ABBREVIATIONS
National Archives, Kew, UK (TNA)
National Archives, College Park, MD (NA)
Niels Bohr Library and Archives, College Park, MD (NB)
Norges Hjemmefrontmuseum, Oslo (NHM)
Norsk Industriarbeidermuseum, Rjukan (VM)
Leif Tronstad Archive, NTNU, Dorabiblioteket, Trondheim (DORA)
Bundesarchiv-Militärchiv, Freiburg (Barch-MA)
Papers of Dan Kurzman, Howard Gotlieb Archival Research Center, Boston University (KA)
Imperial War Museum (IWM)
Papers of David Irving, German Atomic Bomb, British Online Archives (DIA)
Papers of Leif Tronstad, courtesy of Leif Tronstad Jr. (LTP)
Diary of Leif Tronstad, Papers of Leif Tronstad, courtesy of Leif Tronstad Jr. (LTD)
Papers of Einar Skinnarland, courtesy of Skinnarland Family (ESP)
Diary of Einar Skinnarland, courtesy of Skinnarland Family (ESD)
Interview with Joachim Rønneberg by Arfinn Moland, NHM (Rønneberg Interview, Moland)
Poulsson, Jens, “General Report on Work of Advance Party by Swallow,” NHM: Box 25 (Poulsson Report)
Haugland, Knut, “Wireless Service in the Grouse Group,” NHM: SOE, Box 23 (Haugland Report)
Rønneberg, Joachim, “Operation Gunnerside Report,” NHM: FOIV, Box D17 (Rønneberg Report)
Sørlie, Rolf, Unpublished Memoir, courtesy of Sørlie Family (Sørlie Memoir)
Brun, Jomar, Some Impressions from my work with Z, November 30, 1942, TNA: HS 8/955/DISR (Brun Report)
PROLOGUE
page
xviiIn a staggered line: Draft BBC Talk by Lieutenant Rønneberg, TNA: HS 7/181; Haukelid, 105–8; Rostøl and Amdal, 86; Rønneberg Report; Lunde, 99–101; Gallagher, 96–97.
xviiiDespite the distance: Report: Vemork Power Station and Electrolysis Plant, October 30, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Adamson and Klem, 138; Draft BBC Talk by Lieutenant Rønneberg, TNA: HS 7/181.
Standing at the edge: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Berg, 128; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: Oral History 27189.
“to blow up a good”: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Myklebust, 108.
xix“went west”: Ragnar Ulstein, Author Interview.
Back in England: Speech at the Imperial War Museum, 1978, DORA: L-0001.
1. THE WATER
3On February 14, 1940: Biographical Note, Papiers de Jacques Allier. Archives Nationales, Paris; Goldsmith, 84–88.
4Startled by the: Letter from Rjukan, Vedr. Tungt Vann, January 11, 1940, VM: Box 4F-D17-98; Norsk Hydro Heavy Water Discussion with Bjarne Eriksen, May 24, 1945, TNA: CAB 126/171.
Short of the false: Top Secret Report by J.C.W., March 6, 1946, TNA: CAB 126/171. “At any price”: Goldsmith, 86.
5For thousands of years: Norsk Hydro, Promotional Pamphlet, TNA: DEFE 2/221.
The river’s flow: Vemork Power Station and Electrolysis Plant, NHM: FOIV, Box 78; Norsk Hydro Report, September 14, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184.
6The Amerian chemist: Rhodes, 270; Brun, 9; Report by D. R. Augood, December 1954, VM: JBrun, Box 17.
“50 tons of”: Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 41.
In 1933 Leif Tronstad: P. M. fra konferanse i Trondheim julen 1933, VM: Box 4F-D17-99; Brun, 10–13.
“Technology first, then”: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
An early working: Brun, 14–20; “Interrogation of G. Syverstad,” TNA: HS 2/188; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 41–48.
7Researchers found: Njølstad, 60–61, 77–79; Brun, 9.
Vemork shipped: Olsen, 399; Advertisement for “Schweres Wasser,” VM: JBrun, Box 2.
In June 1939: Brun, 15.
8“atoms and void”: Rhodes, 29.
“Could a proper detonator”: Ibid., 44.
Then, in 1932: Interview with Dr. Alan Morton, IWM: 26662; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 62; Bertrand Goldschmidt, “The Supplies of Norwegian Heavy Water to France and the Early Development of Atomic Energy,” in Ole Grimnes, “The Allied Heavy Water Operations at Rjukan,” (IFS Info, 1995).
9In December 1938: Rhodes, 251–54.
Springboarding off an: Ibid., 256–60.
One physicist calculated: Karlsch, 32.
10“A little bomb”: Rhodes, 275.
By annexing Austria: Hargreaves, 11; Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, 599.
“This is not a question”: Langworth, 270.
“It’s about bombs”: Karlsch, 34.
Thirty-four years of: “Notes on Captured German Reports on Nuclear Physics,” TNA: AB 1/356; Bagge and Diebner, 157; Karlsch, 32.
11“malarkey”: Bagge and Diebner, 21.
When those among: Ibid., 23; Powers, 15.
“possibility for the”: Letter from Harteck to Reich Ministry of War, April 24, 1939, Papers of Paul Harteck, Rensselaer Institute.
12Otto Hahn, on: Interview with Heisenberg, DIA: DJ 31.
“If there is”: Bagge and Diebner, 23; Powers, 16.
Ten days later: Powers, 14.
13Heisenberg made: Heisenberg Report, “Die Möglichkeiten der technischen Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung,” NB: G-39 (German Reports on Atomic Energy); Cassidy, 422; Interview with Heisenberg, DIA: DJ 31; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 52–54.
“greater than the”: Heisenberg Report, NB: G-39.
On the subject: Ibid.; Cassidy, 422.
In recognition of: Interview with C. F. von Weizsäcker, Oral History, NB; Rosbaud Report, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III, B27, F42.
14By year’s end: Schaaf, 108; Letter from Heisenberg to Harteck, January 18, 1939, DIA: DJ 29; Letter to Rjukan Saltpeterfabriker, January 11, 1940, VM: Box 4F-D17-98; Letter from Harteck to Heisenberg, January 15, 1940, DIA: DJ 29; Walker, German National Socialism, 18–27.
By January 1940: Olsen, 399–400.
When Allier visited: Letter from Jomar Brun to Erik Lunde, October 28, 1968, VM: JBrun, Box 4; Brun, 16–18.
15After settling these: Goldsmith, 87.
On March 9: Letter from Jomar Brun to Erik Lunde, October 28, 1968, VM: JBrun, Box 4; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 108.
To smuggle out: Goldsmith, 86–89; Top Secret Report by J.C.W., March 6, 1946, TNA: CAB 126/145.
2. THE PROFESSOR
17To Trondheim they: Haarr, 290–97; Fen, 34.
“proceed toward Trondheim”: Haarr, 294.
18In an auditorium: Tronstad Family, Author Interview; Njølstad, 15–17. The author is deeply indebted to Olav Njølstad, whose wonderful and informative biography informs much of what we know about Leif Tronstad.
One among them: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
Tronstad informed: N. A. Sørensen, “Minnetale over Professor Leif Tronstad,” LTP; Njølstad, 15–17.
“sleeping government”: Njølstad, 15.
Only a few days: Haarr, 64.
19“What kind of”: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
The day after: Petrow, 70–80.
20Pockets of resistance: Fen, 50–51.
He was charged: N. A. Sørensen, “Minnetale over Professor Leif Tronstad,” LTP; Njølstad, 18–19.
On May 1: Njølstad, 18–20.
“We have cows there”: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
21Three months before: N. A. Sørensen, “Minnetale over Professor Leif Tronstad,” LTP; Jomar Brun, “Leif Tronstad,” Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab, DORA: L-0001.
“I work as a slave”: Letter from Tronstad to Josefine Larsen, November 8, 1924, LTP.
“little angel”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, October 27, 1925, LTP.
“to wait until”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, May 10, 1928, LTP.
22Emblazoned across the: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
“A great day today”: July 23, 1943, LTD.
Talented not just: Njølstad, 55.
“If you like”: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
He was soon: Ibid.; Håkon Flood, “Falt for Sitt Land,” DORA: L-0001; “Professor Leif Tronstad” (Nature, 1945), LTP.
On November 11: Report — “P. M. fra konferanse på Rjukan November 11, 1940 angående kapaciteten av tungtvannsanlegget,” November 11, 1940, VM: Box 4F-D17-98; Letter from A. Enger to Aktieselskabet Rjukanfos, November 19, 1940, VM: Box 4F-D17-98.
23Shortly after Rjukan: Letter to Aktieselskabet Rjukanfos, June 11, 1940, VM: Box 4F-D17-99; Brun Report.
over the course: Report — “P. M. fra konferanse på Rjukan November 11, 1940 angående kapaciteten av tungtvannsanlegget.”
In private: Jan Reimers, “Leif Tronstad slik jeg kjente ham,” NHM: Box 10B; Brun, 19–21; Njølstad, 30–32.
As for Brun: Brun Report.
24In March 1941: Brun, 21–23; Letter to Aktieselskabet Rjukanfos, February 27, 1941, VM: Box 4F-D17-98.
“personally responsible”: Brun Report.
Soon after, Alf: Letter from Bjorn Rørholt to Jomar Brun, March 3, 1985, VM: JBrun, Box 17; Jan Reimers, “Leif Tronstad slik jeg kjente ham,” NHM: Box 10B.
Around this time: Brun, 22.
Realizing the importance: Njølstad, 36–40; Jan Reimers, “Leif Tronstad slik jeg kjente ham,” NHM: Box 10B.
On the morning: Letter from Bjorn Rørholt to Jomar Brun, March 3, 1985, VM: JBrun, Box 17; Interview with Bjorn Rørholt. NHM: Box 16.
25“The Mailman must disappear”: Interview with Haakon Sørbye, NHM: Box 16.
“We must go”: “Fortalt av Hans Kone, Edla Tronstad,” February 1992, DORA: L-0001; Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
“Family, house and”: September 22, 1941, LTD.
At 10:15 a.m.: September 23, 1941, LTD; Njølstad, 41.
“I’m not afraid”: Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
In Oslo he: September 23–24, 1941, LTD.
26“preferential treatment”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, September 22, 1941, LTP.
“Good for a single journey”: Leif Tronstad Passport, DORA: L-0001.
Aboard a bomber: October 19–21, 1941, LTD.
As arranged by SIS: Letter from Bjorn Rørholt to Jomar Brun, May 3, 1985, VM, JBrun, Box 17.
London, a city: October 21, 1941, LTD.
27On his first Sunday: October 26, 1941, LTD.
The spy was: Kramish, 91–96; Powers, 282; Dorril, 134.
In fact, Tronstad soon: Powers, 53, 94.
Tronstad was open: Handwritten note, TNA: AB 1/355.
28One day he met: October 21–December 1, 1941, LTD.
“acquainted with the particular”: Unsigned Letter, October 23, 1941, TNA: AB 1/355.
He was introduced: Urey Report, December 1, 1941, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
During these weeks: Meeting of the Technical Committee, Tube Alloys, December 11, 1941, TNA: CAB 126/46; Rjukan Report, December 20, 1941, TNA: HS 2/184; Memorandum on Operation Clairvoyant, January 1, 1942, TNA: HS 2/218; Letter from Tronstad to Perrin, November 30, 1943, LTP.
29“I want to be close”: November 6, 1941, LTD.
3. BONZO
30Before dawn: TNA: HS 8/435, 14–17, 163–73; Jensen, 37–45; Lunde, 55–57.
At first glance: Personnel File of Haukelid, TNA: HS 9/676/4.
“siren of the fjords”: Life, April 18, 1938.
31“Never give your”: Drummond, 56.
From the time he: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
“This is your”: Haukelid, 43.
“Aim low. A bullet”: Jensen, 41.
“We killed so many”: Bailey, 44.
“Never smoke while”: Jensen, 42.
They blew up: History of the Training Section of SOE 1940–45, TNA: HS 8/435.
day after day: Ibid.
32“One can go”: Myklebust, 54.
“He is a cool and calculating”: Personnel File of Haukelid, TNA: HS 9/676/4.
That same year: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
34One night, when: Letter to Dan Kurzman, KA.
At last, he returned: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
In early April: Haukelid, 16–20.
35“What are you doing?”: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
“Remain true”: Johnson, 47.
Then he got word: Haukelid, 21–25.
