Foreword

1. Mt 22:15:22; Mk 12:13–17; Lk 20:20–26.

2. Josephus: Antiquities of the Jews 14:10, 6 & 12.

3. G. Cheesman: Auxiliaries of the Roman Army, rp Chicago, 1975.

4. Cicero: De Divinatione and De Natura Erorum 1:2–4. Cicero believed in ghosts but not the gods.

5. In Catilinam 4:6, 12 and Ad Familia 4:12, 3. Pliny over a century later describes a similar massacre of slaves in Epistolae 3:14, 25.

6. In F. Cowell: Cicero and the Roman Republic, New York, 1948, p. 277.

7. Jn. 16.

8. G.R. Driver: The Judaean Scrolls, New York, 1965, p. 199.

9. J.P. Balsdon: ‘The Salii and Campaigning in March and October’, Classical Review, London, June 1966, pp. 146–147.

10. LRE, p. 614.

11. Mt 5:39, Lk 6:29.

12. M. Aurelius 6:6. Another seemingly Christian sentiment of Aurelius was that ‘It is man’s peculiar duty to love even those who wrong him.’ 7:22.

13. A.M. Duff: The Freedmen in the Early Roman Empire, New York, 1958, p. 24.

14. Lk 22:36. Mt 26:51.

Introduction

1. H. Delehaye: Legends of the Saints, New York, 1961, is a general critique.

2. L. Dupraz: Les Passions de St Maurice d’Agaune, Fribourg, 1961.

3. F.H. Cramer: ‘Book Burning and Censorship in Ancient Rome’, Journal of the History of Ideas, New York, 1945, gives many examples.

4. Eusebius: Historia Ecclesia.

5. Lactantius: Divine Institutes VI, XX, 15–16.

6. D. O’Leary: The Saints of Egypt, London, 1937.

Chapter 1

1. A.S. Hunt & C.C. Edgar: Select Papyri, London, 1995, rp 1934, II 426 pp. 581–583 and 237, pp. 141–143. P. Parsons: City of the Sharp-Nosed Fish (Oxyrhinchus), London, 2007.

2. Juv 16.

3. N. Lewis: Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule, New York, 1985, p. 5455.

4. Juv II.

5. H.I. Bell: Cults and Creeds in Greco-Roman Egypt, New York, 1953, p. 20.

6. Parker Legions 163, ILS 2288 & BGU I, 140.

7. Dio Cassius LXXVII, 22–23. HR 6:4, 7.

8. J.G. Milne: History of Egypt Under Roman Rule, Chicago, 1992, pp. 63, 165–166.

9. Ibid, p. 306 n 21.

10. Ibid, p. 63.

11. P. Geiss 40, M. Car. 377, in Abbott p. 548 and p. 93.

12. Ibid. p. 57.

13. Ibid. p. 297 n 35.

14. Ibid. p. 547–550.

15. SHA Probus 9.

16. W.A. Fairservis: Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile, New York, 1962, pp. 192–194.

17. SHA Probus 17.

18. Milne, p. 79.

19. Fairservis, pp. 14 & 46.

20. G. Webster: Roman Imperial Army, New York, 1994, p. 165. Citizenship was received at discharge.

21. Y.L. Bohec: The Imperial Roman Army, New York, 1994, pp. 101–102. Webster, p. 41 n 2.

22. Hunt, P. Oxyrynchus 1115 now in Brussels Museum as B11-E6009.

23. R. MacMullen: Soldier & Civilian in the Later Roman Empire, Cambridge, 1967, 4 n 8. A legion consumed 500 bushels of wheat a week. On the size of the Modius, A.H.M. Jones: Decline of the Ancient World, London, 1966, Appendix III, and R.P. Duncan-Jones: Size of the Modius Castrensis, Zeitschrift Papyrologie Epigraphik, XXI, 1976, pp. 53–6. The modius measured volume. As a ration of bread rather than loose wheat it was a larger quantity. C. Clark: Starvation or Plenty?, New York, 1970, p. 19 on nutritional needs.

