Students of ancient Chinese history and culture face a number of distinctive questions. Why and how did China, with its huge geographical landmass and multiple nations, remain united for thousands of years? Why is traditional Chinese architecture so different from that in other parts of the world? Why did a borrowed technology, metallurgy, play such a fundamental role in ancient Chinese societies, marking a departure from Western counterparts? Why did the population remain high throughout history? And most importantly, when did the concept of China, culturally and geographically, come into being?
Though fostered during Neolithic times, it was at the beginning of the Bronze Age that many of these characteristics were shaped and developed. Indeed, the Bronze Age, with its long timespan including the Xia, Shang and Zhou periods (c. 4100–221 BCE), saw an acceleration in social complexity; this was closely related to state formation, but also created a network of economic production, state management and ritual activities that were intertwined in a manner which came to define China.
Numerous archaeological discoveries have illuminated aspects of ancient Chinese societies. Yet outside scholarly circles, the general public, particularly in the West, knows very little about these civilizations. Language has been a major barrier, but the trajectory of modern archaeological practice has also been critical in hampering intellectual exchange.
Keeping the same framework that is adopted in other volumes of this series, we have paid particular attention to topics that are sometimes neglected in China and have highlighted those characteristics that are distinctive to ancient China. Each entry is made up of a 30-second history which delves into the subject, further distilled into a 3-second survey, with an additional 3-minute excavation raising a question or an interesting detail which is explored further. Feature spreads in each chapter focus on the lives and careers of some of the most intriguing figures in ancient China. A list of further reading is provided at the end of the book for those who want to pursue particular issues in more depth.
The unique nature of ancient Chinese society and culture is gradually being uncovered through the examination of archaeological finds such as these ritual figures from Sanxingdui, though much remains to be fully explained.
Our journey begins with the Land, Architecture & States chapter by investigating how the long-lasting agricultural civilization in China was shaped by its unique environment, how archaeologists have tackled the perishable earth-and-wood architecture and how different state-managing strategies were employed during different periods. Complementary information is provided in Great Discoveries, where we choose ten of the most spectacular recent archaeological discoveries, which together represent a panorama of the Xia, Shan and Zhou cultures: cities and urban centres, rich bronze hoards and spectacular state cemeteries.
Utilizing up-to-date research on the development of metallurgy and bronze casting in China, the Bronze & Rituals chapter emphasizes the development of rituals, which played a central role in state management. In Science & Society, we offer some snapshots of daily life in the light of economic and scientific developments in the Bronze Age. As in ancient Egypt, the interment of the dead was a central focus of the living. A hierarchy in mortuary practice was established and gradually enforced more strictly, particularly among the Western Zhou people, and the prestige of the past became the purpose of the present. The constant engagement of Bronze Age people in China with their ancestors will be explored in Afterlife & Beliefs.
The uniqueness of Chinese writing had significant historical implications, and the early development of a continuous writing tradition is introduced in Writing & Philosophy. This is supplemented by a further exploration of the Warring State philosophies (a Golden Age for ancient Chinese philosophy) and the scribal tradition, another distinctive characteristic of Chinese history. The last chapter deals with Warfare, Transportation & Trade, in light of recent archaeological discoveries and research. As in other early states, war was an important means of obtaining social power. Although answers to some important questions remain cloudy, in this last section we aim to sketch out the expanding, interconnected network of interaction between ancient China and its neighbours in the Bronze Age.
CHRONOLOGY1
Xia period c. 2100–1600 BCE
Shang period – before Anyang/Yinxu c. 1600–1300 BCE
Shang period – Anyang/Yinxu 1300–1045 BCE
Pan Geng–Xiao Yi c. 1300–1251 BCE
Wu Ding c. 1250–1190 BCE
Zu Geng–Kang Ding c. 1190–1150 BCE
Wu Yi–Ding Xin
c. 1150–1049/1046/1043 BCE2
Western Zhou period c. 1049/1046/1043–771 BC
King Wu 1049/1046/1043–1043 BCE
King Cheng 1042–1021 BCE
King Kang 1020–996 BCE
King Zhao 995–977 BCE
King Mu 976–922 BCE
King Gong 922–900 BCE
King Yih 899–892 BCE
King Xiao 891–886 BCE
King Yi 885–878 BCE
King Li 877–841 BCE
Gong He 841–828 BCE3
King Xuan 827–782 BCE
King You 781–771 BCE
Eastern Zhou period 770–256 BCE
Spring and Autumn period 770–476 BCE
King Ping 770–720 BCE
King Huan 719–697 BCE
King Zhuang 696–682 BCE
King Xi 681–677 BCE
King Hui 676–652 BCE
King Xiang 651–619 BCE
King Qing 618–613 BCE
King Kuang 612–607 BCE
King Ding 606–586 BCE
King Jian 585–572 BCE
King Ling 571–545 BCE
King Jing 544–520 BCE
King Jing 519–476 BCE
Warring States period 475–256 BCE
King Yuan 475–469 BCE
King Zhending 468–441 BCE
King Kao 440–426 BCE
King Wei Lie 425–402 BCE
King An 401–376 BCE
King Lie 375–369 BCE
King Xian 368–321 BCE
King Shenjing 320–315 BCE
King Nan 314–256 BCE
Qin state 777–221 BCE4
Duke of Xiang 777–766 BCE
Duke of Wen 765–716 BCE
Duke of Ning 715–704 BCE
Duke of Chu 703–698 BCE
Duke of Wu 697–678 BCE
Duke of De 677–676 BCE
Duke of Xuan 675–664 BCE
Duke of Cheng 663–660 BCE
Duke of Mu 659–621 BCE
Duke of Kang 620–609 BCE
Duke of Gong 608–604 BCE
Duke of Huan 603–577 BCE
Duke of Jing 576–537 BCE
Duke of Ai 536–501 BCE
Duke of Hui 500–491 BCE
Duke of Dao 490–477 BCE
Duke of Ligong 476–443 BCE
Duke of Zao 442–429 BCE
Duke of Huai 428–425 BCE
Duke of Ling 424–415 BCE
Duke of Jian 414–400 BCE
Duke of Hui 399–387 BCE
Chuzi 386–385 BCE
Duke of Xian 384–362 BCE
Duke of Xiao 361–338 BCE
King Huiwen 337–311 BCE
King Wu 310–307 BCE
King Zhao 306–251 BCE
King Xiaowen 250 BCE
King Zhuangxiang 249–247 BCE
King Zheng 246–221 BCE
Notes
1 There are numerous scholarly opinions concerning the chronology of the Xia, Shang and Zhou periods. Here we have adopted the Xia-Shang-and-Zhou periodization project, published in 2000.
2 The exact year when the last King of Shang, Ding Xin, was overthrown remains highly controversial. There are three main suggestions: 1049, 1046 or 1043 BCE.
3 841 BCE is the first point at which Chinese history has an unambiguous chronicle.
4 Qin was one of the many regional states during the Eastern Zhou period when the power of the Zhou royal court was significantly weakened. Its chronicle is partially parallel with that of the Zhou royal court, but the latter disappeared in 256 BCE while the former continued until it united China in 221 BCE under King Zheng, who became the first Emperor under the name Qinshihuangdi.