Prologue: “Why Are All the Black Kids Still Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?” and Other Conversations About Race in the Twenty-First Century
1. Steve Phillips, Brown Is the New White: How the Demographic Revolution Has Created a New American Majority (New York: The New Press, 2016), 7.
2. I am choosing to use the term Latinx, rather than Latino or Latina, as a gender-inclusive, nonbinary way of referring to people of Latin American descent.
3. Marta Tienda, “Diversity as a Strategic Advantage: A Sociodemographic Perspective,” in Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society, ed. Earl Lewis and Nancy Cantor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 204.
4. US Census Bureau, “Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Sex, Age, Race, and Hispanic Origin for the United States and States: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2015,” American FactFinder, May 2015, https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml.
5. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans, June 19, 2012, updated April 4, 2013, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/.
6. Besheer Mohamed, “A New Estimate of the U.S. Muslim Population,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, January 6, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/01/06/a-new-estimate-of-the-u-s-muslim-population/.
7. Pew Research Center, Multiracial in America, June 11, 2015, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/06/11/multiracial-in-america/.
8. Carl Kaestle, “Federalism and Inequality in Education: What Can History Tell Us?,” in The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: Evidence and Perspectives, ed. Irwin Kirsch and Henry Braun (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 2016).
9. Thomas J. Sugrue, “Less Separate, Still Unequal: Diversity and Equality in ‘Post-Civil Rights’ America,” in Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society, ed. Earl Lewis and Nancy Cantor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).
10. For a detailed discussion of the Supreme Court rulings that set the stage for school resegregation, see Beverly Daniel Tatum, “The Resegregation of Our Schools and the Affirmation of Identity,” in Can We Talk About Race? and Other Conversations in an Era of School Resegregation (Boston: Beacon Press, 2007).
11. Gary Orfield et al., Brown at 62: School Segregation by Race, Poverty and State (Los Angeles: Civil Rights Project, University of California at Los Angeles, 2016).
12. Daria Roithmayr, Reproducing Racism: How Everyday Choices Lock In White Advantage (New York: NYU Press, 2014), Kindle edition, location 732.
13. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 53.
14. Ibid., 55.
15. Roithmayr, Reproducing Racism, location 736.
16. National Fair Housing Alliance, Unequal Opportunity—Perpetuating Housing Segregation in America, April 5, 2006, http://nationalfairhousing.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/trends2006.pdf.
17. Douglas S. Massey and Jonathan Tannen, “Segregation, Race and the Social Worlds of Rich and Poor,” in The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: Evidence and Perspectives, ed. Irwin Kirsch and Henry Baum (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 2016).
18. William H. Frey, “The ‘Diversity Explosion’ Is America’s Twenty-First-Century Baby Boom,” in Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society, ed. Earl Lewis and Nancy Cantor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016).
19. Camille Zubrinsky Charles, Won’t You Be My Neighbor? Race, Class and Residence in Los Angeles (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2006).
20. Sugrue, “Less Separate, Still Unequal,” 51.
21. John Iceland, Daniel H. Weinberg, and Erika Steinmetz, “The Residential Segregation of American Indians and Alaska Natives: 1980–2000,” in Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980–2000, US Census Bureau, August 2002, https://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/resseg/pdf/ch3.pdf.
22. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2014), 241.
23. Sugrue, “Less Separate, Still Unequal,” 49.
24. Massey and Tannen, “Segregation, Race and the Social Worlds of Rich and Poor,” 31.
25. Roithmayr, Reproducing Racism, location 916.
26. “Remarks by the President at Howard University Commencement Ceremony” (press release), The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, May 7, 2016, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/05/07/remarks-president-howard-university-commencement-ceremony.
27. Drew DeSilver, “Supreme Court Says States Can Ban Affirmative Action; 8 Already Have,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, April 22, 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/22/supreme-court-says-states-can-ban-affirmative-action-8-already-have/.
28. Brief for 39 Undergraduate and Graduate Student Organizations Within the University of California as Amicus Curiae, Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/14-981_amicus_resp_39UndergraduateandGraduateStudentOrganizations.authcheckdam.pdf.
29. William C. Kidder, “The Salience of Racial Isolation: African Americans’ and Latinos’ Perceptions of Climate and Enrollment Choices with and Without Proposition 209,” Civil Rights Project at UCLA / Proyecto Derechos Civiles, October 2012.
30. Brief for the University of Michigan as Amicus Curiae, Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/FILED-14-981-bsac-U.-Michigan-11-2-15.pdf.
31. Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin, 579 US (2016), https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/15pdf/14-981_4g15.pdf.
32. Barbara Ehrenreich and Dedrick Muhammad, “The Destruction of the Black Middle Class,” Huffington Post, September 3, 2009 (updated May 25, 2011), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/barbara-ehrenreich/the-destruction-of-the-bl_b_250828.html.
33. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey,” retrieved October 7, 2016, https://www.bls.gov/cps/.
34. Anthony Carnevale and Nicole Smith, “The Economic Value of Diversity,” in Our Compelling Interests: The Value of Diversity for Democracy and a Prosperous Society, ed. Earl Lewis and Nancy Cantor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2016), 127.
35. Robert Kelchen, “Financial Need and Aid Volatility Among Students with Zero Expected Family Contribution,” Journal of Student Financial Aid 44, no. 3 (2015): 190, http://publications.nasfaa.org/jsfa/vol44/iss3/2/.
36. Ibid.
37. Hope Yen, “80 Percent of U.S. Adults Face Near-Poverty, Unemployment: Survey,” Huffington Post, July 28, 2013, http://conservativeread.com/80-percent-of-u-s-adults-face-near-poverty-unemployment-survey/.
38. Carol Anderson, White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016).
39. Equal Justice Initiative, Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror (Montgomery, AL: Equal Justice Initiative, 2015).
40. For compelling oral histories of the African American Great Migration and the efforts to circumvent threats of violence and/or imprisonment by White southerners desperate to keep the Black labor force intact, see Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010).
41. Anderson, White Rage, 103.
42. For an in-depth discussion of the strategic use of racism in the form of dog whistle politics, see Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).
43. Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow (New York: The New Press, 2010), 180.
44. The Sentencing Project, Fact Sheet: Incarcerated Women and Girls, November 2015, http://www.sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Incarcerated-Women-and-Girls.pdf.
45. The Sentencing Project, Fact Sheet: Trends in U.S. Corrections, 2016, http://sentencingproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Trends-in-US-Corrections.pdf.
46. Lauren E. Glaze and Laura M. Maruschak, Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, March 30, 2010, https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/pptmc.pdf.
47. Alexander, The New Jim Crow, 58.
48. “Obama’s Victory on Newspaper Front Pages,” Huffington Post, December 6, 2008, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/11/05/obamas-victory-on-newspap_n_141311.html.
49. Susan Page, “Poll: Hopes Are High for Race Relations,” USA Today, weekend edition, November 7–9, 2008, https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2008-11-06-poll_N.htm#.
50. López, Dog Whistle Politics, 150.
51. Anderson, White Rage, 138.
52. Rosalind S. Helderman and Jon Cohen, “As Republican Convention Emphasizes Diversity, Racial Incidents Intrude,” Washington Post, August 29, 2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2012/08/29/b9023a52-f1ec-11e1-892d-bc92fee603a7_story.html.
53. Anderson, White Rage, 150.
54. Voting Rights Act of 1965, Pub. L. 89-110, 79 Stat. 437.
55. Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. (2013), https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/12pdf/12-96_6k47.pdf.
56. Anderson, White Rage, 151.
57. Jane Mayer, “The Voter-Fraud Myth,” New Yorker, October 29, 2012, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2012/10/29/the-voter-fraud-myth.
58. Anderson, White Rage, 152.
59. Ibid.
60. Veasey et al. v. Perry et al., 574 U.S. (2014), Ginsburg, J., dissenting), https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/14pdf/14a393_08m1.pdf.
61. Anderson, White Rage, 153.
62. López, Dog Whistle Politics, 151.
63. Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, “The Data of Hate,” New York Times, July 12, 2014, https://nyti.ms/1kifZ4t.
64. Tina Nguyen, “Suspected Church Shooter Allegedly Said He Wanted to Start a Race War,” Vanity Fair, June 19, 2015, http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2015/06/charleston-church-shooter-confesses-dylan-roof.
65. DBR MTV Bias Survey Full Report II, April 2014, http://www.lookdifferent.org/about-us/research-studies/1-2014-mtv-david-binder-research-study.
66. DBR MTV Bias Survey Summary, April 2014, http://www.lookdifferent.org/about-us/research-studies/1-2014-mtv-david-binder-research-study.
67. Mahzarin. R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald, Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People (New York: Delacorte Press, 2013), Kindle edition, location 3105–3107.
68. “Trayvon Martin Shooting Fast Facts,” CNN.com, http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/05/us/trayvon-martin-shooting-fast-facts/, retrieved October 20, 2016; Dan Barry, Serge F. Kovaleski, Campbell Robertson, and Lizette Alvarez, “Race, Tragedy and Outrage Collide After a Shot in Florida,” New York Times, April 1, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/02/us/trayvon-martin-shooting-prompts-a-review-of-ideals.html.
69. “Statement by the President” (press release), The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, July 14, 2013, https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/07/14/statement-president.
70. Wesley Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All: Ferguson, Baltimore, and a New Era in America’s Racial Justice Movement (New York: Little, Brown & Company, 2016), 169.
71. Collier Meyerson. “The Founders of Black Lives Matter: ‘We Gave Tongue to Something That We All Knew Was Happening,’” Glamour, November 1, 2016, http://www.glamour.com/story/women-of-the-year-black-lives-matter-founders.
72. Jenna Wortham. “Black Tweets Matter,” Smithsonian, September 2016, 22.
73. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016), 151.
74. Nicholas Quah and Laura E. Davis, “Here’s a Timeline of Unarmed Black People Killed by Police over Past Year,” BuzzFeed, May 1, 2015, https://www.buzzfeed.com/nicholasquah/heres-a-timeline-of-unarmed-black-men-killed-by-police-over?utm_term=.mxzKnEJLO#.hypOZzjkd.
75. Joe Coscarelli, “No Charges Against Ohio Police in John Crawford III Walmart Shooting, Despite Damning Security Video,” New York, September 24, 2014, http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2014/09/no-charges-john-crawford-iii-walmart-shooting-video.html.
76. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 154.
77. Ibid., 153.
78. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 27–28.
79. Ibid., 28.
80. Jelani Cobb, “The Matter of Black Lives,” The New Yorker, March 14, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/03/14/where-is-black-lives-matter-headed.
81. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 156.
82. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 186.
83. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 155.
84. Theodore M. Shaw, introduction to The Ferguson Report: Department of Justice Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department, by US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division (New York: The New Press, 2015), ix.
85. US Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, The Ferguson Report: Department of Justice Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department (New York: The New Press, 2015), 2–3.
86. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 44.
87. US Department of Justice, The Ferguson Report, 84.
88. Ibid., 104.
89. Ibid., 52.
90. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 53.
91. US Department of Justice, The Ferguson Report, 47–48.
92. Ibid., 8.
93. Ibid., 102.
94. Ibid., 8.
95. Brad Heath, “Racial Gap in U.S. Arrest Rates: ‘Staggering Disparity,’” USA Today, November 18, 2014, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/11/18/ferguson-black-arrest-rates/19043207/.
96. Matt Zapotowsky, “Justice Department Report Blasts San Francisco Police,” Washington Post, October 12, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/justice-department-report-blasts-san-francisco-police/2016/10/12/becb841c-90a2-11e6-a6a3-d50061aa9fae_story.html.
97. Johnetta Elzie, “‘When I Close My Eyes at Night, I See People Running from Tear Gas,” Ebony, September 8, 2014, http://www.ebony.com/news-views/ferguson-forward-when-i-close-my-eyes-at-night-i-see-people-running-from-tear-ga#ixzz4RSXl9KJj.
98. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 159.
99. Ibid., 160–161.
100. Joel Anderson, “Ferguson’s Angry Young Men,” BuzzFeed, August 22, 2014, https://www.buzzfeed.com/joelanderson/who-are-fergusons-young-protesters?utm_term=.mvqJZa3Wm#.ee3apJ4dO.
101. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 169.
102. Ibid., 162.
103. Ibid., 170.
104. Ibid., 173.
105. Noah Bertlatsky, “Hashtag Activism Isn’t a Cop-Out,” The Atlantic, January 7, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/01/not-just-hashtag-activism-why-social-media-matters-to-protestors/384215/.
106. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 74.
107. “Why Freddie Gray Ran,” Baltimore Sun, April 25, 2015, http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/editorial/bs-ed-freddie-gray-20150425-story.html.
108. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 167.
