Preface

Yoga is the inseparable heart of the Hindu school of thought. It is said, “There is no Yoga without Hinduism and no Hinduism without Yoga.” On the other hand, the renowned father of analytical psychology, Carl G. Jung, described Yoga as “one of the greatest things the human mind has ever created.”

Yoga is a vast subject. Moreover, a serious study of it cannot limit itself to a fragmentary account of its techniques and methods, as is too often the case today. The study of Yoga effectively requires a broad, and above all accurate, understanding of the different aspects of Yoga: spiritual, metaphysical, and philosophical, as well as its conception of human psychology. The original literature on Yoga consisted of manuscripts primarily written in Sanskrit, which were the fruit of interpretations by its practitioners, who were intuitive and empirical and, at the same time, faithful and enlightened.

These days, there is no rule or formal requirement for the teaching of Yoga. A liberal attitude of this kind, together with the popularization of this precious source of human knowledge, has resulted in the circulation of numerous misunderstandings about and amalgams of the nature, traditional values, and objectives of Yoga. Numerous self-proclaimed “masters,” either because of naiveté or lack of respect for a sacred tradition, have failed to obtain serious theoretical and practical training; as a result they pass along ineptitudes and untruths. Sometimes they claim an altruistic motivation; often they reveal overtly mercantile ambitions. It should be noted, moreover, that representatives of very honorable professions, in a learned manner supported by rational analysis, laud the benefits of such or such an āsana or posture, thus encouraging less aware individuals to take an à la carte approach to something that in fact constitutes a whole—a holistic doctrine that requires an integrated approach.

In the wake of the ongoing Yoga renaissance, a plethora of Yoga schools with various āsana management programs has emerged all over the world. On several worldwide traveling occasions, I had the opportunity to assess how āsanas are interpreted in various Yoga schools and ashrams of India, Europe, the United States, and the Middle East. Quite impartially, and with due respect to the managers of Yoga schools and institutions, whether they are promoting Hindu culture, business-oriented, or just dilettante, I must say that I found the most intelligent, methodically designed āsana training at the Goswami Yoga institute of Stockholm, Sweden, reportedly Europe’s oldest Yoga school. There pupils can discover a complete use of traditional āsanas that have been rationally adapted to meet the needs of urban practitioners. Four different courses are available: an all-round program involving virtually the whole musculature, a program of essentially static āsanas, one course called Mahā Mudrā with an anaerobic training of the lungs, as well as an intensive program with emphasis on the heart and the lungs. This program embraces the complete range of human physical activity: flexibility, strength, speed, and endurance.

On another note, more formal but nevertheless representative of an offense consistent with the level of ignorance, indeed disdain, that is accorded to traditions, is the frequent abuse of the term guru. Sacred in India, the holy teachers who are addressed with this term are done a disservice by the indiscriminate use of the word in the West, where it is used to refer to the worst alongside the best, notably the leaders of sects that have little to recommend them or in some cases are even contemptible.

It is to dispel numerous such mistaken ideas that I am presenting to the English reader a synthesis of Yoga according to the oral and written teachings of Sri Shyam Sundar Goswami, an incontrovertible Yoga master, who is nevertheless unknown in many parts of the West. Foundations of Yoga is intended to express an “Indo-European’s” indebtedness and to bear witness to my profound loyalty, which is inseparable from my immense debt of gratitude to one of India’s great spiritual sons.

Here it is useful to specify the nature and role of the yogi as one who has, in the Hindu tradition, attained the state of samādhi,*1 an epiphanic experience (in the etymological sense of the term) of a state of immediate insight that reveals the essence of a given object to the subject. A yogi (or yogini) is not necessarily a guru or a learned person, yet in India yogi(ni)s enjoy a high social status. It is said that wealthy and mighty maharajas of lore would search for the presence of a yogi(ni) in their genealogy to reinforce their noble lineage. There are numerous yogis in India who do not wish to appear in public or to reveal the fruit of their spiritual experiences, even to those close to them.

A yogi often lives with a minimum of comfort. In some cases, he leads an ascetic life, like that of an anchorite or hermit. He is able to endure deprivations of all kinds and to brave the elements, both extreme heat and the cold that is found in isolated areas of the Himalayas. Yogis and yoginis of this kind primarily devote themselves to an all-absorbing introspective research that excludes even the idea of comfort or any desire to become actively involved in the affairs of the surrounding world.

