1 Mencius went to see Emperor Hui of Liang, and the emperor said: “Even a thousand miles1 wasn’t too great a journey for you. You must come bringing something of great profit to my nation.”
“Don’t talk about profit,” said Mencius. “It’s Humanity2 and Duty3 that matter. Emperors say How can I profit my nation? Lords say How can I profit my house? And everyone else says How can I profit myself? Then everyone high and low is scrambling for profit, pitching the nation into grave danger.
“If the ruler in a nation of ten thousand war-chariots is killed, the assassin is no doubt lord to a house of a thousand war-chariots. And if the ruler in a nation of a thousand war-chariots is killed, the assassin is no doubt lord to a house of a hundred war-chariots. A thousand in ten thousand or a hundred in a thousand – this is no small amount. But when people betray Duty and crave profit, they aren’t content until they’ve got it all. If they aren’t Humane, they’ll abandon their kindred, and if they aren’t Dutiful, they’ll betray their ruler.
“Just talk about Humanity and Duty, and leave it at that. Don’t talk about profit.”
2 Mencius went to see Emperor Hui of Liang and found him standing beside a pool. Gazing at the deer and wild geese, the emperor said: “And do the wise also enjoy such things?”
“Only the wise can enjoy them,” replied Mencius. “If they aren’t wise, even people who have such things can’t enjoy them. The Book of Songs says:
He planned the sacred tower and began.
He planned it well and managed it well,
and the people worked with devotion,
so it was finished in less than a day.
He planned and began without haste,
and the people were children coming.
With the emperor in the sacred gardens
there, the deer lay in pairs at ease,
paired deer all sleek and glistening,
white birds all bright and shimmering,
and with the emperor at the sacred pool
there, the fish leapt so strong and sure.
Emperor Wen4 used the people’s labor to build his tower and his pool, and yet the people delighted in them. They called the tower Sacred Tower and the pool Sacred Pool, and they were delighted that he had deer and fish and turtles. The ancients knew joy because they shared their joy with the people.
“In The Declaration of T’ang, the tyrant Chieh’s people say: When will you founder, o sun? We’ll die with you gladly. The people so hated him that they thought dying with him was better than living with him. He had towers and ponds, birds and animals – but how could he enjoy them alone?”
3 Emperor Hui of Liang said: “I’ve devoted myself entirely to the care of my nation. If there’s famine north of the river, I move people east of the river and grain north of the river. And if there’s famine east of the river, I do the opposite. I’ve never seen such devotion in the governments of neighboring countries, but their populations are growing by leaps and bounds while mine hardly grows at all. How can this be?”
“You’re fond of war,” began Mencius, “so perhaps I could borrow an analogy from war. War drums rumble, armies meet, and just as swords clash, soldiers throw down their armor and flee, dragging their weapons behind them. Some run a hundred feet and stop. Some run fifty feet and stop. Are those who run fifty feet justified in laughing at those who run a hundred feet?”
“No, of course not,” replied the emperor. “It’s true they didn’t run the full hundred feet, but they still ran.”
“If you understood this, you wouldn’t long to have more people than neighboring countries. Look – when growing seasons aren’t ignored, people have more grain than they can eat. When ponds aren’t plundered with fine-weave nets, people have more fish and turtles than they can eat. When mountain forests are cut according to their seasons, people have more timber than they can use. When there’s more grain and fish than they can eat, and more timber than they can use, people nurture life and mourn death in contentment. People nurturing life and mourning death in contentment – that’s where the Way5 of emperors begins.
“When every five-acre6 farm has mulberry trees around the farmhouse, people wear silk at fifty. And when the proper seasons of chickens and pigs and dogs are not neglected, people eat meat at seventy. When hundred-acre farms never violate their proper seasons, even large families don’t go hungry. Pay close attention to the teaching in village schools, and extend it to the child’s family responsibilities – then, when their silver hair glistens, people won’t be out on roads and paths hauling heavy loads. Our black-haired people free of hunger and cold, wearing silk and eating meat at seventy – there have never been such times without a true emperor.
“But you don’t think about tomorrow when people are feeding surplus grain to pigs and dogs. So when people are starving to death in the streets, you don’t think about emptying storehouses to feed them. People die, and you say It’s not my fault, it’s the harvest. How is this any different from stabbing someone to death and saying It’s not me, it’s the sword? Stop blaming harvests, and people everywhere under Heaven will come flocking to you.”
4 Emperor Hui of Liang said: “I’m ready to be taught without resenting it.”
“Is there any difference between killing someone with a stick or killing them with a sword?” began Mencius.
“No, there’s no difference.”
“And killing with a sword or a government – any difference?”
“No difference.”
“There’s plenty of juicy meat in your kitchen and plenty of well-fed horses in your stable,” continued Mencius, “but the people here look hungry, and in the countryside they’re starving to death. You’re feeding humans to animals. Everyone hates to see animals eat each other, and an emperor is the people’s father and mother – but if his government feeds humans to animals, how can he claim to be the people’s father and mother?
“When Confucius said Whoever invented burial figures deserved no descendants, he was condemning the way people make human figures only to bury them with the dead. But that’s nothing compared to the way you’re pitching your people into starvation.”