109. Taylor, From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation, 176.
110. Ibid., 165.
111. Ibid.
112. Ibid., 166.
113. Cobb, “The Matter of Black Lives.”
114. Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw and Andrea J. Ritchie, Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women (New York: African American Policy Forum, July 2015), http://static1.squarespace.com/static/53f20d90e4b0b80451158d8c/t/560c068ee4b0af26f72741df/1443628686535/AAPF_SMN_Brief_Full_singles-min.pdf.
115. Ibid., 11.
116. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 208.
117. Beth McMurtrie, “I Believe I Can Leave This Place Better Than I Found It,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 3, 2016, http://www.chronicle.com/article/What-Its-Like-to-Be-Black-at/234771.
118. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 208–209.
119. Ibid., 211.
120. McMurtrie, “I Believe I Can Leave This Place Better Than I Found It.”
121. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 212.
122. Emma Vandelinder, “Racial Climate at MU: A Timeline of Incidents This Fall,” Columbia Missourian, November 6, 2015 (updated November 9, 2015), http://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/higher_education/racial-climate-at-mu-a-timeline-of-incidents-this-fall/article_0c96f986-84c6-11e5-a38f-2bd0aab0bf74.html.
123. Ibid.
124. Lowery, They Can’t Kill Us All, 214.
125. Vandelinder, “Racial Climate at MU.”
126. Sarah Brown, “Activist Group Unites via Social Media,” Chronicle of Higher Education, April 10, 2016, http://www.chronicle.com/article/Activist-Group-Unites-via/235993.
127. We the Protesters, The Demands, http://www.thedemands.org.
128. Hollie Chessman and Lindsay Wayt, “What Are Students Demanding?,” Higher Education Today, American Council on Education, January 13, 2016, https://higheredtoday.org/2016/01/13/what-are-students-demanding/.
129. Vandelinder, “Racial Climate at MU.”
130. Lorelle Espinosa, Hollie Chessman, and Lindsay Wayt, “Racial Climate on Campus: A Survey of College Presidents,” Higher Education Today, http://higheredtoday.org/2016/03/08/racial-climate-on-campus-a-survey-of-college-presidents/.
131. McMurtrie, “I Believe I Can Leave This Place Better Than I Found It.”
132. Robert P. Jones, “Self-Segregation: Why It’s So Hard for Whites to Understand Ferguson,” The Atlantic, August 21, 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2014/08/self-segregation-why-its-hard-for-whites-to-understand-ferguson/378928/.
133. Marcia Chatelain, “What Mizzou Taught Me,” Chronicle of Higher Education, November 12, 2015, http://www.chronicle.com/article/What-Mizzou-Taught-Me/234180.
134. Stephanie Woodard, “The Police Killings No One Is Talking About: A Special Investigation,” In These Times, October 17, 2016, http://inthesetimes.com/features/native_american_police_killings_native_lives_matter.html.
135. Ibid.
136. For more information, see Lakota People’s Law Project, Native Lives Matter, February 2015, http://www.docs.lakotalaw.org/reports/Native%20Lives%20Matter%20PDF.pdf.
137. Woodard, “The Police Killings No One Is Talking About.”
138. Chessman and Wayt, “What Are Students Demanding?”
139. Amherst College Demands, November 12, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.thedemands.org/.
140. Cullen Murphy, “Home: Some Thoughts on the Frost Library Protest,” Amherst magazine, August 1, 2016, https://www.amherst.edu/amherst-story/magazine/issues/2016-summer/home.
141. Ibid.
142. Amherst Uprising, “A Letter of Clarification for Amherst Alumni, Family, and Friends,” November 15, 2015, http://amherstuprising.com/demands.html.
143. Murphy, “Home.”
144. Biddy Martin, “President Martin’s Statement on Campus Protests,” November 15, 2015, https://www.amherst.edu/amherst-story/president/statements/node/620480.
145. Amherst Uprising, “A Letter of Clarification.”
146. Murphy, “Home.”
147. Derald Wing Sue, Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation (New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2010), 5.
148. Michael Luo, “An Open Letter to the Woman Who Told My Family to Go Back to China,” New York Times, October 10, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/10/nyregion/to-the-woman-who-told-my-family-to-go-back-to-china.html.
149. Michael Luo, “‘Go Back to China’: Readers Respond to Racist Insults shouted at a New York Times Editor,” New York Times, October 10, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/11/nyregion/go-back-to-china-readers-respond-to-racist-insults-shouted-at-a-new-york-times-editor.html.
150. Sue, Microaggressions in Everyday Life, 6.
151. “Here’s Donald Trump’s Presidential Announcement Speech,” Time.com, June 16, 2015, http://time.com/3923128/donald-trump-announcement-speech/.
152. Ashley Parker and Steve Eder, “Inside the Six Weeks Donald Trump Was a Nonstop ‘Birther,’” New York Times, July 2, 2016, http://nyti.ms/29o4pbq.
153. Donald Trump, “Full Text: Donald Trump 2016 RNC Draft Speech Transcript, July 21, 2016,” Politico, http://www.politico.com/story/2016/07/full-transcript-donald-trump-nomination-acceptance-speech-at-rnc-225974.
154. Nicholas Confessore, “For Whites Sensing Decline, Donald Trump Unleashes Words of Resistance,” New York Times, July 13, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/14/us/politics/donald-trump-white-identity.html.
155. Ibid.
156. Ibid.
157. Ibid.
158. “Alternative Right,” Southern Poverty Law Center, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/ideology/alternative-right.
159. “‘New York Times’ Executive Editor on the New Terrain of Covering Trump,” Fresh Air, NPR, December 8, 2016, http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=504806512.
160. Joseph Goldstein, “Alt-Right Gathering Exults in Trump Election with Nazi-Era Salute,” New York Times, November 20, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/us/alt-right-salutes-donald-trump.html.
161. Confessore, “For Whites Sensing Decline, Donald Trump Unleashes Words of Resistance.”
162. Jenna Johnson, “Inside Donald Trump’s Strategic Decision to Target Muslims,” Washington Post, June 21, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/inside-donald-trumps-strategic-decision-to-target-muslims/2016/06/20/d506411e-3241-11e6-8758-d58e76e11b12_story.html.
163. Robert Samuels, “Donald Trump Keeps Attacking Muslims. They Plan to Fight Back at the Ballot Box,” Washington Post, June 15, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/election-rhetoric-spurs-political-awakening-among-muslims-in-new-jersey/2016/06/14/01734464-3237-11e6-8ff7-7b6c1998b7a0_story.html.
164. Johnson, “Inside Donald Trump’s Strategic Decision to Target Muslims.”
165. Jenna Johnson, “Donald Trump to African American and Hispanic Voters: ‘What Do You Have to Lose?’,” Washington Post, August 22, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2016/08/22/donald-trump-to-african-american-and-hispanic-voters-what-do-you-have-to-lose/.
166. Dara Lind, “The Problem with Violence at Trump Rallies Starts with Trump Himself,” Vox, March 13, 2016, http://www.vox.com/2016/3/11/11202540/trump-violent.
167. Carl Bialik, “How the Republican Field Dwindled from 17 to Donald Trump,” FiveThirtyEight, May 5, 2016, http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-the-republican-field-dwindled-from-17-to-donald-trump/.
168. Jelani Cobb, “After Dallas, the Future of Black Lives Matter,” The New Yorker, July 10, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/after-dallas-the-future-of-black-lives-matters.
169. Richard Fausset, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Campbell Robertson, “Alton Sterling Shooting in Baton Rouge Prompts Justice Dept. Investigation,” New York Times, July 6, 2016, http://nyti.ms/29xqUea.
170. Christina Capecchi and Mitch Smith, “Officer Who Shot Philando Castile Is Charged with Manslaughter,” New York Times, November 16, 2016, http://nyti.ms/2eGcSf4.
171. Manny Fernandez, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Jonah Engel Bromwich, “Five Dallas Officers Were Killed as Payback, Police Chief Says,” New York Times, July 8, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/09/us/dallas-police-shooting.html.
172. Lizette Alvarez and Richard Pérez-Peña, “Orlando Gunman Attacks Gay Nightclub, Leaving 50 Dead,” New York Times, June 12, 2016, http://nyti.ms/28u5TJ6.
173. Amy Chozick, “Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump Strike Different Tones After Dallas Shooting,” New York Times, July 8, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/09/us/politics/clinton-trump-shooting-reaction.html.
174. Jelani Cobb, “Honoring the Police and Their Victims,” The New Yorker, July 25, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/07/25/baton-rouge-st-paul-and-dallas.
175. Cobb, “After Dallas, the Future of Black Lives Matter.”
176. Cobb, “Honoring the Police and Their Victims.”
177. Timothy Williams and Michael Wines, “Shootings Further Divide a Nation Torn over Race,” New York Times, July 8, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/09/us/shootings-further-divide-a-nation-torn-over-race.html.
178. Trump, “Full Text: Donald Trump 2016 RNC Draft Speech Transcript.”
179. Cobb, “Honoring the Police and Their Victims.”
180. Trump, “Full Text: Donald Trump 2016 RNC Draft Speech Transcript.”
181. Danielle Kurtzleben et al., “FACT CHECK: Hillary Clinton’s Speech to the Democratic Convention, Annotated,” July 28, 2016, http://www.npr.org/2016/07/28/487817725/fact-check-hillary-clintons-speech-to-the-democratic-convention-annotated.
182. David A. Fahrenthold, “Trump Recorded Having Extremely Lewd Conversation About Women in 2005,” Washington Post, October 8, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-recorded-having-extremely-lewd-conversation-about-women-in-2005/2016/10/07/3b9ce776-8cb4-11e6-bf8a-3d26847eeed4_story.html.
183. Aaron Blake, “Three Dozen Republicans Have Now Called for Trump to Drop Out,” Washington Post, October 9, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/10/07/the-gops-brutal-responses-to-the-new-trump-video-broken-down/.
184. Sam Frizell, “FBI Director James Comey Under Fire After Hillary Clinton Email Investigation Announcement,” Time, October 29, 2016, http://time.com/4550453/hillary-clinton-james-comey-fbi-emails/.
185. Matt Apuzzo, Michael S. Schmidt, and Adam Goldman, “Emails Warrant No New Action Against Hillary Clinton, F.B.I. Director Says,” New York Times, November 6, 2016, http://nyti.ms/2edtN8v.
186. “Presidential Election Results: Donald J. Trump Wins,” New York Times, December 8, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/elections/results/president.
187. Alec Tyson and Shiva Maniam, “Behind Trump’s Victory: Divisions by Race, Gender, Education,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, November 9, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/09/behind-trumps-victory-divisions-by-race-gender-education/.
188. Laura Morgan Roberts and Robin J. Ely, “Why Did So Many White Women Vote for Donald Trump?,” Fortune, November 17, 2016, http://fortune.com/2016/11/17/donald-trump-women-voters-election/.
189. Sheryl Estrada, “CNN’s Van Jones: ‘White-lash’ Against a Changing U.S. Led to Trump’s Win,” DiversityInc, November 10, 2016, http://www.diversityinc.com/news/cnns-van-jones-white-lash-changing-u-s-led-trumps-win/.
190. Jeffrey Toobin, “The Real Voting Scandal of 2016,” The New Yorker, December 12, 2016, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/12/12/the-real-voting-scandal-of-2016.
191. Ari Berman, “The GOP War on Voting,” Rolling Stone, August 30, 2011, http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-gop-war-on-voting-20110830.
192. Ari Berman, “Did Republicans Rig the Election?,” The Nation, November 15, 2016. https://www.thenation.com/article/did-republicans-rig-the-election/.
193. Ari Berman, “The GOP’s Attack on Voting Rights Was the Most Under-Covered Story of 2016,” The Nation, November 9, 2016, https://www.thenation.com/article/the-gops-attack-on-voting-rights-was-the-most-under-covered-story-of-2016/.
194. Toobin, “The Real Voting Scandal of 2016.”
195. Alan Rappeport and Noah Weiland, “White Nationalists Celebrate ‘an Awakening’ After Donald Trump’s Victory,” New York Times, November 19, 2016, http://nyti.ms/2fc6vve.
196. Caitlin Dickerson and Stephanie Saul, “Campuses Confront Hostile Acts Against Minorities After Donald Trump’s Election,” New York Times, November 10, 2016, http://nyti.ms/2eFAM5v.
197. Southern Poverty Law Center, Ten Days After: Harassment and Intimidation in the Aftermath of the Election (November 2016), https://www.splcenter.org/sites/default/files/com_hate_incidents_report_final.pdf.
198. Ibid., 4.
199. Ibid., 6.
200. Nadia Dreid and Shannon Najambadi, “Here’s a Rundown of the Latest Campus-Climate Incidents Since Trump’s Election,” Chronicle of Higher Education, December 6, 2016, http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/ticker/heres-a-rundown-of-the-latest-campus-climate-incidents-since-trumps-election/.