36Reichskommissar Terboven: Fen, 63; Johnson, 129–34, 285–87; Petrow, 99–124; Ivar Kragland Interview, IWM: 26660.
Then, in September 1941: Nøkleby, Gestapo, 49–53, 165–69; Kjelstadli, 118–24.
“to their knees”: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 171–72.
37At the same time: Kjelstadli, 124–26.
Haukelid fled: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
The former lawyer: Fehmer Report/Interrogation, NHM: FII, Fehmer.
Blond, six feet tall, intelligent: Resume of Interrogation of Tor Gulbrandsen, October 10, 1942, TNA: HS 2/129.
“He is in”: Haukelid Family, Author Interview; Haukelid, 31.
In fact, Haukelid: Haukelid, 42.
38There, in an attic-floor: Ibid., 40–41; Ragnar Ulstein, Author Interview; Myklebust, 46–48; Rostøl and Amdal, 50–53; Lunde, 54–56. In his memoir, Haukelid sparingly details his meeting with Linge, primarily recounting how impressed he was with the Army captain. Memoirs of Kompani Linge recruits have, almost to a man, a similar recollection of the initial meeting with the officer.
“Are you married”: Myklebust, 46–48.
Marches through Stodham Park: History of the Training Section of SOE 1940–45, TNA: HS 8/435; TNA: HS 2/188; Jensen, 48–71; Haukelid, 43–44; Foot, 80.
39“This is war, not”: Rigden, 362.
40It was a merciless: Haukelid, 44.
“a really sound man”: Personnel File of Haugland, TNA: HS 9/676/2. Some of the personnel file of Haukelid was mistakenly inserted into Haugland’s file; thus the reference.
“We must organize”: Dalton, 368.
Culling staff and methods: Foot, 4–9; Stafford, 11–13.
On January 14: Personnel File of Haugland, TNA: HS 9/676/2.
Roughly 150 Norwegians: Jensen, 47; Myklebust, 66–67.
41While Haukelid: Norwegian Section History, TNA: HS 7/174, p. 27; John Wilson, “Great Britain and the Norwegian Resistance,” NHM: Box 50A; Petrow, 127–29.
The Lofoten debacle: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; “Minute to Minister,” February 1942, TNA: HS 8/321.
A dozen members: Progress Report of SOE for week ending January 28, 1942, TNA: HS 8/220.
42Others, like Jens-Anton: Personnel File of Poulsson, TNA: HS 9/1205/1; Poulsson, 59.
For two weeks: Haukelid, 44–45.
The company showed: January 31–February 3, 1942, LTD; Njølstad, 102–3; Kjelstadli, 176–81.
Wilson told them: Sæter, 41; “Special Confidential Report,” TNA: HS 9/1605/3.
Wilson, who was: Wilson, 1–76.
43“We want a country”: February 1, 1942, LTD; Njølstad, 103.
4. THE DAM-KEEPER’S SON
44On Thursday, March: March 1–17, 1942, ESD; Hauge, 82–83.
45For centuries: ESP.
In the sixteenth: Sagasfos, 24.
“shameless bodies of”: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 38.
At the turn of: “Norsk Hydro,” TNA: DEFE 2/220; Tranøy, 15.
Civilization may have: Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Skinnarland Family, Author Interview; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
46On April 9: Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP.
47He dated a young: Bergens Tidende, February 1, 2015.
At the start of: Skinnarland Notes, ESP. In many histories of the Vemork action, Skinnarland is described as having in hand intelligence on the heavy water activities of the Germans at Vemork at the time he traveled to Britain. This is clearly not the case, as stated by Einar Skinnarland himself. He left for England with the intention of starting a wireless-transmission site to provide intelligence on German activity in the area, no doubt centering on Norsk Hydro.
The son of a ship’s: “Cheese’s Report,” July 30, 1941, TNA: HS 2/150; John Wilson, “On Resistance in Norway,” NHM: Box 50A.
48Two days after: “Preliminary Report on Cheese’s Return Journey,” March 18, 1942, TNA: HS 2/151; Hauge, 90–93.
49“I’m afraid I’ve arrived”: Hauge, 94.
50“We have captured”: Teleprint, March 15, 1942, TNA: HS 2/151.
Through the night: Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Letter, May 29, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 25; “Preliminary Report on Cheese’s Return Journey,” March 18, 1942, TNA: HS 2/151.
“Galtesund making for”: Hauge, 108.
“killing and scorching”: H. G. Wells, The World Set Free (New York: Dutton, 1914), 222.
51Since his first: January 24, 1942, LTD. Tronstad recorded in his diary that he’d finally received an “assignment of great importance for country and people” from the defense minister.
After the failed: January 3, 1942; February 13, 1942; February 17, 1942; February 21, 1942; March 7, 1942, LTD.
“No sacrifice”: January 1, 1942, LTD.
Then he learned: January 12, 1942; March 4, 1942, LTD; Tronstad Family, Author Interview.
52Tronstad prayed: March 7, 1942, LTD.
“To begin with”: Drummond, 19–20.
Now that he: “Clairvoyant,” January 1, 1942, TNA: HS 2/218.
A team was: Rjukan, December 20, 1941, TNA: HS 2/184. There was also a draft of a plan for six men to blow up the pipelines and valves above the plant, but this was clearly nixed in favor of the bombing run, as confirmed by the recollections of Poulsson (Poulsson, 75).
53Before Skinnarland’s arrival: Operation Grouse, March 28, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
Skinnarland could prepare: Ibid. In the original operational instructions, there was no mention of Skinnarland providing intelligence on heavy water. Nonetheless, from the moment Skinnarland landed, this was part of his activity. This is confirmed by everyone from Colonel Wilson (“Heavy Water Operations in Norway,” NHM: Box 50A) to Skinnarland himself (Letter from Einar Skinnarland to Dan Kurzman, ESP).
“young heroes”: March 20, 1942, LTD.
On the clear: “Report on Operation Undertaken by 138 Squadron,” March 29, 1942, TNA: HS 9/1370/8; Drummond, 21–26.
“flying barn door”: Lunde, 77.
“presents for members”: “Operation Grouse,” March 28, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
54Over the course: “Sergeant Einar Skinnarland,” March 6, 1944, TNA: HS 9/1370/8.
“How you are”: Jensen, 94–95.
On the first: Lunde, 73–74.
“dinghy in the”: Jensen, 99.
“He showed great”: Personnel File of Skinnarland, TNA: HS 9/1370/8.
“Feet together and”: Drummond, 21.
55At 11:44 p.m.: “Report on Operation Undertaken by 138 Squadron,” March 29, 1942, TNA: HS 9/1370/8.
“We’re going back”: Interview with Einar Skinnarland, KA.
In the small: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
5. OPEN ROAD
56The Tube Alloys: “Minutes of 4th Meeting of Technical Committee,” April 23, 1942, TNA: CAB 126/46.
“employ a weapon”: Kramish, 59.
more imminent, prompting: Clark, Tizard, 210–14.
“destroy life in a”: Ibid., 214–17.
57“decipher the signals”: Churchill, Their Finest Hour, 338.
“even money”: Lord Cherwell Minute to the Prime Minister,” August 27, 1941, TNA: AB 1/170.
“Although personally I am”: Text of Churchill’s Statement, NA: Harrison-Bundy Papers.
“no time, labour, material”: Letter from General Ismay to Lord President of the Council, September 4, 1941, TNA: CAB 126/330.
Two German pilots: Letter to Dr. Pye, September 11, 1941, TNA: AB 1/651.
One German émigré: Interview with Fritz Reichl, NB: Oral History.
“A tale has”: Telex from R. Sutton Pratt, November 10, 1941, TNA: AB 1/651.
58“and we’re working”: Powers, 124. The famous Heisenberg-Bohr meeting is one of enduring attraction for historians and dramatists alike. What was said, who said it, what they meant — these remain open questions. The author will leave it to such fine books as Thomas Powers’s Heisenberg’s War to parse the truth, but as Powers suggests, the British very likely learned of this conversation by spring 1942.
As early as: Gowing, 43.
After the occupation: Jablonski, 93–95.
But British and: Smyth, 38; Walker, German National Socialism, 22–23.
59“Since recent experiments”: Minutes of 4th Meeting of Technical Committee, April 23, 1942, TNA: CAB 126/46.
In the weeks: Letter from Wilson to Tronstad, May 1, 1942, NHM: Box 10/SIS A; Discussion with Professor Tronstad, May 1, 1942, VM: JBrun, Box 4; May 11–14, 1942, LTD.
“our juice”: Letter from Tronstad to Brun, May 15, 1942, LTP.
60“We must know”: Letter from Tronstad to Wergeland, May 15, 1942, LTP.
When these letters: May 14, 1942, LTD.
Almost a month: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 202; Reports on Televåg, TNA: HS 2/136; Herrington, 336.
“If they can”: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 202.
61If Lillian Syverstad: Lillian Gabrielson, Author Interview, ESP.
On the night: Einar Skinnarland, Rapport avgitt I Oslo, September 6, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 23B; Skogen, 45; ESP; Bergens Tidende, February 1, 2015.
62On October 3: Letter to Paul Harteck from Erhard Schöpke, October 30, 1951, Papers of Paul Harteck, Rensselaer Institute; Concerning the Journey to Norsk Hydro in Oslo and Rjukan, a Report by Paul Harteck, NB: G-341.
“Long live Hydro”: Finn Sørlie, Author Interview.
After Brun gave: Letter to Paul Harteck from Erhard Schöpke, October 30, 1951, Papers of Paul Harteck, Rensselaer Institute; Concerning the Journey to Norsk Hydro in Oslo and Rjukan, a Report by Paul Harteck, NB: G-341; Brun Report; Schöpke Report, August 3, 1943, NB: G-341.
63In January 1942: Brun Report; Brun, 24–28.
On returning home: Minutes of a Meeting with Norsk Hydro, May 27, 1942, NB: G-341; Letter to Paul Harteck from Erhard Schöpke, October 30, 1951, Papers of Paul Harteck, Rensselaer Institute.
64“depend too much”: Drummond, 25.
Another from Brun: Report sent to London, Summer 1942, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Brun, 28–31.
On June 4: Speer, 269–71; Bagge and Diebner, 29–31; Cassidy, 455–57; Macrakis, 173–75; Powers, 142–50; Roane, 48–49, 78.
Thanks to the Nazis’: Irving, 72; Walker, German National Socialism, 26–27. There has been much written about the erroneous calculations of Walther Bothe on graphite as a moderator, namely that Bothe’s findings contributed to the Germans’ concentrating solely on heavy water. Making a well-sourced, thorough explanation of why the German program would have pursued heavy water regardless of Bothe’s work, Mark Walker writes that Heisenberg figured a reactor using graphite required “much more uranium and much more moderator than a heavy water device” and that Army Ordnance determined that “boron and cadmium-free carbon of sufficient purity could be produced, but only at prohibitive costs.”
65Over seventy scientists: Werner Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” Nature (August 16, 1947), NB: Goudsmit Papers, III, B10, F94; C. F. von Weizsäcker, “A Possibility to Produce Energy from U-238,” 1940, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III, B10, F95; Walther Bothe, “Die Diffusionslänge für thermische Neutronen in Kohle,” 1940–1941, Deutsches Museum Archiv.
“an open road”: Interview with Werner Heisenberg, DIA: DJ 31.
But two months: Bagge and Diebner, 28–29; Nagel, 77.
“In the present”: Bagge and Diebner, 29–32.
66The very same: Vortragsfolge, February 26, 1942, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III, B25, F13.
“Research in the”: Goebbels, 140.
“power ships, possibly”: Karlsch, 87–89. For many years this speech by Heisenberg was lost to historians. In 2005 Rainer Karlsch found a copy in a Russian archive, revealing indeed that Heisenberg had promoted a plutonium bomb, but did not see it as imminently achievable.
67Basic research on: Walker, German National Socialism, 32.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill: Sandys, 149–51; Meacham, 180–84; Moran, 50–57.
68Earlier that week: Memorandum Report on Proposed Experiments with Uranium, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
A “Uranium Committee”: Smyth, 72–84.
“Nobody can tell”: Letter to Vannevar Bush from Leó Szilárd, May 26, 1942, NA: Bush-Conant Papers; Letter to Compton from Leó Szilárd, June 1, 1942, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
“Ok. V.B.”: Letter to President Roosevelt from Vannevar Bush, June 17, 1942, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
69On June 20: Meacham, 183–84.
“What if the enemy”: Churchill, Hinge of Fate, 380.