However, it is not accurate to conclude that a yogi is necessarily an asocial being, for a different example can be seen in the famous naga naga ascetics, whose tradition goes back three thousand years. This very special category of God seekers follows the pragmatic philosophy that is Yoga, which is to Hinduism what spirituality is to religion—it’s entological raison d’être. They form a spiritual elite composed of men and occasionally women; their bodies are kept naked, except for a thin layer of oil and sandalwood ashes, and these exceptional men are masters of self-defense. In former times, these ascetics, who are both venerated and feared, did not hesitate to come to the rescue of a nearby village that had been invaded by a hostile tribe.

But there are also yogis who practice a less rigorous asceticism and are fully integrated into the society in which they live. Some are content with a revealed or intellectual interpretation of the sacred writings that form the basis of Yoga. Others keep the oral tradition of Yoga alive, giving an account of their experiences, which they pass on with a unique flair. These yogis transmit this knowledge to whoever expresses a wish for it, according to the level and qualifications of the person. Yogic teaching is generally given without any discrimination of sex, caste, nationality, or religion.

For these spiritual heirs of an ancient tradition, the actions and attitudes implied by the word proselytism, in all its connotations, positive or negative, are unthinkable. Strengthened by a heritage that has overcome the vicissitudes of many civilizations, past and present, these yogis escape the grip of the usual ideological phenomena disseminated by monotheistic religions, which they refuse to imitate.

Foundations of Yoga exposes briefly the four paths of classical Yoga: Mantra Yoga, Hatha Yoga, Laya Yoga, and Raja Yoga. Specific paths that are also included in what is known as the “royal path” of Yoga—namely Jñāna Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, and Kriya Yoga—will only be alluded to. The current work is distinguished from most of the numerous books that have recently appeared with wellness as the main target, which not infrequently include alternative therapies whose advertised results too often have as yet to be evidenced. Focusing mainly on the philosophical background of traditional Yoga in India, this book does not provide practical directions for the practice of Yoga. Those who wish to be properly guided in the path of modern Yoga by an authentic Yoga master may read the latest edition of Sri S. S. Goswami’s Advanced Hatha Yoga (Inner Traditions, 2012).

In keeping with the serious treatment of Yoga presented in this book, certain technical terms are used, which, in their English translation (sometimes employing neologisms), might at first glance seem strange and hermetic, solely because there is no equivalent in Western culture. The reader will hopefully not allow himself or herself to be put off by such terms, which, for example, offer technical descriptions of numerous states of consciousness that, in the yogi’s view, open new horizons beyond the three known states of waking, sleeping, and dreaming.

It should be noted that, to avoid all misunderstanding, the author has preferred to use the expression mental concentration, instead of the vague terms meditation and contemplation, to designate the key method that results in the three states of dhāraṇā, dhyāna, and samādhi.

Moreover, the imprecision and indeed the ambiguity of the terms thought, spirit, soul, or psyche explains the adoption of the term mind, which will generally be used to designate the mental faculties, notably the intellect, the emotions, and the will. Finally, the meaning of the word thought will be limited to ideas, images, sensations, and other forms of nonphysical perception.

In the absence of unequivocal rules in the question of the transcription of Sanskrit, and in order to facilitate reading, the author has adopted a simplified style of transliteration, employing some diacritical marks, detailed in a pronunciation guide that appears at the conclusion of the text. In addition, proper nouns are written with capital letters, unlike Sanskrit, which does not make this distinction; other Sanskrit terms are shown in lowercase italics throughout. Finally, there is the use of plurals, a form that is not found in Sanskrit and that may be seen by pure philologists as an incongruity.

May Yoga practitioners temporarily release themselves of all judgment in reading this book, which has no other ambition than to set out an authentic teaching that is traditional and faithful to the universality of Yoga, a teaching that is purged of all belief and ideology.

May the reader appreciate the axiom according to which book knowledge, as advanced as it is, will never be able to answer the natural need of a human being to find inner peace and harmony, which constitutes the real goal of philosophy. May each also realize the truth of the wisest of precepts, which, in the ancient Delphic oracle, offered itself to the contemplation of every passerby: Γνθι σεαυóν, “Know yourself.” This piece of wisdom is also found in the Hindu teachings of the Kaṭha Upaniṣad: “Stand up, wake up, and, with the grace of a spiritual guide, learn who you are.”