201. Sarah Maslin Nir, “Finding Hate Crimes on the Rise, Leaders Condemn Vicious Acts,” New York Times, December 5, 2016, http://nyti.ms/2h9hmYg.
202. Ibid.
203. Southern Poverty Law Center, Ten Days After, 5.
204. Alan Rappeport, “Civil Rights Groups Call on Trump to Denounce Racism of Alt-Right,” New York Times, November 21, 2016, http://mobile.nytimes.com/2016/11/21/us/politics/alt-right-trump.html.
205. Southern Poverty Law Center, Ten Days After, 5.
206. Ari Berman, “Jeff Sessions, Trump’s Pick for Attorney General, Is a Fierce Opponent of Civil Rights,” The Nation, November 18, 2016, https://www.thenation.com/article/jeff-sessions-trumps-pick-for-attorney-general-is-a-fierce-opponent-of-civil-rights/.
207. Eric Lichtblau, “Jeff Sessions, as Attorney General, Could Overhaul Department He’s Skewered,” New York Times, November 18, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/19/us/politics/jeff-sessions-donald-trump-attorney-general.html.
208. Katherine Mangan, “With Trump’s Rise, Undocumented Students Fear for Their Futures,” Chronicle of Higher Education, November 11, 2016, http://www.chronicle.com/article/With-Trump-s-Rise/238387.
209. Immaculée Ilibagiza, Left to Tell: Discovering God Amidst the Rwandan Holocaust (Carlsbad, CA: Hay House, 2006).
Introduction: A Psychologist’s Perspective
1. J. H. Katz, White Awareness: Handbook for Anti-Racism Training (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1978). A revised and expanded edition was released in 2003.
2. For more information about the Psychology of Racism course, see Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Talking About Race, Learning About Racism: An Application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the Classroom,” Harvard Educational Review 62, no. 1 (1992): 1–24.
3. For a description of the professional development course for educators, see Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “White Educators as Allies: Moving from Awareness to Action,” in Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society, ed. Michelle Fine, Lois Weis, Linda Powell Pruitt, and April Burns (New York: Routledge, 2004), 362–372.
4. Tatum, “Talking About Race, Learning About Racism.”
5. I was honored to serve as president of Spelman College, the oldest historically Black college for women in the United States, from 2002 to 2015; however, I did not teach any courses there.
Chapter 1: Defining Racism
1. C. O’Toole, “The Effect of the Media and Multicultural Education on Children’s Perceptions of Native Americans” (senior thesis, Department of Psychology and Education, Mount Holyoke College, 1990).
2. For an extended discussion of this point, see David Wellman, “Prejudiced People Are Not the Only Racists in America,” chap. 1 in Portraits of White Racism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 1–44. A second edition was published in 1993. See also Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, “The Strange Enigma of Race in Contemporary America,” chap. 1 in Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2013), 1–24.
3. For specific statistical information, see Tim Sullivan et al., State of the Dream 2012: The Emerging Majority (United for a Fair Economy, 2012), http://www.faireconomy.org/dream12. It measures the impacts of the past thirty years of public policy on the racial divide and offers thirty-year projections, from 2012 to 2042, based on data trends since the Reagan presidency.
4. Peggy McIntosh, “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” Peace and Freedom, July/August 1989, 10–12. Now available at http://nationalseedproject.org/peggy-mcintosh-s-white-privilege-papers.
5. For further discussion of the concept of “belief in a just world,” see Melvin Lerner, “Social Psychology of Justice and Interpersonal Attraction,” in Foundations of Interpersonal Attraction, ed. Ted L. Huston (New York: Academic Press, 1974), 331–351.
6. For a brief historical overview of the institutionalization of racism and sexism in our legal system, see “Part VII: How It Happened: Race and Gender Issues in U.S. Law,” in Race, Class, and Gender in the United States: An Integrated Study, 9th ed., ed. Paula S. Rothenberg (New York: Worth Publishers, 2014). See also Daria Roithmayr, Reproducing Racism: How Everyday Choices Lock In White Advantage (New York: New York University Press, 2014).
7. Phyllis A. Wentworth, “The Identity Development of Non-Traditionally Aged First-Generation Women College Students: An Exploratory Study” (master’s thesis, Department of Psychology and Education, Mount Holyoke College, 1994).
8. Ta-Nehisi Coates, Between the World and Me (New York: Penguin Random House, 2015), 144.
9. Walter L. Updegrave, “Race and Money,” Money, December 1989, 152–172.
10. See Ani Turner, The Business Case for Racial Equity, (Battle Creek, MI: W. K. Kellogg Foundation and Altarum Institute, 2013), http://www.wkkf.org/resource-directory/resource/2013/10/the-business-case-for-racial-equity.
11. For further discussion of the impact of racism on Whites, see Benjamin P. Bowser and Raymond G. Hunt, eds., Impacts of Racism on White Americans, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996); Joseph Barndt, Understanding and Dismantling Racism: The Twenty-First Century Challenge to White America (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007); Paul Kivel, Uprooting Racism: How White People Can Work for Racial Justice, 3rd ed. (Philadelphia: New Society Publishers, 2011); and Jim Wallis, America’s Original Sin: Racism, White Privilege, and a Bridge to a New America (Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos Press, 2016).
12. Wendell Berry, The Hidden Wound (San Francisco: North Point Press, 1989), 3–4.
13. It is important to note here that these groups are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, people of Latin American descent may have European, African, and Native American ancestors. The politics of racial categorization has served to create artificial boundaries between groups with shared ancestry.
14. It is difficult to know which is the preferred term because different subgroups have different preferences that may change over time. According to Amado Padilla, younger US-born, university-educated individuals of Mexican ancestry prefer Chicano/a to Mexican American or Hispanic. On the other hand, Latino/a is preferred by others of Mexican ancestry or other Latin American origin. Those of Cuban ancestry may prefer Cuban American to Latino, whereas recent immigrants from Central America would rather be identified by their nationality (e.g., Guatematecos or Salvadoreños). See Amado Padilla, ed., Hispanic Psychology (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
15. For an expanded discussion of the social construction of race, see Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2015).
16. Pierre L. van den Berghe, Race and Racism: A Comparative Perspective (New York: Wiley, 1967).
17. See Richard Alba, Ethnic Identity: The Transformation of White America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).
18. In the year 2000 the US Census Bureau began allowing people to choose more than one racial category to describe themselves. For a discussion of the census classification debate that led to the policy change and the history of racial classification in the United States, see Lawrence Wright, “One Drop of Blood,” The New Yorker, July 25, 1994, 46–55.
Chapter 2: The Complexity of Identity
1. See Charles Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Scribner, 1922). George H. Mead expanded on this idea in his book Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934).
2. Abigail J. Stewart and Joseph M. Healy, “Linking Individual Development and Social Changes,” American Psychologist 44, no. 1 (1989): 30–42.
3. Erik. H. Erikson, Identity, Youth, and Crisis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1968), 22.
4. For a discussion of the Western biases in the concept of the self and individual identity, see Alan Roland, “Identity, Self, and Individualism in a Multicultural Perspective,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective, ed. Elizabeth Pathy Salett and Diane R. Koslow (Washington, DC: National MultiCultural Institute, 1994), 11–23.
5. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi, eds., Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity (New York: Routledge, 1996).
6. Ibid., xi.
7. Anti-Semitism is a term commonly used to describe the oppression of Jewish people. However, other Semitic peoples (Arab Muslims, for example) are also subject to oppressive treatment on the basis of ethnicity as well as religion. For that reason, the terms Jewish oppression and Arab oppression are sometimes used to specify the particular form of oppression under discussion.
8. Audre Lorde, “Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference,” in Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches (Freedom, CA: Crossing Press, 1984), 115.
9. Jean Baker Miller, “Domination and Subordination,” in Toward a New Psychology of Women (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 3–9.
10. Ibid., 8.
11. Valerie Adams-Bass, Keisha L. Bentley-Edwards, and Howard C. Stevenson, “That’s Not Me I See on TV… : African American Youth Interpret Media Images of Black Females,” Women, Gender and Families of Color 2, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 79–100.
12. Susan T. Fiske, “Controlling Other People: The Impact of Power on Stereotyping,” American Psychologist 48, no. 6 (1993): 624.
13. Richard Wright, “The Ethics of Living Jim Crow: An Autobiographical Sketch,” in Uncle Tom’s Children (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938; New York: HarperCollins, 2009), Kindle edition, location 401.
14. An article in the popular weekly magazine People chronicled the close encounters of famous Black men with White police officers. Despite their fame, these men were treated as potential criminals. Highlighted in the article is the story of Jonny Gammage, who was beaten to death by White police officers in 1995 following a routine traffic stop in Pittsburgh. Thomas Fields-Meyer, “Under Suspicion,” People, January 15, 1996, 40–47, http://people.com/archive/under-suspicion-vol-45-no-2/. These incidents are strikingly similar to some of the twenty-first-century examples provided in the prologue of this book.
15. Miller, “Domination and Subordination,” 10.
16. Herbert Kohl, “I Won’t Learn from You,” in I Won’t Learn from You, and Other Thoughts on Creative Maladjustment, 2nd ed. (New York: The New Press, 1995), 6.
17. Miller, “Domination and Subordination,” 12.
18. Audre Lorde, “There Is No Hierarchy of Oppression,” in I Am Your Sister: Collected and Unpublished Writings of Audre Lorde, ed. Rudolph P. Byrd, Johnnetta Betsch Cole, and Beverly Guy-Sheftall (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 219–220.
Chapter 3: The Early Years
1. For an in-depth discussion of preschool children’s recognition and understanding of racial differences, see Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie Olsen Edwards, “Learning About Racial Identity and Fairness,” chap. 7 in Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves, (Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2010), 77–89.
2. For an expanded discussion of the role of Black families in the positive socialization of their children, see Beverly Daniel Tatum, Assimilation Blues: Black Families in a White Community (New York: Basic Books, 1999).
3. See Patricia G. Ramsey, “The Context of Race,” in Teaching and Learning in a Diverse World: Multicultural Education for Young Children, 4th ed. (New York: Teachers College Press, 2015), Kindle edition, locations 1684–2073.
4. For other examples of good responses to preschoolers’ questions, order the helpful brochure “Teaching Young Children to Resist Bias: What Parents Can Do,” available from the National Association for the Education of Young Children, https://store.naeyc.org/store/teaching-young-children-resist-bias-what-parents-can-do. The flyers are very inexpensive and can be ordered in bulk to be given to parents at school meetings and other educational forums. They are also available in Spanish.
5. In terms of Piaget’s model of cognitive development, preschool children are considered to be in the preoperational stage. For more information about the preoperational stage as it relates to children’s understanding of racial and other forms of difference, see Ramsey, Teaching and Learning in a Diverse World. For a clear discussion of the cognitive characteristics of children at various stages of development, see Barry J. Wadsworth, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development: Foundations of Constructivism, 5th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2003).
6. Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Teachers in Transition: The Impact of Anti-Racist Professional Development on Classroom Practice,” Teachers College Record 99 (Fall 1997), 169.
7. Faith Ringgold, Aunt Harriet’s Underground Railroad in the Sky (New York: Crown, 1992).
8. Jeanette Winter, Follow the Drinking Gourd (New York: Dragonfly Books, 1988).
9. See Louise Derman-Sparks, Carol Tanaka Higa, and Bill Sparks, “Children, Race, and Racism: How Race Awareness Develops,” Interracial Books for Children Bulletin 11, no. 3–4 (1980), 6, https://www.teachingforchange.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/ec_childrenraceracism_english.pdf.
10. Ibid.
11. For a more in-depth discussion of the impact of colorism, see Kathy Russell, Midge Wilson, and Ronald Hall, The Color Complex (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992). See also David Knight, “What’s Colorism?,” Teaching Tolerance, no. 51 (Fall 2015), http://www.tolerance.org/magazine/number-51-fall-2015/feature/what-s-colorism.
12. Nancy Boyd-Franklin, Black Families in Therapy: A Multisystems Approach (New York: Guilford, 1989), 34.
13. bell hooks, Sisters of the Yam: Black Women and Self-Recovery (Boston: South End Press, 1993), 95.
14. John Steptoe, Mufaro’s Beautiful Daughters: An African Tale (New York: Scholastic, 1989).
15. The first book in this series by Gertrude Chandler Warner is The Boxcar Children (Niles, IL: Albert Whitman, 1942). Other books in the series include Surprise Island, The Yellow House Mystery, Mystery Ranch, and many others.
16. Janie Victoria Ward, “Raising Resisters: The Role of Truth Telling in the Psychological Development of African-American Girls,” in Urban Girls: Resisting Stereotypes, Creating Identities, ed. Bonnie J. Ross Leadbeater and Niobe Way (New York: New York University Press, 1996), 85–99. See also Janie Victoria Ward, “Uncovering Truths, Recovering Lives,” in Urban Girls Revisited: Building Strengths, ed. Bonnie J. Ross Leadbeater and Niobe Way (New York: New York University Press, 2007), 190–207.