A few days: Note on Mr. Norman Brooke, Deputy Secretary of War Cabinet Office, July 3, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184; Akers Discussion with Norman Brooke, June 30, 1942, NHM: Box 16.
6. COMMANDO ORDER
73“the greatest opportunity”: Poulsson, 76.
Over the next: SOE Group B Training Syllabus, TNA: HS 7/52–54.
74“Remember: the best”: “Opening Address,” TNA: HS 7/52–54a.
“Much more intelligent”: Poulsson Personnel File, TNA: HS 9/1205/1.
Poulsson had been: Poulsson Family, Author Interview; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189.
75“The saddest day”: Poulsson, 31; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189.
“mud and stone”: Poulsson, 49–59. Quotes in this passage are from Poulsson’s diary, excerpted in his memoir on the Vemork raid.
After concluding his: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Poulsson, 80–85.
76Reassured by their: Letter from Malcolm Munthe to Poulsson, Haukelid, Helberg, and Kjelstrup, June 13, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
“fit for duty”: Knut Haukelid Personnel File, TNA: HS 9/676/4. It is unclear from the records exactly when this accident occurred — and when Haukelid was removed from the roster. One doctor’s report is dated mid-August, another mid-July. Poulsson states that Helberg replaced Haukelid. Another member of the party, Gjestland, was also removed from the list.
The inventory list: Stores Ready to Be Packed for Grouse I, NHM: SOE, Box 22; Gallagher, 19.
77“small independent groups”: Operation Instructions for Grouse, August 31, 1942, NHM: Box 25.
That same day: August 31, 1942, LTD.
And indeed, since: Letter from Keyes to Prime Minister, October 14, 1941, DEFE 2/698.
Since Churchill’s return: Mann, 104, 146, 165–68.
78The four men: Lurgan Report, September 3, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184.
Tronstad was desperate: September 3, 1942, LTD.
But at times: October 24, 1942, LTD.
79After celebrating his: March 27–August 30, 1942, LTD.
Earlier in the: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 197–99; Warbey, 140–44.
“War makes the”: August 7, 1942, LTD.
“Somewhere in England”: Letters from Poulsson to Haukelid, September 10, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
Once they connected: Letter from Munthe to Gjestland, August 8, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
80“Of course we”: Letter from Poulsson/Helberg to Haukelid, September 29, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst: Freshman Report, November 14, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
With a face: Falkenhorst Personnel File, PERS 6–24, Barch-MA; Bericht des Genralobersten v. Falkenhorst, ZA1–1749, Barch-MA; Petrow, 31–34.
81“equipped with automatic”: Freshman Report, November 14, 1942, NHM: Box 10B.
“I have sincerely”: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 212.
“to atone for several”: Ibid., 213.
The Swedish border: Kjelstadli, 166–68; Nøkleby, Gestapo, 175–77.
Terboven intensified: Kjelstadli, 154–56; Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 215–16.
82“Henceforth all enemy”: German Order to Kill Captured Allied Commandos and Parachutists, Report FF-2127, TNA: WO 331/7. Although dated October 18, 1942, this report states “the order was distributed to regimental commanders and staff officers of corresponding rank on October 10.” There was also a communiqué to the Wehr-macht on October 7 that basically stated the same.
7. MAKE A GOOD JOB
83When Colonel Wilson: Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624.
“Finally”: Sæter, 45.
At Chiltern Court: Ibid., 56.
Rather than fomenting: Freshman — Appendix A, October 17, 1942, NHM: Box 25.
84Then Wilson led: Sæter, 56–57; Interview with Haugland, IWM, 26624.
“This is Piccadilly”: Freshman — Appendix A, October 17, 1942, NHM: Box 25.
85“This mission is”: Nota tang Freshman, June 30/03, NHM: Box 25; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Myklebust, 88–89.
“Make a good”: Sæter, 57.
At STS 26’s: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“valuable work”: Ibid.
“vocational school for”: Ibid.
Rønneberg was from: Ibid.
“If you were”: Myklebust, 21.
86At twenty: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187.
“If you only”: Myklebust, 12.
“We’re off to”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
87“Number one, go!”: Air Transport Operation Report, October 18, 1942, TNA: HS 2/185; Gallagher, 20–21.
The Vidda spread: Topography of Hardangervidda Report, October 13, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184; Mears, 47–49; Adamson and Klem, 141–42.
88As he scanned: Poulsson Report; Gallagher, 22; Berg, 104.
They made camp: Grouse Equipment, NHM: SOE, Box 22; Myklebust, 86; Lauritzen, 32.
“There’s a new”: Halvorsen, Den Norske Turistforening årbok 1947.
“You don’t jump”: Sæter, 59.
89The men spent: Poulsson, “General Report,” VM: JBrun, Box 4; Haugland Report; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624; Gallagher, 24–25.
8. KEEN AS MUSTARD
90On October 20: Report from Skinnarland, November 1, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Ueland, 60–61; Message from Stockholm, June 15, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
“This is the latest”: Operation Grouse Instruction, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
91“I’ll see you”: Recollections of Tomy Brun, LTP; Letter from Brun to Commander Thorsen, September 8, 1984, VM: JBrun, Box 17; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 167–69.
Winston Churchill himself: November 3–7, 1942, LTD.
Vemork was no: Personal for Captain Tronstad, October 28, 1942, NHM: Box 10/SIS A; Freshman Report, November 14, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
92At 9:00 a.m. sharp: Drew, 84–85; Henniker, Memoirs of a Junior Officer, 1, 22–188. With respect to Operation Freshman, the book by Drew et al. served as an invaluable resource and should be consulted by anybody looking for more information into this part of the story.
“keen as mustard”: Note written by Mark Henniker, given to Peter Yeates, 1983, KA.
Henniker had reluctantly: Minutes of Meeting in COHQ, October 26, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Note written by Mark Henniker, given to Peter Yeates, 1983, KA.
93Every single sapper: Notes, KA; Yorkshire Evening Post, August 15, 1984; Drew, 113–25.
Henniker instructed them: Mark Henniker, Report on Operation Freshman, November 23, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224.
In their first: Report by Group Captain Tom Cooper, 1942, TNA: AIR 20/11930; Drew, 87–89; Interview Notes, KA.
“You aren’t to know”: Drew, 87–89.
Although the Germans: Lynch, 8–21.
Group Captain Tom Cooper: Ibid., 196–97.
94It was the duration: Report by Group Captain Tom Cooper, 1942, TNA: AIR 20/11930; Wilson, 84.
Combined Operations had: Freshman Plan, October 14, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Notes on Practicability of Operation, October 30, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Freshman Outline Plan, October 13, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Notes on Operation Freshman, October 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Mark Henniker, Report on Operation Freshman, November 23, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224. The records of reports and minutes of these meetings reveal the fascinating iterative process the planners of Combined Operations went through in preparing for Operation Freshman. Hindsight vision is perfect, but one cannot fault these men for lack of consideration or preparation.
“In all probability”: Minutes of Meeting on Operation Freshman, October 14, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224.
The SOE suggested: Operation Freshman, Outline Plan, October 14, 1943, NHM: Box 10C; Report on 38 Wing Operation Order #5 — “Operation Freshman,” December 8, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
95“I’ve just been”: Special Report on Escape Routes from Vemork to Swedish Frontier, October 12, 1942, NHM: Box 10/SIS C.
Suggestions were made: Freshman Report from Barstow, November 3, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Letter from A.P.1 for C.A.P., October 31, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Letter from Colonel Gubbins to Major General Haydon, October 30, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
“It is of”: Letter from Mountbatten to A.O.C.-in-C., October 29, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
“of the highest priority”: Notes on Operation Freshman, October 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
At noon on: Freshman Training, October 27, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Drew, 92.
96If the British: Plant Installation and Proposed Demolition, November 16, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Vemork Power Station and Electrolysis Plant Report, October 30, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Operation Lurgan, Preliminary Technical Report, TNA: HS 2/185.
Knut Haugland was: Poulsson Report; Haugland Report; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 27212; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624; Poulsson, 91–99; Gallagher, 24–27; Sæter, 57–62.
98“We are fairly”: Poulsson Report.
He had always: Haugland Family, Author Interview; Sæter, 9–40; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624.
99On the call to: Sæter, 26.
In Oslo, he: Personnel File of Haugland, TNA: HS 9/676/2.
“Quiet, keen, hardworking”: Ibid.
Now, thirteen days: Haugland Report; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 27212.
100Eventually Haugland’s teammates: Haukelid, 97–99.
“Helberg proved the”: Poulsson Report.
At the dam: Claus Helberg, “Report About Einar Skinnarland,” July 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
With new snowfall: Njølstad, 99; Berg, 114.
101The next day, Haugland: Report; Sæter, 45, 62; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 27212; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624.
“Happy landing in spite”: Message from Grouse Primus, November 9, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
9. AN UNCERTAIN FATE
102In his fifth-floor: Hurum, 114–16.
“We were very”: Message to Grouse, November 2, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22. In the text, the author references Tronstad returning this message. In the archives, there are few references indicating who penciled the responses for Grendon Hall Home Station operators to transmit, but those that exist cite either Tronstad or Wilson.
Fearing the worst: Private cypher from Stockholm, November 8, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
“Battery run down”: Message from Grouse, November 9, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/220.
103“Stick to it”: From Colonel Wilson to Grouse, November 9, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184.
“nice, flat ground”: Message from Grouse, November 10, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/220.
On November 12: Letter from Jomar Brun to Arnold Kramish, August 6, 1986, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Letter from Jomar Brun to Bjørn Rørholt, May 25, 1985, VM: JBrun, Box 17; November 12, 1942, LTD.
“all necessary measures”: Niederschrift — Besuch von Regierungs-Baurat Dr. Diebner, September 2, 1942, VM: Box 4F/D17/98.
Confident that Suess: Hans Suess, “Virus House: Comments and Reminiscences,” Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, June 1968; Brun, 29–30.
Vemork had: Freshman Report, November 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
104Despite Tronstad’s: November 12, 1942, LTD.
“super bombs”: Clark, Tizard, 215.
While this mission: Progress Report for SN Section, November 3, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 3A.
“The little boy is”: Letter from Bassa to Leif, October 11, 1942, LTP.
“I am well”: Letter from Leif to Bassa, October 4, 1942, LTP.
On November 15: Minutes of Meeting held at 154 Chiltern Court, November 15, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224; November 15, 1942 and November 20, 1942, LTD; Freshman — Translations of Messages, November 15, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184.
105“handsome and undoubtedly”: November 15, 1942, LTD.
“Good policy for”: Freshman Report, November 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
In a dark: Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624; Myklebust, 100–101.
106In the three: Poulsson Report; Claus Helberg, “Report about Einar Skinnarland,” July 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Haugland was the most: Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624; Sæter, 65–66.
“Larger lakes like”: Message from Grouse, November 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
107That same day in Scotland: Personnel File of Haukelid, TNA: HS 9/676/4.
“Which is it”: Note written by Mark Henniker, given to Peter Yeates, 1983, KA; Henniker, Image of War, 95–98.
108“dark and light”: Henniker, Image of War, 95–98.
“it is too”: Note from C.C.O., Operation Freshman, November 18, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224.
Churchill had already: Memorandum to Prime Minister, November 17, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224.
109Cooper had his own: Petterssen, Forecasting for the Freshman Operation, November 22, 1942, NHM, FOIV, Box D17. It is worth noting that Petterssen was the meteorologist who General Eisenhower called on to set the date of the D-day landing. His call to postpone the invasion by a day because of weather likely saved innumerable lives.
Wallis Jackson, Bill: Drew, 93–103; Interview with Michael Douglas, IWM: 31404; Report by Group Captain Tom Cooper, 1942, TNA: AIR 20/11930.
“I need 250”: Drew, 97.
110“Mamie, if you”: Letter from Wallis Jackson, November 18, 1942, KA.
“A few lines”: Drew, 118–19.
“Whatever happens”: Report by Group Captain Tom Cooper, 1942, TNA: AIR 20/11930.
They wore steel: Freshman Report — Appendix A — Standard Gear, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
Most of them: Drew, 103.
The floor beneath: Ibid., 105.
111After a slight: Freshman Message List, November 18–20, 1942, TNA, DEFE 2/219; Report on 38 Wing Operation Order No. 5, December 8, 1942, TNA, DEFE 2/219.