24. P. Oxyrynchus 1412 in Hunt pp. 140–43.

25. J.G. Milne: Catalogue of Alexandrian Coins, Oxford 1971, pp. 112–113. 4674–4682, 4690–4696, 4710–4718, 4728–4730, in the BMC British Museum Catalogue these parallel 4675, 4679, 4693, 4728, 5597, 2463, 2472–2473, 5604–5605. Keith Emmett: Alexandrian Coins, Lodi Wisc., 2001, pp. 205–06, 4005 + 4018. The American Numismatic Association has several of 283/284 with the more common abbreviation for Oxyrynchus, a dot within a circle and a circle, the Greek omikron and psi on the banners. Milne, Addenda.

26. D. O’Reilly: SAN 8:1976.

Ruler Legion
Trajan II Traiana BMC Lycaonia 1.
Trajan XX Ulpia E.A. Sydenham, Coinage of Caesaria in Cappadocia, London, 1933 #225.
Marcus Aurelius II and/or III Italica BMC Alexandria, 277.
Lucius Verus II and/or III Italica G. Dattari, Numi Augustorum Alexandrini, Cairo 1901, 3415–76, 3695–96.
Commodus Nova Classis Libica BMC Alexandria 1367 V
Commodus II Parthica BMC Phrygia 3 T.
Septimius Severus II Parthica BMC Alexandria 1462 V.
Septimius Severus II Parthica BMC Phrygia 49.
Caracalla II Parthica Ibid 56.
Caracalla II Parthica BMC Galatia 30 and 31
Geta II Parthica BMC Phrygia 53, 55 and 57.
Julia Domma Julia Alexandria J.W. Curtis, Tetradrachms of Roman Egypt, Chicago, 1969, 912.
Severus Alexander IV Italica Sydenham, 565.
Gordian III I, II and III Isaura A. Krzyanowska, Mormaies Coloniales d’Antioche de Pisidie, Warsaw, 1930, Av. II, Rv. 9
Philip I I, II and III Isaura Ibid. Av. II Rv. 1, Av IV Rv 6.
Philip II I, II and III Isaura BMC Lycia 122.
Trajan Decius I, II and III Isaura Ibid. 126.
Trajan Decius I, II and III Isaura BMC Arabia 34–36.
Volusian I, II and III Isaura Krzyanowska Av II, Rv 3–4, Av IV, Rv 10, 12.
Claudius II IV Martia G. MacDonald, Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection, Glasgow, 1905, Vol. III, Alexandria 992.
Aurelian I Illyricorum BMC Alexandria 2370–73.
Carus The Theban Legion Ibid. 2442–44 v.
Carinus The Theban Legion Ibid. 2448–51, 4460–61, 3351.
Numerian The Theban Legion Ibid. 2463, 2470–73.
Diocletian The Theban Legion Ibid. 2538–39.
Diocletian I Armeniaca J.G. Milne, Alexandrian Coins in the Ashmolean Museum, London, 1933, p. 2531.
Maximian II Armeniaca Ibid. 2536.
Maximian IV Parthica Ibid. 5117.
Diocletian V Parthica Dattari 5815.
Constantius I Pontica BMC Alexandria 2539.
Galerius V I Parthica Dattari 6108.
Maxentius Ioviani RIC Vol. VI. 345–52.
Domitius
Alexander Flavia Victrix Ibid. 72 (Carthage).
Constantiniana
Constantine Herculiani Ibid. 69, 94–99 (Ostia).
Licinius Herculiani Ibid. 95b, 97b.
Maximian Herculiani Ibid. 95a, 97a, 99.
Licinius Herculiani Ibid. 95b, 97b.
Maximian Herculiani Ibid. 95a, 97a, 99.

For Trajan’s new legions see PWK XIII c1483, XII c1821. For Marcus Aurelius’ legions see c. 1409, and 1465. For Septimius Severus’ legions see c1435, 1475, and 1542. For Severus Alexander’s legions see c1407, 1468, and 1532. For Philip I’s legions see SHA Probus 16:5 and 17:1. For Claudius Gothicus’ legions see PWK c1406. For Diocletian’s legions see Ritterling PWK 12 (1925) 1491.