17. For a useful set of guidelines for analysis of media, see Council on Interracial Books for Children, “Ten Quick Ways to Analyze Children’s Books for Racism and Sexism,” in Rethinking Our Classrooms, vol. 1, rev. ed., (Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools, 2007), 10–11.
18. Derman-Sparks and Edwards, “Learning About Racial Identity and Fairness.”
19. “Kids Pluck Arrow from Pilgrim’s Hat,” United Press International, November 23, 1989, http://www.upi.com/Archives/1989/11/23/kids-pluck-arow-from-Pilgrims-hat/4156627800400.
20. Louise Derman-Sparks and the ABC Task Force, Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children (Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1989), 77.
Chapter 4: Identity Development in Adolescence
1. James E. Marcia, “Development and Validation of Ego Identity Status,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3, no. 5 (1966), 551–558.
2. For a review of the research on ethnic identity in adolescents, see Jean S. Phinney, “Ethnic Identity in Adolescents and Adults: Review of Research,” Psychological Bulletin 108, no. 3 (1990): 499–514. See also “Part I: Identity Development” in Urban Girls: Resisting Stereotypes, Creating Identities, ed. Bonnie J. Ross Leadbeater and Niobe Way (New York: New York University Press, 1996). See also Sabine Elizabeth French et al., “The Development of Ethnic Identity During Adolescence,” Developmental Psychology 42, no.1 (2006): 1–10.
3. William E. Cross Jr., Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American Identity (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991).
4. William E. Cross and T. Binta Cross, “Theory, Research, and Models,” in Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child, ed. Stephen M. Quintana and Clark McKown (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons, 2008), 156.
5. Ibid., 158.
6. Ibid., 156.
7. For an expanded discussion of “race-conscious” parenting, see Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Making Choices,” chap. 6 in Assimilation Blues: Black Families in a White Community (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 111–130.
8. Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor et al., “Ethnic and Racial Identity During Adolescence and into Young Adulthood: An Integrated Conceptualization,” Child Development 85, no. 1 (2014): 21–39.
9. Ibid., 27.
10. Jean S. Phinney and Steve Tarver, “Ethnic Identity Search and Commitment in Black and White Eighth Graders,” Journal of Early Adolescence 8, no. 3 (1988): 265–77. See also French et al., “The Development of Ethnic Identity During Adolescence.”
11. Umaña-Taylor et al., “Ethnic and Racial Identity During Adolescence and into Young Adulthood.”
12. See Beverly Daniel Tatum, “African-American Identity, Academic Achievement, and Missing History,” Social Education 56, no. 6 (1992): 331–334; Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Racial Identity and Relational Theory: The Case of Black Women in White Communities,” Work in Progress, no. 63 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Papers, 1992); Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Out There Stranded? Black Youth in White Communities,” in Black Families, 3rd ed., ed. Harriet Pipes McAdoo (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 214–233.
13. For an in-depth discussion of the negative effects of tracking in schools, see Jeannie Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985). See also Sonali Kholi, “Modern-Day Segregation in Public Schools,” The Atlantic, November 18, 2014, http://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2014/11/modern-day-segregation-in-public-schools/382846/.
14. Roslyn Arlin Mickelson and Anne E. Velasco, “Bring It On! Diverse Responses to ‘Acting White’ Among Academically Able Black Adolescents,” chap. 1 in Beyond Acting White: Reassessments and New Directions in Research on Black Students and School Success, ed. Erin McNamara Horvat and Carla O’Connor (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2006), 27–57.
15. Catherine E. Lhamon, “Dear Colleague Letter: Resource Comparability,” version 1.02, October 10, 2014, US Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights. http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-resourcecomp-201410.pdf.
16. For further discussion of the social dynamics for Black youth in White communities, see Tatum, “Out There Stranded?”
17. Leadbeater and Way, Urban Girls, 5. See also Bonnie J. Ross Leadbeater and Niobe Way, eds., Urban Girls Revisited: Building Strengths (New York: New York University Press, 2007).
18. Valerie Adams-Bass, Keisha L. Bentley-Edwards, and Howard C. Stevenson, “That’s Not Me I See on TV… : African American Youth Interpret Media Images of Black Females,” Women, Gender and Families of Color 2, no. 1 (Spring 2014): 81.
19. Ibid., 88.
20. Ibid., 90.
21. Lawrence Otis Graham, “I Taught My Black Kids That Their Elite Upbringing Would Protect Them from Discrimination. I Was Wrong,” Washington Post, November 6, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2014/11/06/i-taught-my-black-kids-that-their-elite-upbringing-would-protect-them-from-discrimination-i-was-wrong/.
22. Malcolm X with Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1965), 36.
23. William E. Cross Jr., “The Psychology of Nigrescence: Revising the Cross Model,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, ed. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995), 93–122.
24. See page 25 for a discussion of the Trayvon Martin case. Jordan Davis was a seventeen-year-old teenager who was shot and killed by Michael Dunn, a forty-seven-year-old White man, at a Jacksonville, Florida, gas station on November 23, 2012. Dunn told Davis and his friends in the car that they were playing their music too loud. Words were exchanged between Dunn and the teens inside the car, and Dunn responded by shooting ten shots into the car, killing Davis. The shots missed the other passengers. The case took on additional national significance because it occurred just a few months after the killing of Trayvon Martin. Unlike George Zimmerman, the man who shot Trayvon Martin, Michael Dunn was eventually convicted of first-degree murder for the killing of Jordan Davis.
25. Mary Madden et al., Teens and Technology 2013, Pew Research Center, March 13, 2013, http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/03/13/teens-and-technology-2013/.
26. Brendesha M. Tynes, “Online Racial Discrimination: A Growing Problem for Adolescents,” Science Brief. Psychological Science Agenda, December 2015, http://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2015/12/online-racial-discrimination.aspx.
27. Ibid.
28. Susan Svrluga, “Black UPenn Freshmen Added to Racist Social Media Account with ‘Daily Lynching’ Calendar,” Washington Post, November 11, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/grade-point/wp/2016/11/11/black-upenn-freshmen-added-to-racist-social-media-account-with-daily-lynching-calendar/.
29. Tynes, “Online Racial Discrimination.”
30. Signithia Fordham and John U. Ogbu, “Black Students’ School Success: Coping with the Burden of ‘Acting White,’” Urban Review 18 (1986): 176–206.
31. Ibid., 181.
32. Ivory A. Toldson, “The ‘Acting White’ Theory Doesn’t Add Up,” The Root, January 30, 2013, http://www.theroot.com/articles/politics/2013/01/acting_white_theory_black_academic_achievement_based_on_other_factors/.
33. Brian K. Bridges, Janet T. Awokoya, and Frances Messano, Done to Us, Not with Us: African American Parent Perceptions of K–12 Education (Washington, DC: Frederick Patterson Research Institute, United Negro College Fund), https://www.uncf.org/pages/FDPRI-Reports.
34. Renee Stepler, “Hispanic, Black Parents See College Degree as Key for Children’s Success,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, February 24, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/02/24/hispanic-black-parents-see-college-degree-as-key-for-childrens-success/.
35. Karolyn Tyson, William Darity Jr., and Domini R. Castellino, “It’s Not ‘A Black Thing’: Understanding the Burden of Acting White and Other Dilemmas of High Achievement,” American Sociological Review 70, no. 4 (August 2005): 582–605.
36. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!”
37. Karolyn Tyson, “The Making of a ‘Burden’: Tracing the Development of a ‘Burden of Acting White’ in Schools,” in Horvat and O’Connor, Beyond Acting White, 61.
38. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!,” 41.
39. Tyson, “The Making of a ‘Burden,’” 85.
40. Ibid.
41. Signithia Fordham, “Racelessness as a Factor in Black Students’ School Success: Pragmatic Strategy or Pyrrhic Victory?” Harvard Educational Review 58, no. 1 (1988): 54–84.
42. Graham, “I Taught My Black Kids That Their Elite Upbringing Would Protect Them from Discrimination. I Was Wrong.”
43. For further discussion of this point, see Richard L. Zweigenhaft and G. William Domhoff, Blacks in the White Establishment? A Study of Race and Class in America (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 155.
44. Ibid.
45. Mickelson and Velasco, “Bring It On!,” 42.
46. Lori A. Barker, “Presidents, Stereotypes, and Prototypes, Oh My!: Understanding the Psychological Impact of Obama,” in Obama on Our Minds: The Impact of Obama on the Psyche of America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 17.
47. Hollie Chessman and Lindsay Wayt, “What Are Students Demanding?,” Higher Education Today, January 13, 2016, https://higheredtoday.org/2016/01/13/what-are-students-demanding/.
48. Chester Pierce, “Mundane Extreme Environment and Its Effects on Learning,” in Learning Disabilities: Issues and Recommendations for Research, ed. Suzanne Gage Brainard (Washington, DC: National Institute of Education, 1975), 111–118.
49. Daphna Oyserman, Daniel Brickman, and Marjorie Rhodes, “Racial-Ethnic Identity: Content and Consequences for African American, Latino and Latina Youths,” in Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities: Social Categories, Social Identities, and Educational Participation, ed. Andrew J. Fuligni (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2007), 91–114.
50. See Mary C. Waters, “The Intersection of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in Identity Development of Caribbean American Teens,” in Leadbeater and Way, Urban Girls, 65–84. See also Sherri-Ann P. Butterfield, “To Be Young, Gifted, Black, and Somewhat Foreign: The Role of Ethnicity in Black Student Achievement,” in Horvat O’Connor, Beyond Acting White, 133–155.
51. Tina Q. Richardson et al., “African and Afro-Caribbean American Identity Development,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 232.
52. Waters, “The Intersection of Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in Identity Development of Caribbean American Teens.”
53. The METCO program was established in 1966 under the state’s Racial Imbalance Act, passed by the Massachusetts General Court in 1965. METCO was established to provide (1) the opportunity for an integrated public school education for urban Black children and other children of color from racially imbalanced schools in Boston by placing them in suburban schools, (2) a new learning experience for suburban children, and (3) a closer understanding and cooperation between urban and suburban parents and other citizens in the Boston metropolitan area. Thirty-four suburban communities participate in the METCO program.
54. For a more complete description of the program and its evaluation, see B. D. Tatum et al., “Student Efficacy Training: An Evaluation of One Middle School’s Programmatic Response to the Eastern Massachusetts Initiative” (presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, April 9, 1996).
55. Claude M. Steele, “Thin Ice: Stereotype Threat and Black College Students,” Atlantic Monthly, August 1999, 44–54.
56. Geoffrey L. Cohen and Claude M. Steele, “A Barrier of Mistrust: How Negative Stereotypes Affect Cross-Race Mentoring,” in Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education, ed. Joshua Aronson (San Diego, CA: Academic, 2002).
57. Claude M. Steele, Whistling Vivaldi and Other Clues to How Stereotypes Affect Us (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2010).
58. Catherine Good, Carol S. Dweck, and Joshua Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories,” in Fuligni, Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities, 115–135.
59. Ibid.
60. Claude M. Steele, “Stereotype Threat and African-American Student Achievement,” in Young, Gifted and Black: Promoting High Achievement Among African-American Students, ed. Theresa Perry, Claude Steele, and Asa Hilliard III (Boston: Beacon Press, 2003), 121.
61. Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African-Americans,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797–811.
62. Good, Dweck, and Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories.”
63. Ibid.
64. Spelman College has been recognized by the National Science Foundation as the leading undergraduate institution for graduating Black women who go on to earn PhDs in the sciences.
65. Steele, “Thin Ice,” 51.
66. Steele, “Stereotype Threat and African-American Student Achievement,” 126–127.
67. Ibid., 126.
68. Jeff Howard, Getting Smart: The Social Construction of Intelligence (Waltham, MA: Efficacy Institute, 1992).
69. Carol Dweck, “Messages That Motivate: How Praise Molds Students’ Beliefs, Motivation, and Performance (In Surprising Ways),” in Aronson, Improving Academic Achievement, 38–60.
70. Joshua Aronson, Carrie B. Fried, and Catherine Good, “Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38, no. 2 (2002): 113–125.
71. Lisa S. Blackwell, Kali H. Trzesniewski, and Carol Sorich Dweck, “Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition,” Child Development 78, no. 1 (January–February 2007): 246–263.
72. Good, Dweck, and Aronson, “Social Identity, Stereotype Threat, and Self-Theories,” 131.
Chapter 5: Racial Identity in Adulthood
1. Over the years I have met White classmates at Wesleyan reunions and have had conversations about how it was that our paths did not intersect meaningfully when we were in college. Though in classes together, we were living parallel lives.
2. Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor et al., “Ethnic and Racial Identity During Adolescence and into Young Adulthood: An Integrated Conceptualization,” Child Development 85, no. 1 (2014): 21–39.