Including aircrews: Note written by Mark Henniker, given to Peter Yeates, 1983, KA. There is disparity in the archives with respect to the time standards used by the Freshman crews and the Grouse team. To prevent confusion, the author used Norwegian standard time, even when referring to the takeoff of the planes from Skitten.
“Two small birds”: November 19, 1942, LTD.
After Haugland acknowledged: Freshman — Appendix A, October 17, 1942, NHM: Box 25; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 27212; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Poulsson Report.
10. THE LOST
113“I hear the Rebecca”: Interview with Knut Haugland, IWM: 26624; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; TNA: HS 2/190; Sæter, 66–67; Poulsson Report.
114Over the next: Poulsson Report.
Flying with the moon: Report on 38 Wing Operation Order No. 5, December 8, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Letter from Colonel Wilson to Colonel Head, January 21, 1943, TNA: DEFE 2/224; Drew, 127–31.
116Flight Lieutenant Parkinson: Report on 38 Wing Operation Order No. 5, December 8, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Eyewitness Report — The Planes that Were Wrecked in the Egersund District, April–June 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Report from Johannes Mukejord, KA; Berglyd, 59–61. Although the exact course of Halifax B is unknown, it is clear the plane reached the site, since Haugland heard the Eureka/Rebecca tone, and Halifax A’s was broken. Further, there were reports from Norwegians around Egersund who reported that the plane came around several times before crashing, obviously searching for its lost glider.
Four miles away: Report from Anne Lima, March 13, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Report to Chief of Police Rogaland from Lensmann in Helland, November 21, 1942, TNA: WO 331/18; Statement of Lensmann Trond Hovland, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Statement by Tellef Tellefsen, June 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Case No. UK-G/B. 476, United Nations War Crime Commission Against Von Behrens and Probst, TNA: WO 331/387.
117Through the night: Freshman Message List, November 18–20, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219; Drew, 169.
118That same afternoon: November 20, 1942, LTD.
In silence: Drummond, 51–52.
Wilson made it: John Wilson, “On Resistance in Norway,” NHM: Box 50A.
119“Thank God for”: Ibid.
“We consider that”: Letter from Gubbins to Haydon, November 20, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
“with the same”: Letter from Hansteen to Mountbatten, November 21, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
“Your work has”: Message to Grouse, November 20, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
“During the night”: BBC Monitoring Service — Freshman, November 21, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/224.
Tronstad was certain: November 21, 1942, LTD.
“Alas”: Minute by the Prime Minister, November 22, 1942, TNA: DEFE 2/219.
After Lieutenant Allen: Statement of Lensmann Trond Hovland, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18.
120Walther Schrottberger: Letter from Major Rawlings to PS&W Branch, July 2, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18.
Given that their: Wigner, 447–48.
“no quarter should”: German Order to Kill Captured Allied Commandos and Parachutists, Report FF-2127, TNA: WO 331/7.
While orders on: Shooting by the Germans of Allied Personnel Captured in Norway, January 14, 1944, TNA: HS 2/184; Case No. UK-G/B. 476, United Nations War Crime Commission Against Von Behrens and Probst, TNA: WO 331/387; Statement by Werner Siemsen, July 6, 1947, TNA: WO 331/387; Report on the Interrogation of Colonel Oberst, September 12, 1945, TNA: WO 331/387; Statement by Cid Gunner, June 29, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Statement by Michael Spahn, June 29, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Statement by Rolf Greve, June 14, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18.
Then, in the late: Berglyd, 50–52; Statement of Kurt Hagedorn, August 31, 1945, TNA: WO 331/387; Statement by Cid Gunner, June 29, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Letter from Major Rawlings to PS&W Branch, July 2, 1945, TNA: WO 331/18; Statement by Tellef Tellefsen, June 1945, TNA: WO 331/18.
121“Towing aircraft’s”: Tagesmeldung, November 20, 1942, RW 39/39, Barch-MA; BDS in Olso Berichtet, November 21, 1942, DIA: DJ 31; Irving, 139–42.
The thirty-six-year-old: Brauteset, 32.
Born in the industrial city: Fehlis Personnel Files, VBS 286/6400009794, Bundesarchiv, Berlin.
122He ordered them: Interrogation of Wilhelm Esser, July 10, 1945, TNA: WO 331/386.
James Cairncross: Drew, 111–14.
After the crash: Berglyd, 63–79; Statement of Ravn Tollefsen, date unknown, TNA: WO 331/386; Statement of Martin Fylgjesdal, August 3, 1945, TNA: WO 331/386; Statement of Sigurd Stangeland, July 25, 1945.
A German patrol: Statement of Fritz Seeling, November 6, 1945; Statement of Fritz Feuerlein, September 28, 1945, TNA: WO 331/386; Statement of Kurt Seulen, date unknown, TNA: WO 331/386; Statement of Erich Hoffmann, December 12, 1945. Four of the participants in these atrocious acts were captured after the war. As one might imagine, their accounts are contradictory, likely owing to an attempt to paint themselves in the best light.
11. THE INSTRUCTOR
127“Sabotage troops were”: Report from Wilson (SN), November 21, 1942, TNA: HS 2/184.
Reports from London: Poulsson Report; Message from Grouse, November 23, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
For now, the four: Poulsson Report.
128After dividing up: Poulsson, 109–15; Sæter, 74.
129“You’re to be”: Joachim Rønneberg, “Operation Gunnerside” (IFS Info, 1995); Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187; Gallagher, 40.
When Martin Linge: Ragnar Ulstein, Author Interview.
“He had a quality”: Myklebust, 84–85.
130“Where are we”: December 1, 1942, LTD; Minutes of Meeting Held at Norgeby House, November 26, 1942, TNA: HS 2/185; Interview with Joachim Rønneberg, KA.
Birger Strømsheim was: Personnel File of Strømsheim, TNA: HS 9/1424/2; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“reliable as a rock”: Ibid.
Next was Fredrik: Personnel File of Kayser, TNA: HS 9/824/2; Lunde, 1–68.
131Third was Kasper: Personnel File of Idland, TNA: HS 9/774/4; Rostøl and Amdal, 1–62.
His fourth choice: Personnel File of Storhaug, TNA: HS 9/1420/7; Lunde, 88.
The fifth member: Ragnar Ulstein, Author Interview; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Myklebust, 108–11.
132“Now, I do”: Rostøl and Amdal, 75.
He then outlined: Myklebust, 107–9.
In a clearing: Nøkleby, Gestapo, 67–68; Wright, 110.
Gestapo officer Wilhelm Esser: Interrogation of Wilhelm Esser, July 10, 1945, TNA: WO 331/386; Statement of Erik Dahle, August 15, 1945, TNA: WO 331/383; Statement of Hans Behncke, August 14, 1945, TNA: WO 331/383.
133“special liquids”: “Bericht über Sabotageunternehmen Lysefjord-Egersund, December 27, 1942,” RW 39/40, Barch-MA.
at the Kummersdorf: Nagel, 45–47; Abschrift: Uran-Bomben, May 8, 1943, DIA: DJ 29.
In late fall: “Bericht über einer Würfelversuch mit Uranoxyd und Paraffin,” G-125, Deutsches Museum Archiv; Interview with Georg Hartwig, NB: Oral History; Walker, German National Socialism, 95–97.
“dreadful drudgery”: Nagel, 73.
134“If only all”: Ibid.
Since the meeting: Interview with Erich Bagge, DIA: DJ 29.
In early summer: Irving, 117–18; Walker, German National Socialism, 84.
Then, on June 23: “Bericht über zwei Unfalle beim Umgang mit Uranmetall,” G-135, Deutsches Museum Archiv; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 188–90.
The disaster did not: “Bericht über einer Würfelversuch mit Uranoxyd und Paraffin,” G-125, Deutsches Museum Archiv; Interview with Georg Hartwig, NB: Oral History; Bagge and Diebner, 25; Karlsch, 73, 98–100; Walker, German National Socialism, 97.
135On December 2: Rhodes, 401, 438–40.
“Nothing very spectacular”: Wigner, 447.
12. THOSE LOUTS WON’T CATCH US
136Minutes before dawn: “Gestapo Lager Razzia og Unntagstilstand i Rjukan,” NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Sørlie Memoir.
Rolf Sørlie: Sørlie Memoir.
137Hans and Elen: Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP.
Knut Haukelid arrived: December 8, 1942, LTD.
“strayed into protective”: Njølstad, 173.
Although Haukelid did: Ragnar Ulstein, Author Interview; Myklebust, 108–9.
“Heavy water is very”: Haukelid, 74; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
138He had come: Instruks for Bonzo, December 18, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Letter from Malcolm Munthe to Gjestland, August 8, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
“They will do all”: Haukelid, 75.
“Our working conditions”: Message from Swallow, December 9, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
139“highest possible priority”: Method of Clearing Traffic, October 30, 1942, TNA: HS 2/172.
“Four Gestapo are”: Skogen, 12–14; Friend Report — Øystein Jahren, NHM: SOE, Box 23B.
At that same: Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; December 10, 1942, ESD; Report by Gunlsik Skogen, December 1, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174; Ueland, 117–20.
140In the late: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“What the hell’s”: Ibid.
In the ten: Ibid.; Myklebust, 110–17; Gunnerside — Operating Instructions, December 15, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Rønneberg Report.
142“Well, you just”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“Seven people properly”: O’Connor, 47–48.
Rheam wanted his: Ibid., 45.
The Gunnerside team: Orientering vedr. Gunnerside. December 11, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Gunnerside — Operating Instructions, December 15, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Myklebust, 119–21; Rostøl and Amdal, 74–78; Lunde, 88–90; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
143When they were: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Lunde, 89; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
“That’s doomed from”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
144“Who’s there?”: Sørlie Memoir; Skogen, 29–31; Sæter, 74.
145Each of the: Poulsson Report; Sæter, 74–75.
“It’s full of vitamins”: Gallagher, 80; Sæter, 75.
“active part”: Message to Swallow, December 13, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
Misfortune hounded them: Poulsson Report; Sæter, 74–75; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623; Mears, 101.
146Skinnarland provided them: December 10–18, 1942, ESD.
On December 17: Message to Swallow, December 17, 1942, NHM: SOE, Box 22; History of Grouse/Swallow Eureka, December 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“If the conditions”: Letter from George Rheam, December 18, 1942, TNA: HS 2/185.
“For the sake of”: Handwritten briefing notes, December 14, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Rostøl and Amdal, 76. There are quite a few versions of Tronstad’s parting remarks to the Gunnerside team. This quote combines material in his briefing notes and Rostøl and Amdal’s account.
“You won’t get rid”: Myklebust, 127.
13. RULES OF THE HUNTER
147The four bearded: Poulsson, 19–21; Poulsson Report. In many of the histories, this cabin is referred to as Svensbu, a later name. In cipher messages at the time with Home Station, the cabin is referred to as Fetterhyatta (Cousin’s Cabin). Further, there remains some confusion on whether Poulsson traveled to the cabin by himself a few days before the others, or at the same time.
“En route home”: Poulsson, 90.
148The canoe was now: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Svein Vetle Trae, Author Interview.
“Just wait until”: Gallagher, 50.
Days passed: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Gallagher, 50–51.
149“Let’s go home”: Haukelid, 77.
The men ruminated: Myklebust, 126–28.
One way or: Instruks for Bonzo, December 18, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
“Crisp and clear”: Gallagher, 51–52.
“Your rifle is a weapon”: “Regler og forskrifter,” courtesy of Mia Poulsson.
150His team had: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189.
“They are like”: Ingstad, 156.
After zigzagging to: Poulsson, 20–22; Gallagher, 49–65; Svein Vetle Trae, Author Interview. For this narrative of the hunt, the author drew from Assault in Norway. Gallagher wrote a masterful account of this first successful kill that saved Grouse, and Poulsson clearly helped inform him on the details.
153The next night: Sæter, 75; Poulsson, 22–23.
154“She’ll Be Coming”: Poulsson, 24.
In his office: Letter to Fehlis, December 14, 1942, VM: A-1108/Ak, Box 1. This is one of a series of letters between Norsk Hydro and the Germans to obtain the release of Skinnarland, Jahren, and Skogen. They were all denied.
He had recently: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 242.
Every week, 99.5 percent pure: Memorandum from N. Stephansen, June 1943, NHM: Box 10/SISA.
Once the crates: Schöpke Report, August 6, 1943, NB: G-341.
155“Our security teams”: Bemerkungen zum Schutz der We-Wi-Betriebe, December 20, 1942, RW 39/40, Barch-MA.