27. Musurillo.

28. Milne, Catalogue 4742–4745 and 4747.

29. Ibid. p. 126.

Chapter 2

1. Cornish, Concise Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, Lonon, 1898, 5766.

2. N. Barbour: Morocco, New York, 1966, pp. 33–39. J. Willard: The Great Sahara, New York, 1978. Ch. 3.

3. F. Snowdon: Blacks in Antiquity, Cambridge, 1970, p. 242.

4. SHA: Severus 18.

5. J. Abun-Nasr: History of the Mahgrib, London, 1971, p. 19.

6. Augustine.

7. Abun-Nasr, p. 25.

8. S. Raven: Rome in Africa, New York 1993, p. 83.

9. Ibid.

10. Abun-Nasr.

11. D.C. Den Boer: Lusius Quietus, Mnemosyne 1959, Fasc. 3 & 4.

12. SHA Pescennius, Hr 2.

13. Willard.

14. Ter Apol 38:3.

15. Ter Ad Scap 2.

16. Cyprian: Epistolae 55:9.

17. Raven, p. 168.

18. SHA Gordian, Zos I, Zon XII.

19. Parker, History, p. 148.

20. Parker, ibid, ILS 531.

21. Webster, p. 87.

22. Parker, History, p. 179.

23. Venatus Fortunatus 14.

24. DC 5:3 & 74:7. Probus was once commander of I Gallica Felix. SHA Probus 5:4.

Chapter 3

1. Apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus.

2. SS 2 Mar, pp. 384–386.

3. Petrus de Natalibus, Catalogus Sanctorum, Vincentia 1493, XII 6:41.

4. Juvenal 14:86–106.

5. TA XV:45 46. Su VII:7–10.

6. Su Domitian 12:2.

7.M. Sordi: Christians and the Roman Empire, Norman 1986, pp. 47–8.

8. DC 68:1,2.

9. Su 10:4. TA, Agricola 45.

10. Sordi, pp. 43–40.

11. SS 3 May, Maro and two other guards died with them.

12. AB XVII, p. 172.

13. SS Sept VI (1757) pp. 123–135, p. 105, pp. 376–417.

14. SS 11 Jun, pp. 265–266.

15. SS 3 Mar, p. 80,004. Among thousands of soldiers’ epitaphs in L.R. Dean: Cognomina of Soldiers in the Legions, Princeton, 1916, there is no Zoticus, Irenaeus or Hyacinth.