3. Ibid., 25.
4. For more information, see Walter R. Allen, Edgar G. Epps, and Nesha Z. Haniff, eds., College in Black and White: African American Students in Predominantly White and in Historically Black Public Universities (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991). See also Frank W. Hale Jr., How Black Colleges Empower Black Students: Lessons for Higher Education (Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, 2006).
5. Mark K. Fiegener and Steven L. Proudfoot, “Baccalaureate Origins of U.S.-Trained S&E Doctorate Recipients,” InfoBrief, National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics, National Science Foundation, April 2013, NSF 13-323, https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf13323/nsf13323.pdf.
6. Walter R. Allen, “The Color of Success: African-American College Student Outcomes at Predominantly White and Historically Black Public Colleges and Universities,” Harvard Educational Review 62, no. 1 (1992): 26–44. The National Study of Black College Students (NSBCS) surveyed more than 2,500 Black college students attending a total of sixteen public universities (eight predominantly White and eight historically Black) about their college experiences and outcomes.
7. Jake New, “Survey Finds Big Differences Between Black HBCU Graduates, Those Who Attended Other Institutions,” Inside Higher Ed, October 28, 2015, https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2015/10/28/survey-finds-big-differences-between-black-hbcu-graduates-those-who-attended-other.
8. Though overall the percentage of Black students attending college has risen, the percentage choosing to attend HBCUs has declined from 18 percent in 1976 to 8 percent in 2014, according to the National Center for Education Statistics. “Historically Black Colleges and Universities,” Fast Facts, National Center for Education Statistics, https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=667.
9. An example of that kind of help can be found in a discussion of White students’ responses to learning about the racial identity development process of students of color. See Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Talking About Race, Learning About Racism: An Application of Racial Identity Development Theory in the Classroom,” Harvard Educational Review 62, no. 1 (1992): 1–24.
10. Margarita Azmitia, Moin Syed, and Kimberly Radmacher, “On the Intersection of Personal and Social Identities: Introduction and Evidence from a Longitudinal Study of Emerging Adults,” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development: The Intersections of Personal and Social Identities 2008, no. 120 (Summer 2008): 1–16.
11. Malcolm X with Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Grove Press, 1965), 174.
12. Michael E. Dyson, Race Rules: Navigating the Color Line (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996), 151.
13. Melanie Eversley, “Thousands Pack D.C. for 20th Anniversary of Million Man March,” USA Today, October 10, 2015, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2015/10/10/washington-dc-million-man-march-20th-anniversary/73728720/.
14. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1990), 96.
15. The National Survey of Black Americans (NSBA) was the first in a series of major research projects undertaken by social scientists at the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan to collect and analyze high-quality national survey data on the social, psychological, economic, and political behaviors of Black Americans. The NSBA and the major studies that followed it are all part of the Program for Research on Black Americans (PRBA) at the Institute for Social Research. The PRBA has involved thousands of Black participants in both face-to-face and telephone interviews. The findings of the PRBA are reported in James S. Jackson, ed., Life in Black America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1991).
16. See Robert Joseph Taylor and Linda M. Chatters, “Religious Life,” in Jackson, Life in Black America, 105–123.
17. For an in-depth discussion of alternative patterns of Black REC-identity development, see William E. Cross Jr. and Peony Fhagen-Smith, “Patterns of African American Identity Development: A Life Span Perspective,” in New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: A Theoretical and Practical Anthology, ed. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe and Bailey W. Jackson III (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 243–270.
18. Azmitia, Syed, and Radmacher, “On the Intersection of Personal and Social Identities,” 13.
19. Thomas A. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” The Counseling Psychologist 17, no. 2 (1989): 187–226.
20. Daniel J. Levinson, The Seasons of a Man’s Life (New York: Knopf, 1978).
21. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 202.
22. Beverly Daniel Tatum, Assimilation Blues: Black Families in a White Community (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 85.
23. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 196.
24. Tatum, Assimilation Blues, 99.
25. Ibid., 108.
26. Adia Harvey Wingfield, “Being Black—but Not Too Black—in the Workplace,” The Atlantic, October 14, 2015, http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/10/being-black-work/409990/.
27. Tatum, Assimilation Blues, 79.
28. William E. Cross and T. Binta Cross, “Theory, Research, and Models,” in Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child, ed. Stephen M. Quintana and Clark McKown (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons, 2008), 176.
29. Parham, “Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence,” 204.
30. Gerald Early, introduction to Lure and Loathing: Essays on Race, Identity, and the Ambivalence of Assimilation (New York: Penguin, 1993), xxiii.
31. See Erik Erikson, chap. 8 in Childhood and Society (New York: W. W. Norton, 1950).
32. Rose C. Gibson, “Retirement,” in Jackson, Life in Black America, 179–198.
33. W. E. Cross, “The Psychology of Nigrescence: Revising the Cross Model,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, ed. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995), 116.
34. The concept of tokenism is explored in Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Basic Books, 1977). See also A Tale of O (video), prod. Barry A. Stein (Cambridge, MA: Goodmeasure, 1979); and Rosabeth Moss Kanter with Barry A. Stein, A Tale of “O”: On Being Different in an Organization (New York: Harper Colophon, 1980).
35. Erin Osterhaus, “Survey: Employee Resource Groups Help Engage Gen Y Workers,” New Talent Times, July 28, 2014, http://new-talent-times.softwareadvice.com/employee-resource-groups-engage-gen-y-0714/.
Chapter 6: The Development of White Identity
1. Sandra M. Lawrence and Beverly Daniel Tatum, “White Educators as Allies: Moving from Awareness to Action,” in Off White: Readings on Race, Power, and Society, ed. Michelle Fine et al. (New York: Routledge, 2004), 333.
2. Debby Irving, Waking Up White and Finding Myself in the Story of Race (Cambridge, MA: Elephant Room Press, 2014), xi.
3. Janet E. Helms, ed., Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research, and Practice (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1990).
4. Paul Kivel, Uprooting Racism: How White People Can Work for Racial Justice, 3rd ed. (Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2011), 10–11.
5. There are other models of White racial identity development; however, Helms’ model is used here because it is the most commonly cited of the White identity models and is the one most often used in empirical investigations of White racial identity. For more information, see Lisa B. Spanierman and Jason R. Soble, “Understanding Whiteness: Previous Approaches and Possible Directions in the Study of White Racial Attitudes and Identity,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 3rd ed., ed. Joseph G. Ponterotto et al. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2010), 283–299.
6. Janet Helms has changed her terminology from stages to statuses in describing this six-part model. Helms discusses the change in terminology in her article “An Update of Helms’ White and People of Color Racial Identity Models,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 181–198.
7. Peggy McIntosh, “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” Peace and Freedom, July/August 1989, 12.
8. Sonia Scherr, “Children of Extremists Denounce Parents’ Beliefs,” Intelligence Report, Southern Poverty Law Center, November 30, 2009, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/children-extremists-denounce-parents’-beliefs.
9. Robert T. Carter, “Is White a Race? Expressions of White Racial Identity,” in Fine et al., Off White, 201.
10. Jill Robbins, “How I Finally ‘Got’ the Meaning of White Privilege,” Huffington Post, July 8, 2016, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jill-robbins/what-white-privilege-means_b_10874218.html.
11. Ethnic Notions, produced and directed by Marlon Riggs (San Francisco: Resolution/California Newsreel, 1986), video.
12. Robin DiAngelo, What Does It Mean to Be White? Developing White Racial Literacy, rev. ed. (New York: Peter Lang, 2016), 247.
13. This interview was conducted by my graduate student, Elizabeth Knaplund, as part of a study we conducted on the relational impact of antiracist activity on the lives of White women. See Beverly Daniel Tatum and Elizabeth G. Knaplund, “Outside the Circle: The Relational Implications for White Women Working Against Racism,” Work in Progress, no. 78 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1996).
14. McIntosh, “White Privilege,” 11.
15. See Nancie Zane, “Interrupting Historical Patterns: Bridging Race and Gender Gaps Between Senior White Men and Other Organizational Groups,” in Fine et al., Off White, 349.
16. Jews are a multiracial group, including Jews of African descent. For a helpful discussion of the complexity of Jewish racial identity, see Melanie Kaye/Kantrowitz, “Jews in the U.S.: The Rising Costs of Whiteness,” in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi (New York: Routledge, 1996), 121–138. See also Warren J. Blumenfeld, “Inside and Outside: How Being an Ashkenazi Jew Illuminates and Complicates the Binary of Racial Privilege,” chap. 12 in Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice: 15 Stories, ed. Eddie Moore Jr., Marguerite W. Penick-Parks, and Ali Michael (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2015).
17. Heather W. Hackman, “Calling Out the Wizard Behind the Curtain,” chap. 5 in Moore, Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice.
18. Lawrence and Tatum, “White Educators as Allies.”
19. Lois Stalvey, The Education of a WASP (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, [1970] 1989), 151.
20. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
21. Ruth Frankenberg, “‘When We Are Capable of Stopping, We Begin to See’: Being White, Seeing Whiteness,” in Thompson and Tyagi, Names We Call Home, 14.
22. Ibid.
23. Morris Dees with Steve Fiffer, A Season of Justice: A Lawyer’s Own Story of Victory over America’s Hate Groups (New York: Touchstone, 1991).
24. Mab Segrest, Memoir of a Race Traitor (Boston: South End Press, 1994).
25. Virginia Foster Durr, Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr, ed. Hollinger F. Barnard (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985). An excerpt of this oral history can also be found in Anne Colby and William Damon, Some Do Care: Contemporary Lives of Moral Commitment (New York: Free Press, 1992).
26. Stalvey, The Education of a WASP.
27. Becky Thompson, A Promise and a Way of Life: White Antiracist Activism (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2001).
28. Bernestine Singley, When Race Becomes Real: Black and White Writers Confront Their Personal Histories (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2002).
29. Tim Wise, White Like Me: Reflections on Race from a Privileged Son—The Remix, rev. ed (Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press, 2011).
30. Debby Irving, Waking Up White and Finding Myself in the Story of Race (Cambridge, MA: Elephant Room Press, 2014).
31. Shelly Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness: The Need to Talk About Race and How to Do It, 2nd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Education, 2010).
32. Mark R. Warren, Fire in the Heart: How White Activists Embrace Racial Justice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
33. Eddie Moore Jr., Marguerite W. Penick-Parks, and Ali Michael, eds., Everyday White People Confront Racial and Social Injustice: 15 Stories (Sterling, VA: Stylus, 2015).
34. Warren, Fire in the Heart, x.
35. Andrea Ayvazian, “Interrupting the Cycle of Oppression: The Role of Allies as Agents of Change,” Fellowship, January/February 1995, 7–10.
36. For an example of such a group in process, see Becky Thompson and White Women Challenging Racism, “Home/Work: Antiracism Activism and the Meaning of Whiteness,” in Fine et al., Off White, 354–366.
37. For more information about Showing Up for Racial Justice (SURJ) and their commitment to working with the poor and working-class, visit www.showingupforracialjustice.org/about and http://www.showingupforracialjustice.org/pwc_commitment.
38. For a discussion of the value of Whites-only support groups, see Becky Thompson, “Time Traveling and Border Crossing: Reflections on White Identity,” in Thompson and Tyagi, Names We Call Home, 104–105.
39. Ibid., 104.
40. Clayton P. Alderfer, “A White Man’s Perspective on the Unconscious Process Within Black-White Relations in the United States,” in Human Diversity, ed. Edison J. Trickett, Roderick J. Watts, and Dina Birman (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994), 202.
41. Helms, Black and White Racial Identity, 66.
42. Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness, 47–48.
43. For more information about AWARE-LA, see https://www.awarela.org.
44. Tochluk, Witnessing Whiteness, 49.
45. Ibid., 105.
Chapter 7: White Identity, Affirmative Action, and Color-Blind Racial Ideology
1. For more information about Whiteness Project and its creator, Whitney Dow, visit http://whitenessproject.org/.
2. Betsy Cooper et al., Anxiety, Nostalgia, and Mistrust: Findings from the 2015 American Values Survey, Public Religion Research Institute, http://www.prri.org/research/survey-anxiety-nostalgia-and-mistrust-findings-from-the-2015-american-values-survey/.
3. Ibid., 38.
4. Lee Anne Bell et al., “Racism and White Privilege,” in Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice, 3rd ed., ed. Maurianne Adams et al. (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2016), Kindle edition, locations 4543–4552.
5. Ibid.
6. Monique W. Morris, Black Stats: African Americans by the Numbers in the Twenty-First Century (New York: The New Press, 2014), Kindle edition, location 3269.
7. Pew Research Center, On Views of Race and Inequality, Blacks and Whites Are Worlds Apart, June 27, 2016, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2016/06/27/on-views-of-race-and-inequality-blacks-and-whites-are-worlds-apart/.