On the morning of: Memo of “Arresterte funksjonarer og arbeidere ved våre bedrifter,” April 1, 1942, VM: A-1108/AK, Box 1.
A thirty-minute, steep: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Kjell Nielssen Remembrance, NHM: Box 10B.
“great steak and pancakes”: December 24, 1942, ESD.
156On December 27: December 27, 1942, ESD; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
Inside, he found: Poulsson, 116.
14. THE LONELY, DARK WAR
157Marstrander’s ship hit: Hauge, 122; Progress Report for SN Section for Period January 2–9, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 3A.
“We grow harder”: January 6, 1943, LTD.
Over the holidays: December 23, 1942–January 1, 1943, LTD.
Bassa had written: Letter from Bassa to Tronstad, December 20, 1942, LTP.
“Do you think”: Letter from Bassa to Tronstad, December 29, 1942, LTP.
“We’ve been mostly”: Letter from Sidsel to Tronstad, January 3, 1943, LTP.
158“big and pretty”: Letter from Tronstad to Sidsel, LTP. From references in the letter, this note was written soon after Christmas 1942.
To cripple the: December 16, 1942, LTD.
In a small: Skogen, 1–74. All quotes and descriptions of the horrendous conditions faced by Skogen come from his fine memoir. His recollections of torture at the hands of the Gestapo match those of many survivors from Møllergata 19 and Grini.
160“enhanced interrogation”: Nøkleby, Gestapo, 59–65. As Nøkleby relates in her study of the Gestapo, this is the term the Germans used.
On January 19: Statement of Oscar Hans, August 11, 1945, TNA: WO 331/383; Affidavit in Respect of the Case of Able Seaman R. P. Evans, TNA: WO 331/383; Statement of Alfred Zeidler, TNA: WO 331/383; Affidavit of Erik Dahle, TNA: WO 331/18; War Crimes — Operation Freshman (Trandum), November 28, 1945, TNA: WO 331/17; Interrogation of Wilhelm Esser, July 10, 1945, TNA: WO 331/386.
161Huddled in his: Poulsson, 124–25. This scene of a typical morning was recounted by Poulsson in a diary entry from which this passage was adapted. He did not state the specific date, but it was clearly within the January moon phase in which a drop could occur.
162“Murky weather”: Poulsson, 125.
Sometimes they spent: Poulsson Report.
Through sources in: Interrogation of Lt. Skinnarland, July 27, 1945, TNA: HS 9/1370/8; Helge Dahl, Rjukan, 284.
“Weather still bad”: Message to Swallow, January 16, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
There were petty: Report from Claus Helberg, July 10, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624; Lauritzen, 63; Berg, 120–22.
163“As number three”: Lauritzen, 63.
When they ran: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
Through the window: Haukelid, 15–16.
164Rønneberg had used: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Letter from Tronstad to Rønneberg, January 1943, TNA: HS 2/185; Rostøl and Amdal, 78.
Now, sitting in: Handwritten letter from Rønneberg to Tronstad, January 26, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Air Transport Operation Report, January 23, 1943, TNA: HS 2/131; Summary of Meeting Gunnerside Abortive Sortie, January 26, 1943, TNA: HS 2/185; Letter from Flight Lieutenant Ventry to Captain Adamson, January 25, 1943, TNA: HS 2/185; Lunde, 92–93; Haukelid, 38; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“sniff our way”: Myklebust, 130.
165That night, on: Claus Helberg, “Report about Einar Skinnarland,” July 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Poulsson Report; Poulsson, 120–22.
“Deeply regret weather”: Message to Swallow, January 28, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
“Jan. 29 — Skinnarland”: Poulsson Report; Poulsson, 129.
Skinnarland mostly jotted: January 28–February 13, 1943, ESD.
At the approach: Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624.
166“What was the”: Poulsson, 127.
15. THE STORM
167After the failed: Report on “Crispie,” TNA: HS 2/185; Letter from Rønneberg to Tronstad, December 29, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“German troops have”: Messages from Grouse, February 8–10, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
Since the Freshman: Report from Rjukan, December 1942, TNA: HS 2/186; Poulsson Report.
168Paul Rosbaud: Njølstad, 251–52; Kramish, 129.
Harald Wergeland: Rosbaud Report, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III, B27, F42; Kramish, 188–89; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 164; Hinsley, 123–27.
“not to be”: “On Memorandum of February 6th, 1943 submitted by N. Stephansen on the production of D20 of Norsk Hydro,” NHM: Box 10/SIS/A.
“intended to make”: Obituary of Njål Hole, written by Jomar Brun, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Letter from Njål Hole to Tronstad, January 19, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS/A.
169Rain battered: Most Secret Report of Operations Undertaken by 138 Squadron on Night February 16–17, 1943, TNA: HS 2/131; Haukelid, 81.
“Whatever you do”: Bailey, 140.
After four days: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“We’ll find our”: Myklebust, 132–33.
“Ten minutes”: Haukelid, 81; Rostøl and Amdal, 45.
170“We may be”: Haukelid, 83.
Then the team: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Rønneberg Report.
171“We have to”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
The huge storm: Poulsson Report; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
172Rønneberg took the: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
With no wireless set: Gallagher, 70–71.
173“Same weather. Storm”: Rønneberg Report.
In the middle: Gallagher, 71–72; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“The storm raged”: Rønneberg Report.
174As quickly as: Ibid; Gallagher, 73.
At 1:00 p.m. the: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Myklebust, 137–39; Haukelid, 84–85; Rostøl and Amdal, 80–81. All quotes from this section were derived from an assembly of these sources. They largely matched one another.
176Kristiansen immediately proved: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
At the entrance: Haukelid, 86–87.
177Haukelid crept through: Ibid., 88.
“Dr. Livingstone, I presume”: Drummond, 69.
Crowded into Fetter: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189.
“tobacco directly imported”: Haukelid, 88.
“Stay on the”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Rønneberg Report.
16. BEST-LAID PLANS
179After a restless: Orientering vedr. Gunnerside, December 11, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Sørlie Memoir; Haukelid, 97–104; Poulsson, 135–41; Lunde, 96–98; Berg, 125–26; Halvorsen, Den Norske Turistforening årbok 1947; Sæter, 84–86; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187; Rønneberg Report; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623; February 19, 1943, ESD; Letters from/to Poulsson and Rønneberg, NHM: Box 25; Letters from/to Poulsson and Helberg, NHM: Box 25; Notes from Poulsson, NHM: Box 25; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31. The many original sources given here reflect an enduring controversy among members of the sabotage operation as to who suggested what in terms of the overall planning. However, one thing is clear: Tronstad suggested the approach across the gorge as offering the team the best chance of success.
181“Is that edible?”: Haukelid, 95–96.
On Thursday, February 25: Sørlie Memoir; Finn Sørlie, Author Interview.
“I’m glad it’s”: Sørlie Memoir.
182Throughout Friday: Rønneberg Report; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
Helberg began: Gallagher, 85–86; Poulsson Notes on Colonel Wilson’s Book, November 2003, NHM: Box 25.
183“If trees are”: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Poulsson Notes on Blood and Water manuscript, NHM: Box 25; Orientering vedr. Gunnerside, December 11, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
The central concept: Bericht über einen Versuch mit Würfeln aus Uran-Metall und Schwerem Eis, G-212, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III/B25/F16; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 210; Nagel, 81–82.
“If you make”: Ermenc, 109–11; Interview with Professor Paul Harteck, DIA: DJ 29.
Paul Harteck had: Letter from Harteck to Rust, June 26, 1942, Papers of Paul Harteck, Rensselaer Institute.
Diebner had also: Sagasfos, 123; Letter from Rjukan Saltpeterfabriker, March 2, 1942, VM: Box 4F/D17/98; Notes on Irving Manuscript Draft, NHM: Box 10B; Harteck Report: “Besichtigung des Elektrolysewerkes Sinigo bei Meran,” December 1, 1942, DIA: DJ 29; Walker, German National Socialism, 119.
184For his next: Schöpke Report, August 3, 1943, NB: G-341; Nagel, 80–81.
Interest in the: Karlsch, 45–53, 126; Nagel, 42–44; Irving, 77, 125–26, 153–55; Walker, German National Socialism, 88. There has been much written about the June 4, 1942 meeting with Speer sounding the death knell to the Nazi atomic program. If the meeting had gone the other way, it might have prompted an immediate Manhattan Project–like intensity to the program, vastly improving the odds of a German bomb. That said, after June 1942, the project still held a high DE rating (Dringlichkeitsentwicklung), the highest priority rating for material/manpower, and there were a plethora of powerful patrons at the ready if progress could be shown.
An hour after: Halvorsen, Den Norske Turistforening årbok 1947; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
185“It’s possible”: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
Now they could: Again, the author refers to the plethora of contradicting original sources from an earlier endnote (“After a restless”; see previous page) to divine who suggested what and supported whom on the Gunnerside operational plan.
186“Nonsense”: Myklebust, 150–51; Rostøl and Amdal, 84–85.
That same afternoon: February 27, 1943, LTD.
“Everything in order”: Message from Swallow, February 25, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
the Carhampton operation: Carhampton Report, January 25, 1943, TNA: HS 2/130; Herrington, 157–58; Hauge, 133–58.
187When Tronstad arrived: February 27, 1943, LTD.
“Do you want”: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 240.
Sitting outside the: Haukelid, 104–5.
“We were in”: Interview with Lillean Tangstad, KA; Rostøl and Amdal, 85.
188“God save the King”: Interview with Lillean Tangstad, KA.
17. THE CLIMB
189At 8:00 p.m.: Rønneberg Report; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Draft of Rønneberg BBC Speech, TNA: HS 7/181; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Haukelid, 102–8; Poulsson, 143–46; Gallagher, 96–110; Rostøl and Amdal, 86–88; Lunde, 99–102; Berg, 127–30; Myklebust, 150–57. The events of the night of the Gunnerside mission, February 27–28, have been chronicled many times, both in interviews, memoirs, and reports (not to mention books). For this chapter, these are the sources from which the author drew his own account, most of them primary — or drawn from participant recollections. Unless there is a direct quote or distinct piece of information needing sourcing, the author will not note any further specific references in this chapter.
“act on their”: Rønneberg Report.
They had practiced: Rønneberg Report; Rigden, 252–61, 316–22.
191“All right, let’s”: Gallagher, 100.
192Each man took: Ibid., 103–5.
193In their cabin: February 27, 1943, ESD; Sæter, 86.
Well-trained radio: Sæter, 44–45.
194Skinnarland could not: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
Careful with each: Haukelid, 108; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
195The saboteurs returned: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“In a few”: Draft of Rønneberg BBC Speech, TNA: HS 7/181.
These were his: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
196“Good luck”: Haukelid, 108.
“Good spot”: Gallagher, 109.
The four saboteurs: Drawing of Gunnerside Approach/Retreat by Jomar Brun, VM: JBrun, Box 6a.
197“Locked”: Lunde, 102.
18. SABOTAGE
198Rønneberg rechecked: Rønneberg Report; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Draft of Rønneberg BBC Speech, TNA: HS 7/181; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623; Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625; Haukelid, 102–8; Poulsson, 143–46; Gallagher, 96–110; Rostøl and Amdal, 86–88; Lunde, 99–102; Berg, 127–30; Myklebust, 150–57. As with the previous chapter, the sourcing for the Gunnerside sabotage was drawn from these references unless specific attribution is necessary.
At Brickendonbury: Brun, 71–72. Jomar Brun provided the information on the cable tunnel. In fact, he once used the tunnel himself to repair a cable.
“Here it is”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Gallagher, 110.
199NO ADMITTANCE EXCEPT: Directions Report, November 15, 1942, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
“Put your hands”: Rostøl and Amdal, 102–3; Gallagher, 112.
200“Watch out. Otherwise”: Rostøl and Amdal, 103.
201“We can light”: Myklebust, 157.
“Where are my”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Rønneberg, “Operation Gunnerside” (IFS Info, 1995).
202Close to finishing: Extract from Report by Director Bjarne Nilssen, VM: JBrun, Box 6a.
“Up the stairs”: Rønneberg, “Operation Gunnerside” (IFS Info, 1995).
203“Is that what”: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625.
204“No”: Poulsson, 147; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
“Piccadilly”: Haukelid, 113.
205As he moved: Myklebust, 162–63.
Back at Vemork: Alf Larsen, Rapport over Hendelsen i Høykoncentreringsanlegget på Vemork 28. Febr. 1943, VM: JBrun, Box 17; Bjarne Nilssen, Vedr. Sabotage i tungtvannsanlegget på Vemork, March 1, 1943, NHM: Box 25.