16. SS 2 Sept.

17. SS 27 Jul.

18. SS 2 Sept., pp. 511–517.

19. Pliny, Epistolae X:96.

20. Sordi, pp. 59–78.

21. Ibid.

22. Ibid pp. 66–7. DAG XXII:5,3.

23. HMD Parker, History of the Roman World, pp. 22–3.

24. DC LXXI, pp. 8–10, SHA: Marcus Aurelius.

25. EHE XV, pp. 1–2. SS Apr. 3, pp. 564–565.

26. Ter Apologia V:6.

27. Dupraz, pp. 232–235.

28. Ter Apologia XXXVII:4,5.

29. C.S. Welles: Immunitas of Roman Legionaries in Egypt, JRS XXVIII, p. 193 and WRS pp. 75–7.

30. H. Musurillo, Acts of the Christian Martyrs, London 1972, p. 261.

31. Hippolytus: Apostolic Constitution XVI:17–19.

32. Ter De Corona 1:4–5.

33. Ibid.

34. Ibid 15.

35. DC 71:28. SHA Marcus Aurelius 25, 4 & 26, 1.

36. L. Wooley: Rome Beyond the Frontiers, New York 1950, p. 87.

37. Sordi, p. 73 n 35.

38. SHA Severus Alexander 22:4, 24:2, 43:6, 45:6, 49:6, 51:7.

39. A. Quacqarelli: Note Siigli Edifici di Culto Primo di Constantino Vetera Christianorum, p. 14, Rome, 1977.

40. Cyriacus Aug. 23 HL.

41. Clement: Propreticus X,10.

42. The Apostolic Constitution forbade catechumens to become soldiers. Book VIII:32 reads: ‘The soldier who presents himself for baptism is to be instructed that he must do violence to no man, and be content with his hire (Lk 3:14). If he promises to observe this rule he is to be accepted; if he refuses he is to be rejected.’ This can be taken to imply military service is permitted to enlisted man with immunitas. The Testament of the Lord, a document from Syria, reads: ‘But if soldiers wish to be baptized to the Lord, let them quit military service or the position of authority or else let them not be accepted.’ Canon 28 from Egypt states: ‘They shall not receive into the Church one of the emperor’s soldiers. If they have received him he shall refuse to kill if commanded to do so. If he does not refrain he shall be rejected.’ This affirms that some enlisted men were baptized, the Church’s objection to killing, not military service per se. Cited in J. Ferguson: The Politics of Love, the New Testament and Non-Violent Revolution, New York 1975, p. 64.

43. EHE 6:28, HR 8:1, SHA Maximini, Zon XII:19, EHE.

44. RIC Philip.

45. Origen: Contra Celsus IV:52.

46. Frend 468 n 17.

47. EHE VII:15, 1.

48. Ter: De Idolatria XIX:49.

49. Commodianus: Carmen Apologeticum 826 ff, Cyprian: Ad Demetrianum.

50. Ibid, EHE VI:41.

Chapter 4

1. H. Zilliacos: Sylloge Inscriptionum Christianarum Veterum, Vatican, 1963. G. Snyder: Ante Pacem, Archeological Evidence of Christian Life Before Constantine, Chelsea, 1985. Of 164 surviving epitaphs of Jews at Rome, sixty-five are of children less than ten years of age. H.J. Leon: Jews of Ancient Rome, Philadelphia, 1960, p. 229. T.J. Parkin: Demography and Roman Society, Baltimore, 1992, presents the many approaches to population studies.

2.L’Année Epigraphique (1973) #235.

3. EHE 6:41, 1.

4. De Ruggiero: Dizionario Epigrafico, Rome, 1924, VI:1 p. 813ff. From Egypt 43 libelli survive, not all Christian.

5. Frend, pp. 301–303.

6. V. Giovardi, ‘Acta Passionis et Translationis’, SSMM Mercuri ac XII Fratrum, Rome, 1730.

7. RM 10 Dec.

8. SS 11 Oct.

9. SS 1 Jun., pp. 25–30.

10. EHE VI:42–52.

11. RM 7 Dec.

12. EHE VI:41–7 and 42–52.

13. Gregory of Tours, In Gloria Martyrum, p. 101, 15 May.

14. SS 2 Sept.

15. P. Maltzew: Menologium der Orthodox Katholischen Kirche des Morganlandes, Berlin, 1900. 17 Apr.

16. SS 30 Jun.

17. EHE.

18. EHE VII:15.1. Sordi 110.

19. Cyprian: Epistolae 55,9.

20. Zos 1:23, Zon XII:21.

21. Zos 1:37, AVC 30, Eutr IX:5.

22. EHE VI Zon, ibid, Cyprian Epistolae LIX:6.

23. SS Jul VI.

24. Zos 1:28, Eutr, AVC 31, Zon.

25. Zos 1:4 SHA Gallienus 13:6–8.

26. Ter Apologia 40.

27. Petrus 4 Dec., & 26 Jul.

28. EHE VII:10.

29. Frend p. 316–321, Cyprian 76 & 79.

30. Sordi 120 n 13.

31. Bibl. Cassino III ff 49–54, 2 Jan.

32. SS Feb. II 651–652. Gregory Gloria p. 102.

33. SHA Valerian, Zos 1:36, Zon 12:23; Eutro 8:7.

34. EHE VII:23,4.

35. Ibid.

36. Zos 1:41, SHA Gallienus 14.

37. SS 3 Mar., 800–804.

38. HL 25 Oct.

39. HL 4 May.

40. AS 15 Jul.

41. SHA Aurelian 25:6, 28:5, 35:3.

42. RM 8 Jul.

43. RM 25 Oct.

44. RM 8 Jul.

Chapter5

1. Archelaus: ‘Acts of the Disputation with the Heresiarch Mani’, tr. Salmond in A. Roberts & J. Donaldson: Ante-Nicene Fathers, New York, 1945, VI p. 175–181 and Chapter 37 K. Bihlmeyer & H. Tuchle: Church History, Paderborn, 1958, 1 pp. 143–44, 163–64, 247.