8. Ruy Teixeira and John Halpin, Building an All-In Nation: A View from the American Public, Center for American Progress, October 22, 2013, 3, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/reports/2013/10/22/77665/building-an-all-in-nation/.
9. Ibid., 5.
10. Arlie Russell Hochschild, Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right (New York: The New Press, 2016), Kindle edition, location 2306.
11. For more information about the history of affirmative action, see Frances A. Holloway, “What Is Affirmative Action?” and Dalmas A. Taylor, “Affirmative Action and Presidential Executive Orders,” both in Affirmative Action in Perspective, ed. Fletcher A. Blanchard and Faye J. Crosby (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989).
12. See Jerome Karabel, The Chosen: The Hidden History of Admission and Exclusion at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (New York: Mariner Books, 2006).
13. Faye J. Crosby and Alison M. Konrad, “Affirmative Action in Employment,” Diversity Factor 10, no. 2 (Winter 2002): 5–9.
14. Ibid.
15. Faye J. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 6.
16. Faye J. Crosby, “Understanding Affirmative Action,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15, no. 1–2 (1994): 13–41.
17. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, 5.
18. I have borrowed this phrase from Stephen Carter, who argues that when candidates of color are “too good to ignore,” affirmative action programs should be unnecessary. See Stephen Carter, Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby (New York: Basic Books, 1991).
19. For a discussion of the American preference for process-oriented affirmative action, see Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, chap. 3.
20. Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination,” American Economic Review 94, no. 4 (September 2004): 991–1013.
21. Devah Pager, “The Mark of a Criminal Record,” American Journal of Sociology 108, no. 5 (March 2003): 937–975.
22. Devah Pager, Bruce Western, and Bart Bonikowski, “Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment,” American Sociological Review 74 (2009): 777–799.
23. Ibid., 787.
24. John F. Dovidio, Jeffrey Mann, and Samuel L. Gaertner, “Resistance to Affirmative Action: The Implications of Aversive Racism,” in Blanchard and Crosby, Affirmative Action in Perspective, 86.
25. John F. Dovidio and Samuel L. Gaertner, “Aversive Racism,” Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 36 (2004), 4.
26. Ibid., 17.
27. Ibid., 18.
28. This description of the IAT is taken from the Project Implicit website’s “Frequently Asked Questions” section, https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/faqs.html#faq2.
29. Mahzarin R. Banaji and Anthony G. Greenwald, Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People (New York: Random House Publishing Group. 2013), Kindle edition, locations 707–710.
30. Ibid., locations 729–732.
31. Ibid., locations 755–758.
32. Institute of Medicine, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences, 2002).
33. Banaji and Greenwald, Blindspot, locations 2386–2398.
34. Ibid., locations 2976–2977.
35. Ibid., locations 3083–3091
36. See “Frequently Asked Questions,” Project Implicit, https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/faqs.html. Retrieved January 18, 2017.
37. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America, 4th ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014), 3.
38. Ruth Frankenberg, White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 1993).
39. Helen Neville, Miguel Gallardo, and Derald Wing Sue, eds., The Myth of Racial Color Blindness: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2016,) Kindle edition, locations 216–218.
40. Ibid., locations 247–248.
41. Ian Haney López, Dog Whistle Politics: How Coded Racial Appeals Have Reinvented Racism and Wrecked the Middle Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 137.
42. Lee Anne Bell, “Telling on Racism: Developing a Race-Conscious Agenda,” in Neville, Gallardo, and Wing Sue, The Myth of Racial Color Blindness, locations 2297–2298.
43. John F. Dovidio, “Changing the Course of Race Relations in America: From Prevention of Discrimination to Promotion of Racial Equality,” in Obama on Our Minds: The Impact of Obama on the Psyche of America, ed. Lori A. Barker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), 103.
44. Drew DeSilver, “Supreme Court Says States Can Ban Affirmative Action; 8 Already Have,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, April 22, 2014, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/04/22/supreme-court-says-states-can-ban-affirmative-action-8-already-have/.
45. Scott E. Page, The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
46. Crosby, Affirmative Action Is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action, 112.
47. For a discussion of how the concept of aversive racism might apply to discriminatory treatment of Hispanics, see John. F. Dovidio et al., “Cognitive and Motivational Bases of Bias: Implications of Aversive Racism for Attitudes Toward Hispanics,” in Hispanics in the Workplace, ed. Stephen B. Knouse, Paul Rosenfeld, and Amy L. Culbertson (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992), 75–106. For a discussion of affirmative action as it relates to other groups, see George E. Curry, ed., The Affirmative Action Debate, chap. 5, “Beyond Black and White” (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1996).
48. Audrey J. Murrell et al., “Aversive Racism and Resistance to Affirmative Action: Perceptions of Justice Are Not Necessarily Color Blind,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 15, no. 1–2 (1994): 81.
49. Of course the evaluation of scores on such standardized tests as the SAT and the GRE must be done with the understanding that the predictive validity of such tests varies among racial and gender groups. For an interesting investigation of the impact of racial variables on test performance, see Claude M. Steele and Joshua Aronson, “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African-Americans,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5 (1995): 797–811.
50. Fletcher A. Blanchard, “Effective Affirmative Action Programs,” in Blanchard and Crosby, Affirmative Action in Perspective, 193–207.
51. See the prologue for discussion of the most recent Supreme Court rulings regarding affirmative action and college admissions.
52. Faye J. Crosby, “Confessions of an Affirmative Action Mama,” in Fine et al., Off White, 185.
Chapter 8: Critical Issues in Latinx, Native, Asian and Pacific Islander, and Middle Eastern / North African Identity Development
1. Sonia Nieto and Patty Bode, Affirming Diversity: The Sociopolitical Context of Multicultural Education, 6th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2012), 250.
2. Skin Deep: College Students Confront Racism, produced and directed by Frances Reid (San Francisco: Resolution/California Newsreel, 1995), video.
3. Ibid.
4. Amani Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl: A Coming of Age (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), Kindle edition, location 36.
5. An excellent source for a multicultural history of these and other groups in the United States is Ronald Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993).
6. Jean Phinney, “A Three-Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development in Adolescence,” in Ethnic Identity: Formation and Transmission Among Hispanics and Other Minorities, ed. Martha E. Bernal and George P. Knight (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 61–79.
7. An excellent source for detailed discussions of identity development for these and other groups is Joseph G. Ponterotto et al., eds., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995). Subsequent editions of the Handbook are also very helpful.
8. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016,” Facts for Features, October 12, 2016, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb16-ff16.html.
9. Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Key Facts About How the U.S. Hispanic Population Is Changing,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, September 8, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/09/08/key-facts-about-how-the-u-s-hispanic-population-is-changing/.
10. Renee Stepler and Anna Brown, Statistical Portrait of Hispanics in the United States, Pew Research Center, April 19, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2016/04/19/statistical-portrait-of-hispanics-in-the-united-states-key-charts/.
11. Eileen Patten, The Nation’s Latino Population Is Defined by Its Youth, Pew Research Center, April 20, 2016, http://www.pewhispanic.org/files/2016/04/PH_2016-04-20_LatinoYouth-Final.pdf.
12. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016.”
13. Joel Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality: A Brief History of the Education of Dominated Cultures in the United States, 8th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2016), 92.
14. Ibid., 95.
15. Ibid., 96.
16. Patten, The Nation’s Latino Population Is Defined by Its Youth.
17. Seth Motel and Eileen Patten, Hispanics of Mexican Origin in the United States, 2010: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, June 27, 2012, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2012/06/27/hispanics-of-mexican-origin-in-the-united-states-2010/.
18. Roberto A. Ferdman, “The Great American Hispanic Wealth Gap,” Washington Post, July 1, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2014/07/01/hispanics-make-up-more-than-16-of-the-u-s-population-but-own-less-than-2-3-of-its-wealth/?utm_term=.f2f3abfad331.
19. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, chap. 5.
20. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 179.
21. Gustavo López and Eileen Patten, Hispanics of Puerto Rican Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-puerto-rican-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
22. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 240.
23. US Census Bureau, “Hispanic Heritage Month 2016.”
24. Gustavo López, Hispanics of Cuban Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-cuban-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
25. Gerardo Marín and Barbara VanOss Marín, Research with Hispanic Populations (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991).
26. Sylvia Rusin, Jie Zong, and Jeanne Batalova, “Cuban Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, April 7, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/cuban-immigrants-united-states.
27. Ibid.
28. Julie Hirschfeld Davis and Frances Robles, “Obama Ends Exemption for Cubans Who Arrive Without Visas,” New York Times, January 12, 2017, https://nyti.ms/2ipHEc5.
29. Rusin, Zong, and Batalova, “Cuban Immigrants in the United States.”
30. López, Hispanics of Cuban Origin in the United States, 2013.
31. Marín and Marín, Research with Hispanic Populations.
32. Aaron Terrazas, “Salvadoran Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, January 5, 2010, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/salvadoran-immigrants-united-states.
33. Gustavo López, Hispanics of Salvadoran Origin in the United States, 2013: Statistical Profile, Pew Research Center, September 15, 2015, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2015/09/15/hispanics-of-salvadoran-origin-in-the-united-states-2013/.
34. Mark Hugo Lopez, Ana Gonzalez-Barrera, and Danielle Cuddington, Diverse Origins: The Nation’s 14 Largest Hispanic-Origin Groups, Pew Research Center, June 19, 2013, http://www.pewhispanic.org/2013/06/19/diverse-origins-the-nations-14-largest-hispanic-origin-groups/.
35. Marie L. Miville, “Latina/o Identity Development: Updates on Theory, Measurement, and Counseling Implications,” in Ponterotto et al., Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 3rd ed.
36. For a discussion of racismo in Latino communities, see Lillian Comas-Díaz, “LatiNegra,” in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 167–190.
37. Miguelina Germán, Nancy A. Gonzales, and Larry Dumka, “Familism Values as a Protective Factor for Mexican-Origin Adolescents Exposed to Deviant Peers,” Journal of Early Adolescence 29, no. 1 (2009): 17.
38. Nydia Garcia-Preto, “Latino Families: An Overview,” in Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 3rd ed., ed. Monica McGoldrick, Joe Giordano, and Nydia Garcia-Preto (New York: Guilford Press, 2005), 153–165.
39. Carola Suárez-Orozco and Marcelo Suárez-Orozco, Transformations: Immigration, Family Life, and Achievement Motivation Among Latino Adolescents (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995), 136.
40. Fabio Sabogal et al., “Hispanic Familism and Acculturation: What Changes and What Doesn’t?” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9, no. 4 (1987): 397–412.
41. Anthony D. Ong, Jean S. Phinney, and Jessica Dennis, “Competence Under Challenge: Exploring the Protective Influence of Parental Support and Ethnic Identity in Latino College Students,” Journal of Adolescence 29, no. 6 (2006): 961–979; Germán, Gonzales, and Dumka, “Familism Values as a Protective Factor for Mexican-Origin Adolescents Exposed to Deviant Peers.”
42. Suárez-Orozco and Suárez-Orozco, Transformations, 52.
43. For further discussion of these four options and their connection to Tajfel’s social identity theory, see Jean S. Phinney, Bruce T. Lochner, and Rodolfo Murphy, “Ethnic Identity Development and Psychological Adjustment in Adolescence,” in Ethnic Issues in Adolescent Mental Health, ed. Arlene Rubin Stiffman and Larry E. Davis (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990), 53–72.
44. Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez (New York: Bantam, 1982), 23.
45. Maria Zavala, “Who Are You If You Don’t Speak Spanish? The Puerto Rican Dilemma,” (presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, April 1996).
46. Maria Zavala, “A Bridge over Divided Worlds: An Exploration into the Nature of Bilingual Puerto Rican Youths’ Ethnic Identity Development” (master’s thesis, Mount Holyoke College, 1995).
47. Zavala, “Who Are You If You Don’t Speak Spanish?,” 9.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid., 11.
50. Edward Fergus, “The Relevance of Skin Color in the Construction of an Ethnic Identification Among Mexican and Puerto Rican Boys,” in Invisible No More: Understanding the Disenfranchisement of Latino Men and Boys, ed. Pedro Noguera, Aída Hurtado, and Edward Fergus (New York: Routledge, 2012), 228.
51. Vasti Torres, “Influences on Ethnic Identity Development of Latino College Students in the First Two Years of College,” Journal of College Student Development 44, no. 4 (2003), 542.
52. Ibid.
53. Mark Hugo Lopez, “Is Speaking Spanish Necessary to Be Hispanic? Most Hispanics Say No,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, February 19, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/02/19/is-speaking-spanish-necessary-to-be-hispanic-most-hispanics-say-no/.
54. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 227.
55. Ibid., 224.
56. Ibid., 226.
57. Natalia Molina, “How Mexican-Americans Assimilate into U.S. Culture,” San Diego Union-Tribune, November 23, 2016, http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/opinion/commentary/sd-mexican-americans-molina-20161123-story.html.