206“normal like we”: Ibid.
As the sirens: Bjarne Nilssen, P. M. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Rapport vedrørende anlegg for fremstilling av Tungt vann ved Vemork Vannstoff-fabrikk, Rjukan, September 14, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
19. THE MOST SPLENDID COUP
209The nine saboteurs: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
Both local boys: Drummond, 87.
The sirens continued: Haukelid, 114–15; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Rønneberg Report; Halvorsen, Den Norske Turistforening årbok 1970.
210The men sat: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
Helberg prepared to: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
If there was: Gallagher, 127.
The other men: Poulsson, 149–50.
211Lying in his: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 26625.
As they made: Poulsson, 150.
When his car: Rapport til her politimesteren I Rjukan, June 23, 1945. Papers of Bjørn Iversen.
As soon as: Bjarne Nilssen, p.m. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Bericht über Konsul Ing. E. Schöpkes Reise und Besprechungen, March 13, 1943, NB: G-341.
212He kept his: Interview with Larsen, DIA: DJ 31.
“three strongly built”: Bjarne Nilssen, P.M. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Bjarne Nilssen, Vedr. Sabotage i tungtvannsanlegget på Vemork, March 1, 1943, NHM: Box 25.
“sharp coercive measures”: Til Rjukans befolkningt, February 28, 1943, VM: JBrun, Box 6a.
213“an installation of”: Feindnachtrichtenblatt Nr. 28 — 21.2. bis 9.3.1943, RW 39/44, Barch-MA; Irving, 166.
While Muggenthaler waited: Bjarne Nilssen, P.M. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a; Report, Gunnerside, April 14, 1943, TNA: HS 2/186. It should be noted that in most historical accounts General Rediess and Terboven were stated to have come to Rjukan on February 28, 1943, just hours after the sabotage. The report by Nilssen never states their presence, and his account is exhaustive.
Early the next: Falkenhorst Note, February 28, 1943, RW 39/43, Barch-MA.
“most splendid coup”: Message from Swallow, March 10, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
“When you have”: Interview with Larsen, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Haukelid, 125–26; Gallagher, 131–33; Bjarne Nilssen, P.M. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a. The description of this visit by Falkenhorst was assembled from these sources, each with their own slightly different version of his conversation/interaction with Glaase, but all with the same thrust.
214A manhunt for: Heinrich Himmler’s Telephone Log, March 1, 1943, RG242, Roll 25, NARA. As referenced in Manuscript Notes, Irving, NHM: Box 10B.
As for the: Letter from Eberling to OKHWa Forsch, March 2, 1943, NB: G-341.
“...perpetrated against Norsk”: Swedish Home Service, March 1, 1943, TNA: HS 2/185.
The Nazi atomic: March 1, 1943, LTD.
A wireless message: Hauge, 156.
215“High-concentration plant”: Rønneberg Report.
“Give our best”: Haukelid, 119.
“Well, Arne”: Gallagher, 137.
216After thirty miles: Interview with Poulsson, IWM: 27189; Poulsson, 156–57; Gallagher, 138–40. All quotes and descriptions in this scene are from these sources.
217The wireless radio: March 2–5, 1943, ESD. In his diary, Skinnarland mentions Gunnerside on March 5, but in a cryptic way (that is also likely a typo): “Operasjonen Gunnerside iorden.” Potentially, “Operation Gunnerside in order.” As his daughter Marielle Skinnarland corresponded with the author, this entry intimates that Skinnarland found out about the sabotage from local farmers in Lie. However, against the clear account from Haukelid in his memoir that the news he shared with Skinnarland about the sabotage came indeed as news, the author followed the Haukelid version.
Approaching Skårbu: Haukelid, 120–21.
“Don’t worry, Knut”: Ibid., 121.
218Haugland tried to: March 6–11, 1943, ESD; Interview with Haugland, IWM: 26624. It is clear from Skinnarland’s diary that he received the news on this date; however, the first message to London was not sent until the tenth. On this date and the next, Skinnarland makes short mention of issues with connection and the radio’s oscillator.
“You can bet”: Haukelid, 122.
At noon on: Rønneberg Report.
Rønneberg had always: Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Myklebust, 166–69; Mears, 180–81.
219The next day: Rønneberg Report.
20. THE HUNT
220In Møllergata 19: Skogen, 96–105; Report by Gunlsik Skogen, December 1, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174.
221“Until now you”: Skogen, 107.
“Operation carried out”: Message from Swallow, March 10, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
Tronstad was moved: Hurum, 123.
“Heartiest congratulations”: Message to Swallow, March 10, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
Two days later: SOE and Heavy Water, March 1943, TNA: HS 2/185; Minutes of ANCC Meeting, March 12, 1943, TNA: HS 2/138; Myklebust, 201–2; SOE Progress Report, March 15, 1943, TNA: HS 8/223.
222“It’s justified”: Tronstad, Note on Heavy Water, March 18, 1943, LTP.
Sir John Anderson: March 15, 1943, LTD.
“England’s once-proud”: Hauge, 157.
“sacrificed enough for”: March 3–6, 1943, LTD.
He arranged: SOE Progress Report, March 15, 1943, TNA: HS 8/223; Njølstad, 222–24.
223All the while: Precis of a Meeting between Professor Goldschmidt, Professor Tron-stad, and Lt. Commander Welsh, March 15, 1943, LTP.
The Danish physicist: Letter from Eric Welsh to Tronstad, January 16, 1943, LTP.
“heartbeats”: March 18, 1943, LTD.
On March 13: Rønneberg Report; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Myklebust, 173–88. The march to Sweden was one of the most remarkable aspects of the Gunnerside operation. Rønneberg recounts it in detail in his report, but a better, longer chronicle comes from Gunnar Myklebust in his biography of the saboteur. These are the three primary sources for the description of this retreat given here.
224“You must all”: Rostøl and Amdal, 97–99.
Under the light: Rønneberg Report; Mears, 182–85. On the survival skills of the saboteurs, Mears offers fine insight.
225“All right, let’s”: Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
“Guys”: Myklebust, 182–83.
As night fell: Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187; Rønneberg Interview, Moland; Rønneberg Report.
226When Knut Haukelid: Haukelid, 129; Interrogation of Knut Haukelid, July 25, 1945, TNA: HS 9/676/4.
“When this war”: Haukelid, 129–30.
Over two weeks had: Ibid., 124–31.
227“It’s not safe”: Berg, 137.
Kjelstrup left: Report by Arne Kjelstrup, October 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
After reports pointed: Report “Angår Aksjonen på Hardangervidda,” July 17, 1946, NHM: Box 10B; Report on the Interrogation of Major Ernst Lutter, July 5, 1945, NHM: Box 16; Tätigkeitsbericht AOK/Ic, April 1943, RW 39/44, Barch-MA; Ueland, 191–93; Helge Dahl, Rjukan, 291. Figures on those involved in the March–April 1943 razzia range everywhere from two thousand to twelve thousand men. The key confusion likely rests around the fact that there were three actions conducted at roughly the same time, as outlined by Major Lutter, who participated in them. Exact numbers have yet to be uncovered, but Lutter states three thousand men in the Hardangervidda, another with an “even more formidable army” for regions south and west of the Vidda, and the third with two thousand men in northern Norway near Trondheim.
228A Norwegian hunter: Haugland Report; Lunde, 109.
“Seven men were”: Report, “Vemork kraftstasjon,” March 24, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
If enemy commandos: Report, “Angår aksjønen mot Hardangervidda I tiden 23/3/ til 8/4/43,” NHM: Box 10B; Report, “Unternehmen Adler,” March 30, 1943, NHM: Box 10B; Technique of the Agent in the European Field, TNA: HS 2/229; Report by Arne Kjelstrup, October 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Ueland, 161–63; Kjelstadli, 264.
Although the Vidda: Report on the Interrogation of Major Ernst Lutter, July 5, 1945, NHM: Box 16; Report from Swedish Telegraph Agency, March 29, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Report from Fenrik Haugland, September 23, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
21. PHANTOMS OF THE VIDDA
230As soon as: Berg, 137–38.
“The whole district”: Drummond, 104.
Haukelid knew: Haukelid, 130–31.
A good tracker: Ibid., 134.
231In the late: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
After separating from: Poulsson Report; Sørlie Memoir; Report, Claus Urbye Helberg, April 19, 1943, TNA: HS 2/186.
232Peering out through: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623; Report by Claus Helberg, June 28, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Interrogation of Sergeant Helberg, July 23, 1943, TNA: HS 9/689/6. The narrative of Helberg’s dramatic escape between March 25–30 derives primarily from these four sources. The author has also consulted Gallagher, 149–63; Interview with Claus Helberg, KA; Ueland, 194–201, 212–16. Any quotes or other select material will be separated out in the endnotes.
233“Halt! Arms up”: Interview with Helberg, IWM: 26623.
234“You have to”: Ibid.
The boat for: There remains some discrepancy in the sources about what hotel Helberg stayed in during his time in Dalen. Some refer to the Bandak Tourist Hotel, others to the Dalen Hotel. Given the Dalen Hotel was the nicest hotel in the town as well as the fact that the Germans set up headquarters there, the author sided with Dalen.
235The conversation was: Letter from Wehrmachtsbefehlshaber in Norwegen, May 15, 1943, RW 4/639, Barch-MA.
“No,” Hassel: Berit Nøkleby, “Uforskammet opptreden mot Terboven,” Aftenposten, February 25, 1983.
236“As you can see”: Gallagher, 159.
“You sit there”: Berit Nøkleby, “Uforskammet opptreden mot Terboven,” Aftenposten, February 25, 1983.
238“Every day, you”: Report, “Aksjonen på Hardangervidda,” March 23–April 8, 1943, NHM: Box 10B.
Some stores of explosives: Wochenbericht für die Woche vom 29.3–4.4.43, RW 39/45, Barch-MA.
High in the: March 20–April 20, 1943, ESD.
Skinnarland and Haugland: Haugland Report.
239Though exposed on: Skinnarland Notes, ESP; April 1–19, 1943, ESD.
Best of all: Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP.
The following morning: Haukelid, 137–39; April 16–19, ESD; Haugland Report.
Skinnarland was: Haugland Report; Sæter, 97–98.
22. A NATIONAL SPORT
241In mid-April 1943: Bericht über Konsul Ing. E. Schöpkes Reise und Besprechungen, March 13, 1943, NB: G-341; Rapport vedrörende anlegg for fremstilling av Tungt vann vad Vemork Vannstoff-fabrikk, Rjukan, September 14, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 211–12; Bericht von Konsul Schöpke über die Besprechungen am 17. und 18.6.1943, NB: G-341.
“national Norwegian sport”: Letter from Ebeling to OKH Wa Forsch, March 2, 1943, NB: G-341.
Others, including Bjarne: Bjarne Nilssen, P. M. Sabotasje Vemork, VM: JBrun, Box 6a.
“swift decision”: Letter from Ebeling to OKH Wa Forsch, March 2, 1943, NB: G-341; Olsen, 417.
provided any materials: Andersen, 400–404; Report, Gunnerside, April 15, 1943, TNA: HS 2/186.
By the time: Bericht über Konsul Ing. E. Schöpkes Reise und Besprechungen, March 13, 1943, NB: G-341; Rapport vedrörende anlegg for fremstilling av Tungt vann vad Vemork Vannstoff-fabrikk, Rjukan, September 14, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 211–12.
242While this was: Olsen, 417; Bericht Schutz von We-Wi-Betrieben, April 19, 1943, RW 39/45, Barch-MA.
Three weeks later: Niederschrift über die Besprechung am 7.5.1943 i.d. PTR, NB: G-341.
“rumors abound in”: Karlsch, 162–63.
“uranium bombs”: Abschrift, Allgemein verständliche Grundlagen zur Kernphysik, May 8, 1943, DIA: DJ 29.
243Only the previous day: Schriften der Deutschen Akademie DNR Luftfahrtforschung, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III/B27/F29.
He wanted to: Niederschrift über die Besprechung am 7.5.1943 i.d. PTR, NB: G-341.
His team’s most: Bericht über einen Versuch mit Würfeln aus Uran-Metall und Schwerem Eis. G-212, NB: Goudsmit Papers, IV/B25/F16; Irving, 174–75.
“too small to”: Niederschrift über die Besprechung am 7.5.1943 i.d. PTR, NB: G-341.
