpine Anarchist Productions in 2001, “Wasted Indeed: Anarchy and Alcohol” by the CrimethInc. Ex-Workers’ Collective in 2003, and “Towards a Less Fucked Up World: Sobriety and Anarchist Struggle” by Nick Riotfag in 2005. Current updates by the authors follow the texts.
Chapter 4, Reflections, features pieces on often neglected aspects of straight edge culture. Nick Riotfag examines the relations between sobriety and queer culture in “My Edge Is Anything But Straight: Towards a Radical Queer Critique of Intoxication Culture,” while the interview with drug-free and radical queer activist Lucas, “The Only Thing I’m Drunk on Is Cock,” adds personal tales and thoughts. Jenni Ramme, founder of Poland’s Emancypunx Records, home of the seminal 2003 X The Sisterhood X compilation, explores queer and feminist themes in her interview, while Kelly (Brother) Leonard shares her experiences of running xsisterhoodx, an online network for straight edge women. Bull Gervasi, bass player in Philadelphia’s iconoclastic straight edge band R.A.M.B.O., ponders the difficult relations between straight edge and crust punk, while Andy Hurley, currently drumming for Fall Out Boy, outlines personal politics where veganism and straight edge meet anarcho-primitivist convictions.
Chapter 5, Perspectives, offers contemporary ideas on straight edge living and radical politics. Federico Gomez draws on his experience as a straight edge singer and political activist on three continents when stressing the importance of international networking. Santiago Gomez provides an in-depth analysis of both straight edge’s radical potentials and conservative pitfalls in “Between Culture and Politics: Straight Edge as Intuitive Resistance.” Laura Synthesis, founder of London’s Synthesis zine distribution, takes a sharp look at the contemporary straight edge scene in “Queen of the PC Police.” Ross Haenfler, author of the above-mentioned Straight Edge: Clean-Living Youth, Hardcore Punk, and Social Change explains “Why I’m Still Straight Edge,” before Mark Andersen, co-founder of the punk activist collective Positive Force DC, closes the book with a touching appeal for straight edge’s place within a broad radical movement in “Building Bridges, Not Barriers: Positive Force DC, Straight Edge, and Revolution.”
Unless noted otherwise, the contributions are all original. The five reprints have been included with kind permission of the authors.
All the interviews were conducted between August and December 2008 in person, on the phone, via live chat, or over email; all were updated in June 2009. All the interviews were conducted by Gabriel Kuhn, except for the interview with XsaraqaelX, conducted by Daniel Freund, and the interview with Lucas, conducted by Nick Riotfag.
Since different spellings of “straight edge” have developed over the last twenty-five years—including “Straight Edge,” “straightedge” and the abbreviations “sXe” and “SXE”—the choice was left to the authors. US spelling has been used in general, except for Laura Synthesis’ essay that is kept in British English.
All photographers are listed. Significant contributions have come from Daigo Oliva and Mateus Mondini, two São Paulo based artists who dedicate a lot of their time to documenting the hardcore punk underground. They also issue a photo zine, Fodido e Xerocado. Mateus Mondini founded his own record label, Nada Nada Discos, in 2009.
Working on this volume has been a tremendously encouraging and joyful experience. It has confirmed the perseverance of a vigorous, caring, and inspirational global DIY hardcore movement that retains all of its political promises. The beauty of this movement is, to borrow one of Ian MacKaye’s favorite phrases, no joke. I am tremendously grateful and indebted to everyone who has been involved in this project. While I had the privilege to put it together, it has truly been a collective effort—any editorial mishaps remain of course entirely my responsibility.
When I first planned this book, the idea was to create a valuable resource for a group of people I considered big enough to make such an effort worthwhile: namely, radical straight edge activists. Once the contributions began to trickle in, I realized that the book’s appeal would be much wider and that its audience would extend far beyond this community.
The texts collected here ought to be of interest to anyone fascinated by the history of punk, hardcore, and underground culture; to students of sociology, social movements, and international politics; to seekers, existentialists, and philosophers; to radical activists, no matter their diets or drinking habits, and to sober folks, no matter their cultural adherences.