58. Katie Reilly, “Kids Are Stressed About Donald Trump. So Los Angeles Schools Launched a Hotline,” Time, December 8, 2016, http://time.com/4595309/los-angeles-school-counselors-donald-trump/.
59. Jens Manuel Krogstad, Jeffrey S. Passel, and D’Vera Cohn, “5 Facts About Illegal Immigration in the U.S.,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, November 3, 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/03/5-facts-about-illegal-immigration-in-the-u-s/.
60. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, April 14, 2016, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states.
61. Krogstad, Passel, and Cohn, “5 Facts About Illegal Immigration in the U.S.”
62. Ibid.
63. J. Manuel Casas, “Caution: Immigration May Be Harmful to Your Health,” in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 4th ed., ed. J. Manuel Casas et al. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2017), 348–359.
64. Hirokazu Yoshikawa and Jenya Kholoptseva, Unauthorized Immigrant Parents and Their Children’s Development, Migration Policy Institute, March 2013, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/unauthorized-immigrant-parents-and-their-childrens-development.
65. Ibid.
66. Roberto G. Gonzales, “Learning to Be Illegal: Undocumented Youth and Shifting Legal Contexts in the Transition to Adulthood,” American Sociological Review 76, no. 4 (2011): 602–619.
67. Ibid., 605–608.
68. Ibid., 610.
69. Ibid.
70. Ibid., 605.
71. Ibid., 615.
72. Ibid., 617.
73. Jens Manuel Krogstad, “Unauthorized Immigrants Covered by DACA Face Uncertain Future,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, January 5, 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/05/unauthorized-immigrants-covered-by-daca-face-uncertain-future/.
74. Gonzales, “Learning to Be Illegal,” 614.
75. Molina, “How Mexican-Americans Assimilate into U.S. Culture.”
76. Lewis Lord, “How Many People Were Here Before Columbus?” U.S. News & World Report, August 18–25, 1997, 68–70, http://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2009/4/5/34767803/Pre-Columbian%20population.pdf.
77. US Census Bureau, “American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month: November 2016,” Facts for Features, November 2016, http://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb26-ff22_aian.pdf.
78. R. D. Herring, “Native American Indian Identity: A People of Many Peoples,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective, ed. Elizabeth Pathy Salett and Diane R. Koslow (Washington, DC: National MultiCultural Institute, 1994), 170–197.
79. C. Matthew Snipp, “American Indian Studies,” in Handbook on Research on Multicultural Education, 2nd ed., ed. James A. Banks and Cherry A. McGee Banks (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 2004), 315–331.
80. Ibid., 318.
81. K. Tsianina Lomawaima, “Educating Native Americans,” in Banks and Banks, Handbook on Research on Multicultural Education, 442.
82. Timothy Williams, “Quietly, Indians Reshape Cities and Reservations,” New York Times, April 13, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/us/as-american-indians-move-to-cities-old-and-new-challenges-follow.html.
83. “2010 Census Shows Nearly Half of American Indians and Alaska Natives Report Multiple Races” (press release), US Census Bureau, January 25, 2012, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb12-cn06.html.
84. US Census Bureau, “American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month: November 2016.”
85. CharlesEtta T. Sutton and Mary Anne Broken Nose, “American Indian Families: An Overview,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 43–54.
86. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 13.
87. Nadine Tafoya and Ann Del Vecchio, “Back to the Future: An Examination of the Native American Holocaust Experience,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 55–64.
88. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 119–120.
89. Sutton and Broken Nose, “American Indian Families,” 46; Snipp, “American Indian Studies,” 322.
90. Tafoya and Del Vecchio, “Back to the Future.” Note that a shorter version of this quote appears in the third edition. However, I am using the longer version that appeared in the 1996 edition of Ethnicity and Family Therapy.
91. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 120.
92. See “History,” Diné College, http://www.dinecollege.edu/about/history.php.
93. Kevin K. Washburn, “What’s at Stake for Tribes? The U.S. Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel Opinion on Internet Gaming, Testimony of Dean Kevin K. Washburn, Oversight Hearing Before the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, 112th Congress, Second Session,” UNM School of Law Research Paper No. 2012-04, February 9, 2012, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1999813.
94. Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, 25 U.S.C. § 2701 et seq. (1988).
95. Washburn, “What’s at Stake for Tribes?”
96. Robin J. Anderson, “Tribal Casino Impacts on American Indians’ Well-Being: Evidence from Reservation-Level Census Data,” Contemporary Economic Policy 31, no. 2 (2013): 291–300, doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7287.2011.00300.x.
97. Matthew A. King, “Indian Gaming and Native Identity,” Chicano-Latino Law Review 30, no. 1 (2011), https://ssrn.com/abstract=2018751.
98. Ibid., 18.
99. Ibid., 32.
100. “Have You Ever Seen a Real Indian? American Indian College Fund Advertising Campaign Challenges Stereotypes” (press release), American Indian College Fund, PRNewswire, March 2, 2001, http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/have-you-ever-seen-a-real-indian-american-indian-college-fund-advertising-campaign-challenges-stereotypes-71520017.html.
101. Lee Little Soldier, “Is There an ‘Indian’ in Your Classroom? Working Successfully with Urban Native American Students,” Phi Delta Kappan 78, no. 8 (April 1997): 650–653.
102. Donald Andrew Grinde Jr., “Place and Kinship: A Native American’s Identity Before and After Words,” in Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity, ed. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi (New York: Routledge, 1996), 66.
103. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 152.
104. Stephanie A. Fryberg et al., “Of Warrior Chiefs and Indian Princesses: The Psychological Consequences of American Indian Mascots,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 30, no 3 (2008): 208–218.
105. Angela R. Riley and Kristen A. Carpenter, “Owning Red: A Theory of Indian (Cultural) Appropriation,” Texas Law Review 94 (2016): 859–931.
106. Victoria Phillips and Erik Stegman, Missing the Point: The Real Impact of Native Mascots and Team Names on American Indian and Alaska Native Youth (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, 2014), http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1003&context=fasch_rpt.
107. “Statement of U.S. Commission on Civil Rights on the Use of Native American Images and Nicknames as Sports Symbols” (press release), US Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, http://www.usccr.gov/press/archives/2001/041601st.htm.
108. Phillips and Stegman, Missing the Point.
109. Ibid., 5.
110. Ibid., 8.
111. Fryberg et al., “Of Warrior Chiefs and Indian Princesses,” 216.
112. Ibid.
113. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 70–72.
114. Paul Ongtooguk, “Remarks of Mr. Paul Ongtooguk,” Alaska Native Education Summit, November 30, 2001, Anchorage, AK. http://www.alaskool.org/native_ed/PO-ANES-speech.htm.
115. Paul Ongtooguk, “Their Silence About Us: The Absence of Alaska Natives in the Curriculum” (presentation at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Atlanta, GA, April 1993).
116. Ibid.
117. Elizabeth M. Hoeffel et al., The Asian Population: 2010, C2010BR-11, US Census Bureau, March 2012, https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-11.pdf.
118. Evelyn Lee and Matthew R. Mock, “Asian Families: An Overview,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 269–289.
119. Min Zhou and Jennifer Lee, “Introduction: The Making of Culture, Identity, and Ethnicity Among Asian American Youth,” in Asian American Youth: Culture, Identity and Ethnicity (New York: Routledge, 2004), 11.
120. Min Zhou and Jennifer Lee, The Asian American Achievement Paradox (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2015).
121. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans, updated ed., April 4, 2013, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/.
122. Hoeffel et al., The Asian Population: 2010.
123. US Census Bureau, “Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2016,” Facts for Features, April 21, 2016, http://www.census.gov/newsroom/facts-for-features/2016/cb16-ff07.html.
124. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans.
125. Ibid.
126. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 72.
127. Ibid.
128. Zhou and Lee, The Asian American Achievement Paradox, 23.
129. Takaki, A Different Mirror, 188.
130. Zhou and Lee, The Asian American Achievement Paradox.
131. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 76.
132. Zhou and Lee, The Asian American Achievement Paradox, 24.
133. Ibid.
134. Tazuko Shibusawa, “Japanese Families,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 339–348.
135. Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, chap. 4.
136. Shibusawa, “Japanese Families.”
137. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans.
138. Bok-Lim C. Kim and Eunjung Ryu, “Korean Families,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 349–362.
139. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans.
140. Ibid.
141. Maria P. P. Root, “Filipino Families,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 319–331.
142. Lee and Mock, “Asian Families: An Overview,” 271.
143. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans.
144. Ibid.
145. Quoted in Spring, Deculturalization and the Struggle for Equality, 75.
146. Ibid., 77.
147. Pew Research Center, The Rise of Asian Americans.
148. Migration Policy Institute, The Pakistani Diaspora in the United States, rev. ed., June 2015, www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/RAD-Pakistan.pdf.
149. Karthick Ramakrishnan and Farah Z. Ahmad, State of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders Series: A Multifaceted Portrait of a Growing Population, Center for American Progress, September 2014, http://aapidata.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/AAPIData-CAP-report.pdf.
150. US Census Bureau, “Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2016.”
151. Quoted in David Mura, “A Shift in Power, a Sea Change in the Arts: Asian American Constructions,” in The State of Asian America: Activism and Resistance in the 1990s, ed. Karin Aguilar-San Juan (Boston: South End Press, 1994), 183–204.
152. Kenyon S. Chan and Shirley Hune, “Racialization and Panethnicity: From Asians in America to Asian Americans,” in Toward a Common Destiny: Improving Race and Ethnic Relations in America, ed. Willis D. Hawley and Anthony W. Jackson (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995), 210.
153. Ibid., 215.
154. Ibid., 218.
155. Skin Deep.
156. William Petersen, “Success Story, Japanese-American Style,” New York Times Magazine, January 9, 1966; “Success Story of One Minority in the U.S.,” U.S. News and World Report, December 26, 1966, 73–78.
157. Chan and Hune, “Racialization and Panethnicity,” 222.
158. Zhou and Lee, The Asian American Achievement Paradox, 65.
159. Ibid.
160. Ibid., 31.
161. Ibid., 32.
162. Ibid., 29.
163. Ibid., 9.
164. Ibid., 37.
165. Ibid., 6.
166. Ibid.
167. Ibid., 125.
168. Ibid., 126.
169. Ibid., 120.
170. Ibid., 7.
171. Ibid., 143.
172. Ibid., 172.
173. Ibid., 174.
174. Ibid., 42.
175. National Center for Education Statistics, “Indicator 16 Snapshot: High School Status Dropout Rates for Racial/Ethnic Subgroups,” August 2016, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/indicator_rdcs.asp.
176. National Center for Education Statistics, “Indicator 18 Snapshot: College Participation Rates for Racial/Ethnic Subgroups,” August 2016, https://nces.ed.gov/programs/raceindicators/indicator_reas.asp.
177. Lisa Delpit, Other People’s Children: Cultural Conflict in the Classroom (New York: The New Press, 2006), 171.
178. Nieto and Bode, Affirming Diversity, 195.
179. Valerie Ooka Pang, Peter N. Kiang, and Yoon K. Pak, “Asian Pacific American Students: Challenging a Biased Educational System,” in J. A. Banks and C. M. Banks, Handbook on Research on Multicultural Education, 542–563.
180. Mitsuye Yamada, “Invisibility Is an Unnatural Disaster: Reflections of an Asian American Woman,” in This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color, ed. Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa (New York: Kitchen Table Press, 1981), 35–40.
181. Ibid., 35.
182. Peter Nien-chu Kiang, “We Could Shape It: Organizing for Asian Pacific American Student Empowerment,” in Struggling to Be Heard: The Unmet Needs of APA Children, ed. Valerie Ooka Pang and Li-Rong Lilly Cheng (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 243–264.
183. Ibid., 249.
184. Ibid., 259.
185. Ibid.
186. Ibid.
187. Lucy Tse, “Finding a Place to Be: Asian Americans in Ethnic Identity Exploration,” Adolescence 34, no. 133 (Spring 1999): 121–138.
188. Traci G. Lee, “Gangs of Atlanta: New Film Upends Asian ‘Model Minority Myth,’” NBCNews.com, March 11, 2015, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/gangs-atlanta-new-film-upends-asian-model-minority-myth-n321421.
189. Ibid.
190. Chan and Hune, “Racialization and Panethnicity,” 208.
191. Phinney, “A Three-Stage Model of Ethnic Identity Development in Adolescence.”
192. Tara Bahrampour, “A U.S. Census Proposal to Add Category for People of Middle Eastern Descent Makes Some Uneasy,” Washington Post, October 21, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/social-issues/a-proposal-to-add-a-us-census-category-for-people-of-middle-eastern-descent-makes-some-uneasy/2016/10/20/8e9847a0-960e-11e6-bb29-bf2701dbe0a3_story.html.