5 Emperor Hui of Liang said: “As you know, this country was once the strongest anywhere under Heaven. But here I am: defeated by Ch’i in the east, my eldest son dead in the battle; seven hundred square miles7 lost to Ch’in in the west; and humiliated by Ch’u in the south. Now, out of respect for the dead, I long to wash all this shame away. How can I do that?”
“To be a true emperor, even a hundred square miles can be land enough,” replied Mencius. “If an emperor’s rule is Humane – punishment and taxation are light, people plow deep and hoe often, and strong men use their leisure time to cultivate themselves as sons and brothers, loyal subjects and trustworthy friends. They serve father and brother when home, and when away they serve elders and superiors. So even with nothing but sticks for weapons, they can overcome the fierce swords and armor of nations like Ch’in or Ch’u.
“In such countries, emperors violate the proper seasons of their people. They don’t let them plow or weed or tend to their parents. Parents are cold and hungry, brothers and wives and children are scattered far apart. Those emperors are dragging their people down into ruin. So if a true emperor invaded their countries, who would oppose him? Therefore it is said: No one can oppose the Humane. If only you would believe this.”
6 Mencius went to see Emperor Hsiang of Liang.8 Talking with someone after he’d left, he said: “At first sight, he didn’t seem like much of a sovereign, and after meeting him I saw nothing to command respect. But suddenly he began asking questions.
“What could bring stability to all beneath Heaven? he asked.
“In unity is stability, I replied.
“Who can unify all beneath Heaven?
“One who has no lust for killing.
“But who would give it all to him?
“Is there anyone who wouldn’t give it to him? Don’t you know about rice shoots? If there’s a drought in the sixth or seventh month, rice shoots wither. But if the Heavens then fill with clouds, and rain falls in sheets, the shoots burst into life again. When this happens, who can resist it? Today, all of the world’s great shepherds share a lust for killing. If there were someone free of that lust, people everywhere under Heaven would crane their necks watching for him to come. And if such a man really appeared, the people going home to him would be like a flood of water pouring down. Who could resist it?”
7 Emperor Hsüan of Ch’i said: “I’d like to hear about Duke Huan9 of Ch’i and Duke Wen of Chin.”
“The disciples of Confucius never spoke of Huan or Wen,” replied Mencius, “so their histories weren’t passed down through the generations, and I’ve heard nothing of them. You won’t learn much about the true emperor from them.”
“Tell me then – this Integrity10 that makes a true emperor, what is it?” asked Emperor Hsüan.
“If you watch over the people, you’re a true emperor and nothing can resist you.”
“Can someone like me watch over the people?”
“Yes.”
“How do you know this?”
“I heard a story about you from Hu He: Sitting in the palace one day, the emperor saw some people leading an ox past outside.
“‘Where’s that ox being taken?’ he asked.
“‘We’re going to consecrate the new bell with its blood.’
“‘Let it go. I can’t bear to see it shivering with fear like an innocent person being hauled off to the executioner.’
“‘Then shall we leave the bell unconsecrated?’
“‘No, no – that would never do. Use a sheep instead.’ Did that really happen?”
“Yes,” replied the emperor.
“You have the heart of a true emperor. The people all thought you were being miserly. But I know you just couldn’t bear the suffering.”
“Are the people really like that? Ch’i may be a small country, but how could I begrudge a single ox? I just couldn’t bear to see it shivering with fear like an innocent person being hauled off to the executioner. So I told them to use a sheep instead.”
“It isn’t so strange that the people thought you miserly,” said Mencius. “You wanted to use a small animal instead of a large one, so how were they to know? If you were so grieved by something innocent going to the executioner, then what’s the difference between an ox and a sheep?”
The emperor laughed and said: “What was going on in this heart of mine? I certainly didn’t begrudge the expense of an ox, but I wanted to use a sheep instead. No wonder the people called me a miser.”
“No harm done,” said Mencius. “That’s how Humanity works. You’d seen the ox, but not the sheep. And when noble-minded people see birds and animals alive, they can’t bear to see them die. Hearing them cry out, they can’t bear to eat their meat. That’s why the noble-minded stay clear of their kitchens.”
After a moment, the emperor spoke: “The Songs say
It’s another person’s heart,
but mine has fathomed it.
This describes you perfectly. It was I who did these things, but when I turned inward in search of motives, I couldn’t fathom my own heart. It was you who explained it, and only then did I come to this realization. So how can this heart of mine be that of a true emperor?”
“What if someone said this to you: I’m strong enough to lift a thousand pounds, but I can’t lift a feather? Or: My sight’s so good I can see the tip of an autumn hair, but I can’t see a cartload of firewood? Would you believe it?”
“No, of course not.”
“You have compassion enough for birds and animals, but you do nothing for your people. And why is that? When feathers can’t be lifted, someone isn’t using their strength. When a cartload of firewood can’t be seen, someone isn’t using their sight. And when the people aren’t watched over, someone isn’t using their compassion. So if you aren’t a true emperor, it’s only because you’re unwilling, not because you’re incapable.”