Diebner had his: Interview with Paul Harteck, NB: Oral History; Interview with Georg Hartwig, NB: Oral History.
244“doer, a driver”: Ingstad, 159.
“biggest sonuvabitch”: Nichols, 108.
In the hills: Rhodes, 451, 486, 497.
All these efforts: Groves, 186–91.
In April he: Private Cipher Message for Field Marshal Dill from C.A.S., April 7, 1943, NHM: FOII, Box 61.
245“You might be”: Kurzman, 186.
“colossal amounts”: Preliminary Statement concerning the possibility of the use of radioactive material in warfare, July 1, 1943, TNA: CAB 98/47.
On the morning of: Bush, Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 24, 1943, NA: Bush-Conant Papers; Powers, 210–11.
“strain every nerve”: Letter from James Conant to General Groves, December 9, 1942, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
“going very aggressively”: Bush, Memorandum of Conference with the President, June 24, 1943, NA: Bush-Conant Papers.
Earlier in the: Haukelid, 149; Haukelid Family, Author Interview; Interrogation of Knut Haukelid, July 25, 1945, TNA: HS 9/676/4; Report by Arne Kjelstrup, October 30, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Report from Bonzo, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
246Haukelid and Kjelstrup: Haukelid, 152; Berg, 142–43.
247Haukelid took a: Interrogation of Lieutenant Einar Skinnarland, July 27, 1945, TNA: HS 9/1370/8; Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP.
“Bonzo was waiting”: June 18–20, 1943, ESD.
On one of: Letter from Einar Skinnarland to Kirvil Skinnarland, December 1998, ESP.
Skinnarland remained for: June 28–July 8, 1943, ESD; Skinnarland Notes, ESP.
248“Vemork reckons on”: Message from Swallow, July 8, 1943, NHM: FOIV, Box D17.
“What rewards are”: Prime Minister’s Personal Minute, April 14, 1943, TNA: HS 2/190.
any renewed deliveries: Report, “Lurgan,” July 4, 1943, LTP; Letter from Brun to Thomas Powers, October 11, 1988, VM: JBrun, Box 17.
248“tackle the juice issue”: July 13, 1943, LTD.
249In his report: Tronstad, “Notat vedr. X,” July 19, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B; Brun, 73–77.
On July 21: Letter to Tronstad from Wilson, July 16, 1943, DORA: Correspondence 1937–45.
Later, Selborne: July 21, 1943, LTD; Myklebust, 214–15; Poulsson, 160–63; Rønneberg Interview, Moland.
Not seventy-two: Kjelstadli, 201–4; Olsen, 410–12; Sagasfos, 105–110.
23. TARGET LIST
251On August 4: Report, “Meeting Held at Rjukan on the 4th August 1943,” NHM: Box 10/SIS B; Olsen, 406, 418; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 212.
252In June 199 kilograms: Alf Larsen, Vemork production figures, DIA: DJ 31; Letter from Harteck to Diebner, February 16, 1944, NB: G-341.
“personal conviction”: Report, “Meeting Held at Rjukan on the 4th August 1943,” NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
Within a few: Kjelstadli, 260; Andersen, 422.
“usual output”: Message from Swallow, August 4, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
253“With care”: Message from Swallow, August 9, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
Over the next: Messages from Swallow, August 7–22, 1943, TNA: HS 2/187.
To sustain himself: July–September 1943, ESD; Letter from Skinnarland to Dan Kurzman, May 12, 1997, ESP; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“shot a stone”: September 16, 1943, ESD.
During this period: Bergens Tidende, February 1, 2015.
He was still: July 11–17, 1943, ESD; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
254“everything required”: Letter from A. R. Boyle to Wilson, August 9, 1943, TNA: HS 2/187.
“local action”: Message to Swallow, August 10, 1943, including handwritten comments from Tronstad and Wilson, TNA: HS 2/187.
Now more than: Tronstad, Report with reference to attacks at Rjukan and Vemork, TNA: HS 8/955/DISR.
Late in 1942: Kjelstadli, 200–205.
255Most pointedly, Tronstad: Tronstad, “Notat vedr. X,” July 19, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
Njål Hole, Tronstad’s young: Letter from Hole to Tronstad, September 1, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
“of vital importance”: Stephensen Report, October 21, 1943, TNA: HS 2/187.
“We have to do”: Letter from Tronstad to Sidsel, August 20, 1943, LTP.
256Two days after: August 20, 1943, LTD.
“I would propose”: Perrin Report, “Norway and Production of Heavy Water,” August 20, 1943, TNA: AIR 8/1767.
“My name is Knut”: Haukelid, 169; Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
“Remember: Keep your”: Interrogation of Knut Haukelid, July 25, 1945, TNA: HS 9/676/4; Report by Bonzo, via Arne Kristoffersen (Kjelstrup), October 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Once, by a: Berg, 143–44.
257“Six housewives”: Request for Packing of Stores in Containers, Swallow Two, August 24, 1943, TNA: HS 2/131.
After midnight on: Operational Report, Swallow Two, September 21/22, 1943, TNA: HS 2/131.
“How’d it go?”: Haukelid, 157.
Haukelid and Kjelstrup searched: Ibid.; Report, Swallow Two drop, November 18, 1943, TNA: HS 2/131.
258But the full meals: Berg, 141, 144–47.
A couple of: Haukelid, 158; October 13, 1943, ESD.
Skinnarland welcomed him: Skinnarland Note, ESP.
“The powers that”: Letter from Lt. Colonel Sporborg to Brigadier Mockler-Ferryman, October 5, 1943, TNA: HS 2/218; Tube Alloys Technical Committee Meeting, September 19, 1943, TNA: CAB 126/46; Letter from L. C. Hollis to CAS (Chief of Air Staff, Sir Charles Portal), October 18, 1943, TNA: AIR 8/1767.
259Using intelligence: Report, Heavy Water Production at Vemork, October 16, 1943, TNA: HS 2/218.
Armed with the: Letter from L. C. Hollis to Sir Charles Portal, October 18, 1943, TNA: AIR 8/1767; Letter from Sir Charles Portal to L. C. Hollis, October 20, 1943, TNA: AIR 8/1767.
From his base: Parton, 155.
“We’ll bomb them”: Ibid., 130.
Groves continued to: Groves, 189.
“When the weather”: Kurzman, 188; Letter from Sir Charles Portal to Brigadier Hollis, October 20, 1943, TNA: AIR 8/1767.
Throughout all these: Report with Reference to Attacks at Rjukan and Vemork, TNA: HS 8/955/DISR.
“in a special”: Njølstad, 264–65.
260“should be changed”: Minutes of the 24th ANCC, November 11, 1943, TNA: HS 2/138.
24. COWBOY RUN
261At 3:00 a.m. on: Interview with Owen Roane, KA.
At the same: Freeman, 7–15.
262Given the distance: Roane, 96.
“special explosive”: Interview with Owen Roane, KA.
“milk run”: Bennett, 15.
Although Roane: Interview with Owen Roane, KA; Roane, 1–14.
The average lifespan in: Harry Crosby, Jan Riddling, and Michael P. Faley, “History of the 100th Bomb Group,” United States Air Force Military Heritage Database, http://www.8thairforce.com/legacy_100thbomb.htm.
263On one mission: Roane, 29–80.
“I’m coming in”: Michael Faley, “Owen Roane: The Last Cowboy,” Splasher Six 29 (Fall 1998).
At 5:00 a.m. Roane: Freeman, 16–18, 244–45.
The ground-crew chief: Roane, 95–101. In Roane’s book, he included transcripts of the reports from Command Pilot Bennett, Lead Pilot Roane, as well as the navigator, bombardier, and the Third Division air commander.
“Ready to go”: Interview with Owen Roane, KA.
After checking the: Roane, 95–101.
264Three hundred and: Bomber Command Narrative of Operations, 131st Operation, November 16, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481.
After some time: Bennett, 16–21.
They crossed the: Ibid., 17.
265“Make a large”: Kurzman, 197. Of the histories on the Eighth Air Force attack on Vemork, Dan Kurzman succeeded best in interviewing some of the pilots and crews, giving a thorough account of the events of November 16.
A B-17 in: Ibid., 19–20.
In total, 176: Bomber Command Narrative of Operations, 131st Operation, November 16, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481.
On a farm: Haukelid, 177; November 16, 1943, ESD.
266At 11:33 a.m.: Nielsen, Kjell, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B.
“There are even”: Rapport fra luftvernlederen ingeniør Fredriksen over flyangrepet på Vemork Kraftstasjon og Vemork Fabrikkompleks, November 16, 1943, VM: A-1108/AK, Box 1.
“Run to your”: Report by Unnamed Witness, KA.
The Ninety-Fifth: Mears, 95–101; Bomber Command Narrative of Operations 131st Operation, November 16, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481; Quotes on Tuesday’s 8th AAF Heavy Bomber Operations, November 16, 1943, TNA: AIR 2/8002.
267In total, 711: Bomber Command Narrative of Operations, 131st Operation, November 16, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481; Report, “Norway: Result of USAAF raid on Rjukan, Vemork,” December 28, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481.
Just as the: Attack on Fertilizer Works at Rjukan by USAAF, December 9, 1943, TNA: AIR 2/8002; 8th Air Force Command Provisional Report, November 18, 1943, TNA: AIR 40/481.
268“My God, what’s”: Kurzman, 202.
A former member: Ibid., 202–4; Nielsen, Kjell, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B.
In Rjukan, four: Ømkomme under bombingen, November 16, 1943, VM: A-1108/AK, Box 1; Olsen, 419.
269SS officer Muggenthaler: Letter from Muggenthaler to Befehlshaber der SS und des SD, November 17, 1943, R70/32, Bundesarchiv, Berlin.
“SH-200 high-concentration”: Fernschreiben an dan Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, Kaltenbrunner, November 18, 1943, R70/32, Bundesarchiv, Berlin.
25. NOTHING WITHOUT SACRIFICE
273On the day: Njølstad, 274–75.
“Hope that the”: November 16, 1943, LTD.
The Allies had: Notat vedrörende angrenpene på Rjukan og Vemork, November 16, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
274“On leaving Norway”: Letter from Hagen (Brun) to Perrin, November 1943, VM: JBrun, Box 2.
When Tronstad returned: Aide-Memoire, “The bombing of industrial targets in Norway,” TNA: AIR 2/8002; Notat vedrörende angrenpene på Rjukan og Vemork, November 16, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B; Letter from Trygve Lie, January 29, 1943, TNA: AIR 2/8002; Letter from A. W. Street, December 22, 1943, TNA: AIR 2/8002. There are a series of illuminating letters in this folder (Air Attacks on Targets in Norway, TNA: AIR 2/8002), a worthy starting point for anybody interested in the back-and-forth imbroglio betweeen British, American, and Norwegian officials.
From messages received: Letter from Hole to Tronstad, December 16, 1943, LTP.
“filled with explosive”: November 5, 1943, LTD.
“decided to abandon”: Cable from S. D. Felkin, December 22, 1943, TNA: HS 2/187.
This unconfirmed intelligence: Notat vedrörende angrenpene på Rjukan og Vemork, November 16, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
275“It was a”: Njølstad, 270–71.
“It is my”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 23, 1943, LTP.
“We get nothing”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, December 8, 1943, LTP.
“It is hard”: April 30, 1943, LTD. This reflection matches perfectly the one expressed by Malcolm Munthe, his British colleague, who on May 3, 1943, sent Tronstad a letter that stated, “As you perhaps have known — I have for some time past felt — very keenly, when sending out into the field some of my Norwegian friends — the need to once again try to do my bit in the active side of the war myself.” Letter from Munthe to Tronstad, May 3, 1943, DORA: Correspondence 1937–45.
Throughout November: Walker, German National Socialism, 100–102.
For their G-III: Bericht über die Neutronenvermehrung einer Anordnung von Uran-würfeln und Schwerem Wasser (GIII), Deutsches Museum Archiv; Nagel, 90–92; Irving, 190–92.
276“Given the relatively”: Bericht über die Neutronenvermehrung einer Anordnung von Uranwürfeln und Schwerem Wasser (GIII), Deutsches Museum Archiv.
Straightaway his team: Bagge and Diebner, 35.
His success came: Letter from Göring to Esau, December 2, 1943, NB: Goudsmit Papers, III/B27/F30; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 219.
Tall, with a: Irving, 200; Per Dahl, Heavy Water, 220–21.
“the emperor of”: Karlsch, 104–5.