193. Ibid.
194. Nuha Abudabbeh, “Arab Families: An Overview,” in McGoldrick, Giordano, and Garcia-Preto, Ethnicity and Family Therapy, 423–436.
195. Jie Zong and Jeanne Batalova, “Middle Eastern and North African Immigrants in the United States,” Migration Information Source, Migration Policy Institute, June 3, 2015, http://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/middle-eastern-and-north-african-immigrants-united-states.
196. Ibid.
197. Ibid.
198. “American Muslims in the United States,” Teaching Tolerance, Southern Poverty Law Center, http://www.tolerance.org/publication/american-muslims-united-states
199. Eboo Patel, introduction to Andrew Garrod and Robert Kilkenny, eds., Growing Up Muslim: Muslim College Students in America Tell Their Life Stories (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014), Kindle edition, location 148.
200. Ibid., location 490.
201. Ibid., location 1418.
202. Amir Marvasti and Karyn D. McKinney, Middle Eastern Lives in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Little, 2004).
203. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 36.
204. Ibid., location 241.
205. Ibid., location 261.
206. Ibid., location 503.
207. Ibid., location 506.
208. Ibid., location 518.
209. Ibid., location 542.
210. Ibid., location 985.
211. Ibid., location 998.
212. Garrod and Kilkenny, Growing Up Muslim, location 501.
213. Ibid., location 582.
214. Eric Lichtblau, “U.S. Hate Crimes Surge 6%, Fueled by Attacks on Muslims,” New York Times, November 14, 2016, https://nyti.ms/2ezOFXH.
215. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 1451.
216. Peter Baker, “Travelers Stranded and Protests Swell over Trump Order,” New York Times, January 29, 2017, https://nyti.ms/2jFy45B.
217. Al-Khatahtbeh, Muslim Girl, location 1433.
Chapter 9: Identity Development in Multiracial Families
1. Pew Research Center, Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and Growing in Numbers, June 2015, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/06/11/multiracial-in-america/.
2. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe, “The Intersectional Model of Multiracial Identity: Integrating Multiracial Identity Theories and Intersectional Perspectives on Social Identity,” in New Perspectives on Racial Identity Development: Integrating Emerging Frameworks, 2nd ed., ed. Charmaine L. Wijeyesinghe and Bailey W. Jackson III (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 81–107.
3. Charles A. Gallagher, “Color Blindness: An Obstacle to Racial Justice?,” in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the “Color-Blind” Era, ed. David L. Brunsma (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2006), 103–116.
4. Maria P. P. Root, ed., Racially Mixed People in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1992).
5. This chapter will be focused primarily on biracial Black-White identity development. For information regarding Black-Japanese identity, see Christine Catherine Iijima Hall, “The Ethnic Identity of Racially Mixed People: A Study of Black-Japanese” (doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1980). For information regarding Asian-White experiences, see George Kitahara Kich, “The Developmental Process of Asserting a Biracial, Bicultural Identity,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 304–317.
6. Maria P. P. Root, “Within, Between, and Beyond Race,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 3–11.
7. Paul R. Spickard, “The Illogic of American Racial Categories,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 15.
8. See F. James Davis, chap. 1, “The Nation’s Rule,” and chap. 2, “Miscegenation and Beliefs,” in Who Is Black? One Nation’s Definition (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991), 17–30.
9. Kerry Ann Rockquemore and David L. Brunsma, Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), 18.
10. Lise Funderberg, Black, White, Other: Biracial Americans Talk About Race and Identity (New York: Quill, 1994), 186.
11. Davis, Who Is Black?, 12.
12. For more details, see Davis, Who Is Black?, 10–11.
13. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black, Kindle edition, location 91.
14. Frank Newport, “In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958,” Gallup, July 25, 2013, http://www.gallup.com/poll/163697/approve-marriage-blacks-whites.aspx.
15. Pew Research Center, chap. 4 of The Rise of Asian Americans, updated ed., April 4, 2013, http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2012/06/19/the-rise-of-asian-americans/.
16. Newport, “In U.S., 87% Approve of Black-White Marriage, vs. 4% in 1958.”
17. Erica Chito Childs, “Black and White: Family Opposition to Becoming Multiracial,” in Brunsma, Mixed Messages, 233–246.
18. Imitation of Life was released in 1934 and remade in 1959. It follows the lives of two women, one White and one Black, and their daughters. The Black mother is heartbroken when her light-skinned daughter disavows her and chooses to pass for White.
19. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, “Biracial Adolescents,” in Children of Color: Psychological Interventions with Minority Youth, ed. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Larke Nahme Huang (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989), 322–350.
20. Ana Mari Cauce et al., “Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Social Adjustment of Biracial Youth,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 207–222.
21. Ibid., 220.
22. For a review of the 1980s and 1990s literature, see Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Alice M. Hines, “Negotiating Ethnic Identity: Issues for Black-White Biracial Adolescents,” in Root, Racially Mixed People in America, 223–238. See also Lynda D. Field, “Piecing Together the Puzzle: Self-Concept and Group Identity in Biracial Black/White Youth,” in The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as the New Frontier, ed. Maria P. P. Root (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 211–226.
23. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black, 36.
24. Ibid., 39.
25. Ibid.
26. Maria P. P. Root, “The Multiracial Experience: Racial Borders as a Significant Frontier in Race Relations,” in Root, The Multiracial Experience, xiii–xxviii.
27. Rockquemore and Brunsma, Beyond Black.
28. Ibid., 41.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 43.
31. Ibid., 44.
32. Ibid., 45.
33. Ibid., 47.
34. Ibid., 69.
35. Ibid., 95.
36. Ibid., 49.
37. Ibid., 49–50.
38. Ibid., 60.
39. Ibid.
40. Nikki Khanna, Biracial in America: Forming and Performing Racial Identity (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011).
41. Ibid., 82.
42. Ibid., 75.
43. Ibid., 85.
44. See Maureen T. Reddy, Crossing the Color Line: Race, Parenting, and Culture (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), chap. 3.
45. Robin Lin Miller and Mary-Jane Rotheram-Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Self: Identity in Multicultural Perspective, ed. Elizabeth Pathy Salett and Diane R. Koslow (Washington, DC: National Multicultural Institute, 1994), 143–169.
46. Khanna, Biracial in America, 85.
47. Ibid., 88.
48. Ibid., 100.
49. Ibid., 109.
50. Ibid., 104.
51. Ibid., 111.
52. Kerry Ann Rockquemore, Tracy Laszloffy, and Julia Noveske, “It All Starts at Home: Racial Socialization in Multiracial Families,” in Brunsma, Mixed Messages, 206.
53. Wendy Wang, “Interracial Marriage: Who Is ‘Marrying Out?’,” Fact Tank, Pew Research Center, June 12, 2015, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/06/12/interracial-marriage-who-is-marrying-out/.
54. Rockquemore, Laszloffy, and Noveske, “It All Starts at Home.”
55. Miller and Rotheram-Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States.”
56. Even when White people are demeaned as “nigger lovers,” it is the association with Blackness that is the source of the insult, not Whiteness itself.
57. Miller and Rotheram-Borus, “Growing Up Biracial in the United States,” 156.
58. Marguerite Davol, Black, White, Just Right! (Morton Grove, IL: A. Whitman, 1993).
59. Rockquemore, Laszloffy, and Noveske, “It All Starts at Home,” 210.
60. Funderburg, Black, White, Other, 367.
61. Karen Valby, “The Realities of Raising a Kid of a Different Race,” Time.com, 2015, http://time.com/the-realities-of-raising-a-kid-of-a-different-race/.
62. Danielle E. Godon, Whitney F. Green, and Patricia G. Ramsey, “Transracial Adoptees: The Search for Birth Family and the Search for Self,” Adoption Quarterly 17, no. 1 (2014): 1–27.
63. Ibid., 14.
64. Ibid., 17.
65. Ibid.
66. Valby, “The Realities of Raising a Kid of a Different Race.”
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. “Growing Up ‘White,’ Transracial Adoptee Learned to Be Black,” Weekend Edition Sunday, NPR, January 26, 2014, http://www.npr.org/2014/01/26/266434175/growing-up-white-transracial-adoptee-learned-to-be-black.
71. Ibid.
Chapter 10: Embracing a Cross-Racial Dialogue
1. In the same way, we need to break the silence about sexism, anti-Semitism, heterosexism and homophobia, classism, ageism, and ableism. In my experience, once we learn to break the silence about one ism, the lessons learned transfer to other isms.
2. Christine Sleeter, “White Racism,” Multicultural Education 1, no. 4 (Spring 1994): 6.
3. Ibid., 8.
4. Kirsten Mullen, “Subtle Lessons in Racism,” USA Weekend, November 6–8, 1992, 10–11.
5. The Color of Fear, produced and directed by Lee Mun Wah (Oakland, CA: Stir-Fry Productions, 1994), video.
6. Jean Baker Miller, “Connections, Disconnections, and Violations,” Work in Progress, no. 33 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1988).
7. Beverly Daniel Tatum, “Racial Identity and Relational Theory: The Case of Black Women in White Communities,” Work in Progress, no. 63 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1992).
8. An in-depth discussion of the relational implications of working against racism for these female educators can be found in Beverly Daniel Tatum and Elizabeth G. Knaplund, “Outside the Circle: The Relational Implications for White Women Working Against Racism,” Work in Progress, no. 78 (Wellesley, MA: Stone Center Working Paper Series, 1996).
9. Parker Palmer, The Active Life: Wisdom for Work, Creativity, and Caring (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 115.
Epilogue: Signs of Hope, Sites of Progress
1. “A Statement from Joseph Benigno ’16 Student Body President,” TAMU Student Government Association, February 11, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yo9sZlmdzBU.
2. See https://www.atlantafriendshipinitiative.com for more information.
3. Maria Saporta, “Business Leaders Launch Atlanta Friendship Initiative,” Atlanta Business Chronicle, October 28, 2016, http://www.bizjournals.com/atlanta/news/2016/10/28/business-leaders-launch-atlanta-friendship.html.
4. See www.twotowns.org for more information.
5. See www.winterinstitute.org for more information.
6. Barry Yeoman, “Telling Stories, Breaking Barriers,” Mindful, August 11, 2016, 58.
7. Ibid., 62.
8. See http://winterinstitute.org/community-relations/the-welcome-table/ for a video interview with Dr. Glisson.
9. See http://www.racialequityresourceguide.org/TRHTSummit for more information and a resource guide.
10. La June Montgomery Tabron, “The W. K. Kellogg Foundation’s Deepening Commitment to Racial Equity,” Liberal Education 102, no. 4 (Fall 2016): 22–45.
11. Ibid., 28.
12. Gail C. Christopher, “The Time for Truth, Racial Healing and Transformation Is Now,” Liberal Education 102, no. 4 (Fall 2016): 8–15.
13. “Day of Dialogue Welcome Ceremony,” fandmcollege, October 6, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-azgbWIWFjk.
14. See http://www.difficultdialogues.org for more information.
15. “Mission, History, Goals & Highlights,” Michigan Community Scholars Program, University of Michigan, https://lsa.umich.edu/mcsp/about-us/mission-history-goals-highlights.html.
16. David Schoem and Penny A. Pasque, “The Michigan Community Scholars Program: Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities,” in Joseph A. Galura et al., Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities (Ann Arbor, MI: OCSL Press at the University of Michigan, 2004), 33–50.
17. Rebecca Dora Christensen, “‘Making a Difference’: Residential Learning Community Students’ Trajectories Toward Promoting Social Justice” (doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 2016).
18. See https://igr.umich.edu/about for more information.
19. Ximena Zúñiga et al., Intergroup Dialogue in Higher Education: Meaningful Learning About Social Justice, ASHE Higher Education Report Series, vol. 32, no. 4 (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2007).
20. “Intergroup Dialogues,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/intergroup-dialogues.
21. Kelly E. Maxwell, Aaron Traxler-Ballew, and K. Foula Dimopoulos, “Intergroup Dialogue and the Michigan Community Scholars Program: A Partnership for Meaningful Engagement,” in Galura et al., Engaging the Whole of Service-Learning, Diversity, and Learning Communities, 122.
22. “Students Talk About the Minor in Intergroup Relations Education,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/students-talk-about-minor-intergroup-relations.
23. “Reflections from IGR’s Graduate Student Instructors,” The Program on Intergroup Relations, University of Michigan, https://igr.umich.edu/article/reflections-igrs-graduate-student-instructors.
24. Kristie A. Ford, ed., Facilitating Change Through Intergroup Dialogue: Social Justice Advocacy in Practice (New York: Routledge, forthcoming), chap. 1.
25. Ibid., chap. 2.
26. Ibid.
27. I am paraphrasing the quote “I touch the future. I teach,” which is attributed to Christa McAuliffe, the first American educator selected to travel to outer space on a NASA mission in 1986. Tragically, the space vessel exploded shortly after liftoff and she and the other astronauts on board were killed.