“The unwilling and the incapable – is there any difference in form?” asked the emperor.
“You can say that you’re incapable of bounding over the North Sea with T’ai Mountain tucked under your arm, and in fact you are incapable. You can also say that you’re incapable of breaking up a little kindling for an old woman, but in fact you’re unwilling, not incapable. Your failure to be a true emperor isn’t like failing to bound over the North Sea with T’ai Mountain tucked under your arm. It’s like failing to break up a little kindling for an old woman.
“Honor your own elders as befits elders, and extend this honor to all elders. Honor your own children as befits children, and extend this honor to all children. Then you can turn all beneath Heaven in the palm of your hand.
“The Songs say:
Setting an example for his wife
and extending it to his brothers,
he ruled both home and country,
which describes how this heart here can be applied elsewhere. Just do that and your compassion will be expansive enough to watch over all within the four seas. If your compassion isn’t expansive, you can’t even watch over your own wife and child. This is precisely why the ancients so completely surpassed the rest of us: they made whatever they did expansive. That’s all. You have compassion enough for birds and animals, but you do nothing for your people. And why is that?
“To know whether something is light or heavy, you must weigh it. To know whether something is long or short, you must measure it. It’s like this for all things, and especially for the heart. If only you would measure yours.
“Or perhaps you want to keep sending out your armies with their armor and swords, endangering your subjects and stirring up hatred among the other rulers. Is that what fills your heart with delight?”
“No,” replied the emperor. “How could I delight in that? I only do it for the sake of a great dream.”
“And this great dream – may I hear what it is?”
The emperor just smiled and said nothing.
“Is your grand cuisine not enough for your tongue? Are your summer and winter robes not enough for your body? Perhaps all the beautiful sights here aren’t enough for your eyes, and the beautiful music isn’t enough for your ears? Or is it that your attendants aren’t fine enough to serve you? But you have many assistants and advisors: whatever you find wanting, they can supply. So this can’t be the kind of dream you harbor.”
“No,” replied the emperor, “it isn’t.”
“Then it isn’t hard to guess what your great dream is. You dream of more land. You dream of Ch’in and Ch’u paying court to you, of ruling over the entire Middle Kingdom11 and pacifying the barbarian nations on all four borders. Doing the kinds of things you do in search of such a dream – that’s like climbing a tree in search of a fish.”
“Is it really so bad?” asked the emperor.
“Yes, and it’s much more dangerous,” replied Mencius. “Climb a tree in search of a fish, and though you won’t find a fish, you also won’t find disaster. But do the kinds of things you do in search of your dream, and though you wear body and mind ragged, you’ll find disaster for sure.”
“Please – can you tell me more about this?”
“If Chou and Ch’u went to war, who do you think would win?”
“Ch’u would win.”
“So the small is clearly no match for the large,” continued Mencius, “the few is clearly no match for the many, and the weak is clearly no match for the strong. Here within the vast seas, there are nine regions, each spreading a thousand square miles, and your Ch’i is but one of them. To conquer eight with one, how is that any different from Chou declaring war on Ch’u?
“You must return to fundamentals. If you were renowned for Humane government, every scholar under Heaven would long to stand in your court, every farmer would long to plow in your countryside, every merchant would long to trade in your markets, every traveler would long to travel your roads, and everyone beneath Heaven who despised their rulers would long to rush here and confide in you. If you made this happen, who could resist it?”
“I’m not all that bright,” said the emperor. “I still can’t see my way through this. But I’m determined and want your help. If you’ll explain clearly, perhaps I can learn, and even though I’m not terribly clever, I’ll try to act on your counsel.”
“To keep the mind constant without a constant livelihood – only the wisest among us can do that. Unless they have a constant livelihood, the common people will never have constant minds. And without constant minds, they’ll wander loose and wild. They’ll stop at nothing, and soon cross the law. Then, if you punish them accordingly, you’ve done nothing but snare the people in your own trap. And if they’re Humane, how can those in high position snare their people in traps? Therefore, in securing the people’s livelihood, an enlightened ruler ensures that they have enough to serve their parents and nurture their wives and children, that everyone has plenty to eat in good years and no one starves in bad years. If you do that, you’ll be leading the people toward virtue and benevolence, so it will be easy for them to follow you.
“But now, with you securing their livelihood, the people never have enough to serve their parents or nurture their wives and children. In good years they live miserable lives, and in bad years they starve to death. All they can do is struggle to stay free of death and worry about failing. Where could they ever find the leisure for Ritual12 and Duty?
“If you want to put my words into practice, why not return to fundamentals? When every five-acre farm has mulberry trees around the farmhouse, people wear silk at fifty. And when the proper seasons of chickens and pigs and dogs are not neglected, people eat meat at seventy. When hundred-acre farms never violate their proper seasons, even large families don’t go hungry. Pay close attention to the teaching in village schools, and extend it to the child’s family responsibilities – then, when their silver hair glistens, people won’t be out on roads and paths hauling heavy loads. Our black-haired people free of hunger and cold, wearing silk and eating meat in old age – there have never been such times without a true emperor.”