“In my opinion”: Nagel, 94.
Prior to his: Karlsch, 106; Walker, German National Socialism, 130–31.
277On December 11: Protokoll über die in Norsk Hydro Buro, Oslo, December 11, 1943, NB: G-341.
“expose the company’s”: Protokoll über die in Norsk Hydro Buro, Oslo, December 11, 1943, NB: G-341.
At the same: Mark Walker and Rainer Karlsch, “New Light on Hitler’s Bomb” (Physics World, June 1, 2005); Nagel, 92–93; Irving, 213–17. There is little doubt Diebner was working on this effort. The bigger controversy revolves around its suc-cess or failure. Irving skirts away from the answer, but Karlsch argues in his book that Diebner and crew successfully tested such weapons. Whether they did — or did not — the author agrees with the Karlsch/Walker article that says: “What is important is the revelation that a small group of scientists working in the last desperate months of the war were trying to do this.”
278“We are sending”: Messages from/to Swallow, December 19, 1943–January 1, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 22.
Bunkered down: Haukelid, 171–72; December 25, 1943–January 1, 1944, ESD.
Haukelid was somber: Ording, 255; Haukelid, 159.
The two men: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
279“I don’t understand”: Haukelid, 166–67.
Despite these squabbles: Ibid.; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“It is reported”: Njølstad, 288–89; Message from London, January 29, 1943, TNA: HS 2/188.
Although the American: Report on Rjukan, January 1, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“secret weapon forge”: Translation of Extract from Swedish Newspaper, “Brilliant Coup Against Hitler’s Secret Weapon,” November 23, 1943, TNA: HS 2/188.
Like Sørlie, most: Sørlie Memoir.
280Viten told: Ibid.; January 30, 1943, ESD.
The wind blew: Sørlie Memoir.
26. FIVE KILOS OF FISH
281On February 1: Rolf Sørlie, Report on Milorg at Rjukan, May 12, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir; Løken, 102; Drummond, 152; Report by Sheriff Foss, January 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Some workmen had: Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
282The next day: Sørlie Memoir.
Sørlie delivered his: Message from Swallow, February 2, 1943, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
“Do you always”: Sørlie Memoir.
At last, an: Message from Swallow, February 3, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174.
283“Did you meet”: Haukelid, 178.
Sørlie reported: Rolf Sørlie, Report on Milorg at Rjukan, May 12, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Message from Swallow, February 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/174.
“We will probably”: Message from Swallow, February 6, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Sørlie returned: Haukelid, 181.
284After a week: February 6, 1944, LTD.
Over the past: Njølstad, 298–99; Messages to/from Swallow, February 1–7, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
In the end: Letter from Tronstad to Wilson, February 7, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; February 7, 1942, LTD; Letter from Welsh to Tronstad, February 8, 1944, LTP.
“We are interested”: Message to Swallow, February 8, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“We will do”: February 7, 1943, LTD.
285“Einar, you awake?”: Drummond, 156.
Sørlie arrived at: Haukelid, 182–83; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
286First they: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23. These two accounts are the best distillation of the thinking behind the various options. The same breakdown can be found in a number of other sources, including Haukelid’s memoir as well.
Back at Nilsbu: Message from Swallow, February 9, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; Skinnarland Notes, ESP.
287“Agree to sinking”: Message to Swallow, February 10, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“You have to”: Sørlie Memoir.
The letter was a blow: Haukelid Family, Author Interview; Haukelid, 182; Sørlie Memoir; Message from Swallow, February 12, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Letter to SNA, February 17, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23B.
288On February 13: February 13, 1944, ESD; Sørlie Memoir.
Olav Skindalen met: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
289The next day: Kjell Nielsen, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
“effect of the”: Message from Swallow, February 16, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
They returned to: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
After dinner that: Sørlie Memoir.
290A heavy snow: February 16, 1943, ESD.
“The matter has”: Message to Swallow, February 16, 1943, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
Skinnarland did not: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview; Skinnarland Notes, ESP; Haukelid, 185–86.
27. THE MAN WITH THE VIOLIN
291The following day: Interview with Alf Larsen, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Knut Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
“I know it’s”: Drummond, 160.
It was one: Haukelid, 187.
Haukelid continued: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
292“place a time”: Ibid.
Next they needed: Kjell Nielsen, “Notat angående omtalen av fergeaksjonen på Rjukan i Februar 1944,” NHM: Box 10B; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir.
The pensioner had: Diseth, Friends Report, NHM: SOE, Box 23B; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Gallagher, 175–76.
293The next day: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
The ferry: Payton and Lepperød; Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, April 5, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Irving, 203.
When Haukelid boarded: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, Feb-ruary 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Haukelid, 187–88; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Haukelid, IWM: Oral History.
294It turned out: Interview with Knut Lier-Hansen, KA; Report by Gunlsik Skogen, December 1, 1943, TNA: HS 2/174; Knut Lier-Hansen, Friends Report, NHM: SOE, Box 23B.
295Haukelid liked Lier-Hansen: Haukelid, 189. There is some murkiness in regard to when Lier-Hansen joined the team. In his own interview, Lier-Hansen puts himself fairly center stage as early as February 10, but this runs against most other accounts, which do not have him coming aboard until the final days (and relate the worry of still being a man down). Sørlie and Haukelid both recount this version. Given the assembly of evidence, February 18 looks to be the most likely scenario. Haukelid states explicitly they met this day in his after-action report and Lier-Hansen is not mentioned in any of the meetings that Larsen, Syverstad, or Nielsen participated in prior to that date.
“smashing”: Larsen, 1242–49.
“Anything that can”: Ibid., 1249–50.
296Fehlis had sent: Irving, 205–6.
On February 18: February 18, 1944, LTD.
According to a: Letter to Michael Perrin, February 15, 1944, TNA: HS 8/955/DISR.
When Einar Skinnarland: February 10, 1944, LTD.
Brun pleaded: Brun, 85–86.
Wilson sent: John Wilson, “On Resistance in Norway,” NHM: Box 50A; Interview with Michael Perrin, DIA: DJ 31.
297After his hike: February 18, 1944, LTD.
Two pops ripped: Haukelid, 188.
“At least they”: Drummond, 162.
The explosive time: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Gallagher, 176; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31.
298Over in Vemork: Letter to Welsh, March 20, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188.
“unnamed destination”: Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23.
28. A 10:45 ALARM
299Shortly before midnight: Haukelid, 191; Message from Swallow, March 30, 1944, NHM: Box 10.
The two saboteurs: Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Larsen, DIA: DJ 31.
“You dumb brute”: Drummond, 165.
300“I’m sorry”: Kurzman, 224.
They had already: Gallagher, 179.
The lone car moved: Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Interview with Haukelid, DIA: DJ 31; Interview with Knut Lier-Hansen, KA; Haukelid, 191–93; Drummond, 167–70; Gallagher, 179–82; Account given by Engineer Larsen of the transaction during the attack on Tinnsjø Ferry, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sørlie Memoir. Other than specifically noted quotes, the narrative of the placing of the explosives aboard the Hydro is drawn from these sources collectively.
301“Is that you, Knut”: Gallagher, 181; Haukelid, Report on the Sinking of the Ferry Hydro, February 20, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 23; Sikkerhetspoliti Rapport av John Berg, February 21, 1944, NHM: Box 10B.
303“I’ll be back”: Drummond, 171.
On Sunday morning: Vedr. D/F Hydro forlis February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Irving, 209.
In his childhood: Lillian Gabrielson, Author Interview.
“That’s the chief”: Haukelid, 195.
304Up on the: Interview with Lier-Hansen, KA.
Captain Erling: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Gallagher, 184.
Just before 10:45: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13; Aftenposten, February 23, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Fritt Folk, February 23, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Rjukan Dagblad, February 22, 1944, TNA: HS 2/188; Interview with Eva Gulbrandsen, KA; Omkomne D/F Hydro, February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13.
“Steer toward land”: Raport Sørensen, February 21, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13.
“A bomb”: Interview with Eva Gulbrandsen, KA.
305“I can’t help”: Ibid.
306Of the fifty-three: Haukelid, 197; Omkomne D/F Hydro, February 20, 1944, VM: IA4FB, Box 13. The exact numbers on the ferry that day are somewhat obscured by the fact that the ticket clerk — and his records — were lost in the sinking. The final accounting comes from an intelligence report found by Knut Haukelid after the war in the records of the military governor of Norway.
Rolf Sørlie spent: Sørlie Memoir.
“What have I”: Ibid.
At the Hamarens’: February 21, 1944, ESD.
As soon as: Message from Swallow, February 22, 1944, NHM: Box 10/SIS B.
307“If you disappear”: Interrogation of Gunnar Syverstad, March 25, 1944, NHM: Box 10.
When the Gestapo: Sikkerhetspoliti Rapport av John Berg, February 21, 1944, NHM: Box 10B; Gudbrandsen, Rapport til Lederen av Statspolitiet, February 23, 1944, NHM: Box 10B.
Knut Haukelid was: Haukelid, 195–202; Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
308On February 26: February 26–March 7, 1944, LTD.
309As for Vemork: April 13, 1944, LTD.
29. VICTORY
310By the end: Irving, 217–19.
“precarious position”: Bericht uber die Arbeiten auf Kernphysikalischen Gebiet, NB: Goudsmit, IV/B25/F13.
311“Very soon I shall”: Karlsch, 166–67.
In July, a bomb: May 12, 1944, LTD.
In August, Colonel: Irving, 246–47, 258–60; Alsos Mission Report, DIA: DJ 31.
“Germany had no”: Goudsmit, 71
They crisscrossed: Interview with Georg Hartwig, NB: Oral History; Nagel, 129–30; Cassidy, 496.
312On June 15, 1944: June 10, 1944, LTD.
Since the Allied: Njølstad, 331–35.
“first class in all”: Finishing Report, STS 17, DORA: Correspondence 1937–45.
Jens-Anton Poulsson: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171.
“the major industrial objectives”: Appendix A, Sunshine Action Plans, NHM: Box 10C.
On August 27, Tronstad: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 27, 1944, LTP.
“Please take care”: Speech by Gerd Hurum Truls, October 10, 1987, LTP.
“long exile”: August 27, 1944, LTD.
When the other: Njølstad, 358.
313Over the next: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171.
On the night of: Skinnarland Report on the Deaths of Major Tronstad and Sergeant Syverstad, March 16, 1945, TNA: HS 2/171; Njølstad, 410–24.
314The order to: Report of Operation Sunshine, TNA: HS 2/171; Herrington, 283–85; Military Homefront Survey, December 1, 1944, NHM: SOE, Box 4.
315That night, at: Nøkleby, Josef Terboven, 291–93.
Heinrich Fehlis: Klykken, Frits, “Saken Fehlis,” Porsgunn Folkebibliotek.
A month after: Colonel Wilson, Diary of a Scandinavian Tour, TNA: HS 9/1605/3.
“Many times it may”: Chicago Tribune, June 8, 1945.
On Midsummer’s Eve, June 23: Skinnarland, Hva Som Hendte, ESP; Freds Og Midtsommerskal, June 23, 1945, ESP.
316A week after: Colonel Wilson, Diary of a Scandinavian Tour, TNA: HS 9/1605/3.
By early August: Njølstad, 426–29.
“Dearest Bassa... I have”: Letter from Tronstad to Bassa, August 27, 1944, LTP.
317In Farm Hall, a quiet: Powers, 434–35; Bagge and Diebner, 51–55.
“shattered”: Frank, 70.
“Here is the news”: Bernstein and Cassidy, Appendix C.
318“They can only”: Ibid., 115–18.
EPILOGUE
319“A bad experiment”: R. V. Jones, “Thicker Than Heavy Water,” Chemistry and Industry, August 26, 1967.
320“The obliteration of”: Bagge and Diebner, 35.
“To live in the”: Drew, 205.
“They shall grow not”: Ibid., 222.
But whenever they: This conclusion is drawn by the author from the memoirs, interviews, and diaries of these individuals. Some, like Poulsson and Rønneberg, state this unequivocally.
321Einar Skinnarland’s: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“smallness of being”: Interview with Rønneberg, IWM: 27187.
Knut Haugland spent: Haugland Family, Author Interview.
“He died without”: Haukelid Family, Author Interview.
Skinnarland did not: Marielle Skinnarland, Author Interview.
“You have to fight”: “If Hitler Had the Bomb,” transcript from documentary at the Norsk Industriarbeidermuseum, Vemork.