2. Kas and Kasr derive from the Latin castra, a fort. Thus Castra Carrhae became Caschar. W. Smith: Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, New York, 1966. Zos 3:13 cites Carrhae as the border bastion.

3. Plutarch: Crassus, DC 40:15.

4. Archelaus.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

Chapter 6

1. Archelaus. A modern traveller’s description of the region is F. Stark: Rome on the Euphrates, New York, 1966.

2. Archelaus, Introduction.

3. K. Baus: From the Apostolic Community to Constantine, New York, 1965, 154 ff.

4. Archelaus, ch. 37. Cyril of Jerusalem: Catechesia VI, p. 140 and Eusebius: Chronicon, Lib. Post. p. 177 agree with this dating.

5. J. Le Breton and J. Zeiller: Triumph of Christianity, New York, 1962, pp. 115–123 holds that Mani never visited the Roman Empire and died in 272 but makes no mention of Archelaus. J. Neusner: History of the Jews in Babylonia, Leiden, 1968, III, p. 7 places Mani’s death in 277. Cyril of Jerusalem, Catechesia VI, 104. Eusebius: Chronicon, Lib. Post, p. 177 supports this.

6. Prosographia Latini Marcellinus 1, p. 544. Zos 1:60.

7. SHA The 30 Pretenders 30:24–27 & 27–28.

8. Zos 1:59.

9. Archelaus.

10. Cornish, p. 576.

11. Ibid, p. 556.

12. Cato: De Agricultura 2:5–7 & 56. Plutarch: Cato the Elder.

13. Cornish, p. 556.

14. Horace: Epistles Bk. 11:1.

15. Epistle of Paul to Philemon.

16. SHA Aurelius 31:5–10.

17. WRS p. 108.

18. Archelaus.

19. Lk 3:14.

20. A. Alston: Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt, London, 1995, pp. 105–108.

21. SHA Aurelian XXXI.

22. Gratian: Concordia Discordantum Canonum Decretum 1:4, 7.

23. Vincent of Beauvais: Speculum Mundi XIII:II.

Chapter 7

1. Justin: Apology 1, 39 and Dialogue 110.

2. Tatian: Oratian 11.

3. Athenagoras: Plea for Christians 35.

4. Origin: Against Celsus VIII:68.

5. Lactantius.

6. Deuteronomy, 30:5–7.

7. Ruderman: ‘Peace in Jewish Law’, Fellowship, Nyak 1:976, 42 p. 10 citing Tosefta, Sotah 7:14.

8. Deuteronomy. Nevertheless 20:15–18 approves genocide.

9. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 14:10,6.

10. M. Burrows ed. The Dead Sea Scrolls, New York, 1955, p. 257. Driver, p. 197.

11. Watson, p. 31.

12. Josephus, XIII, 9:1.

13. Josephus, XIII, 11:3.

14. Josephus, XIII, 15–4.

15. Josephus, XIV, 15:2.

16. N.J. McEleney: ‘Conversion, Circumcision and the Law’, Testamentum, London, 1974, XX p. 323 and 443–44.

17. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 1, 20:3.

18. Josephus, Ant. XIX, 9:1–2.

19. Josephus, ibid.

20. B. Porter: Archives from Elephantine, Life of and Ancient Jewish Military Colony, Berkeley, 1968.

21. Josephus, Ant. XVII, 2,1.

22. Josephus, ibid XVIII: 3,5, Tacitus Annals 11 85, Su Tiberius 36.

23. Josephus.

24. Ibid, E.I. Merrill: ‘Expulsion of Jews from Rome under Tiberius’, Classical Philology, 14:365–72 (1919).

25. Lk 3:12–14.

26. Mt 21:12, MkII: 15–17, Lk 19:45, Jn 2:14–17.

27. Lk 22:36.

28. J.L. McKenzie: Dictionary of the Bible, Milwaukee, 1965, p. 403.

29. A. Nolan: Jesus Before Christianity, New York, 1976, pp. 114–116.

30. Mt 26:52.

31. Mt 27:11, MK 15:2, Lk 23:3.

32. Mt 23:37, Lk 13:34.

33. Acts 1:6–7.

34. G.L. Cheesman: The Auxilia of the Roman Army, Chicago, 1975.

35.Ibid, Appendix II, Palestine.

36. A.H.M. Jones: The Herods of Judaea, Oxford, 1967, p. 170.

37. T.R.S. Broughton: ‘The Roman Army’ in F.F. Foakes-Jackson and E. Lake, eds Beginnings of Christianity, London, 1933, Part I, Vol. 5, p. 421.

38. AA 10, 1–11, 18.

39. Jones.

40. WRS 87 & 153. DC XXV:6.

41. H.M.D. Parker: The Roman Legions, New York, 1971, pp. 185–86.

42. AA 22:25.

43. AA 23:17.

44. AA 27:1.

45. Cheesman, Appendix I.

Chapter 8

1. J.T. Milik: Revue Biblique RB 60 (1953) 276ff, J.J. Rabinowitz RB 61 (1954), 191–192 and F.M. Cross RB 63 (1956) 47–48. A letter of Bar Kochba discovered in the 1950s refers with hostility to Galileans, perhaps Christians.

2. Y. Yadin: Bar-Kokhba, New York, 1971, pp. 19–23.

3. Babylonian Talmud Berakoth XXIXA. Epiphanius: Medicine Box XXIX.9.2. In W.H.C. Frend: The Rise of Christianity, Philadelphia, 1984, p. 126. G. Dix: Jew and Greek, London, 1967, p. 63. Jn. 9:22 & 12:42 speaks of expulsion from the synagogues. J.D.G. Dunn ed., Jews and Christians: the parting of the ways A.D. 70 to 135, Cambridge, 1992.

4. L. Kadman: Coins of Aelia Capitolina, Jerusalem, 1956, Serapis types 39–42. Nemisis, an Egyptian Goddess, is another common image on Aelia’s coins. Y. Meshorer: The Coinage of Aelia Capitolina, Jerusalem, 1989, p. 32. Veterans were also retired to Sebaste, Neapolis and Caesarea in Samaria, Ptolemais in Galilea and Bostra, Sidon, Tyre, Damascus, Beirut and Antioch. Stevenson, p. 228

5. Archaeology, Jerusalem, 1974 p. 138.

6. T. Kollek & M. Pearlman: Jerusalem, New York, 1968, p. 138.

7. K. Bihlmeyer & H. Tuchle: Church History, Paderborn, 1958, I 143–144, pp. 163–64, 247.

8. Ibid. Frend: Martyrdom, pp. 170–74.

9. P. Vitz: Faith of the Fatherless, New York, 1999, p. 14.

10. Mt. 16:25, Mk. 8:35, Lk 9:24.

11. Mt. 8:8–9. Lk 7:6–8.

12. Mt. 6:14, Mk 11:25, Lk 17:3.

13. Galatians 2:28.

14. Julian: Letter to a Priest 305B.

15. Bihlmeyer, pp. 155–157, K. Baus: From the Apostolic Community to Constantine, Stuttgart, 1955, pp. 261–8, 490–492.

16. B. Altemeyer and B. Hunsberger: Amazing Conversions, Amherst, New York, 1997, pp. 251–252. This surveys 2,000 Canadian college students.

17. R. Stark: Rise of Christianity, New York, 1997, pp. 14–15.

18. Ibid, p. 113–114.

19. Ibid, p. 91–92. Histories 5:5.

20.Stark.

21. Catullus.

22. 1 Cor 7:12–16.

23. 1 Cor 12:13, Gal 3:28, Col 3:11.

24. Plutarch: Superstitione IV.

25. M.L.W. Laistner: Christianity and Pagan Culture in the Later Roman Empire, Ithaca, 1967, p. 38. C. Munier: Concilia Gallia, Turin 1963. In Gaul two years was customary. Hippolytus in Italy speaks of three years’ probation.