1 Someone from Jen asked Adept Wu-lu: “Which is most important, Ritual or food?”
“Ritual,” replied Wu-lu.
“Which is most important, Ritual or sex?
“Ritual”
“What if using food for the Ritual sacrifice meant starving to death, and not using it meant having something to eat – would you insist on using it for the sacrifice? And what if observing the Ritual of claiming the bride in her home meant not marrying, and not observing it meant marrying – would you insist on claiming your bride?”
Adept Wu-lu had no answer. The next day he went to Chou and told Mencius what had happened. Mencius said: “It’s easy. If you compare the tops without checking the bottoms, you can make an inch-long twig taller than a lofty tower. And if you say gold is heavier than feathers, you certainly aren’t comparing a wisp of gold to a cartload of feathers. It’s pointless to compare food and Ritual at a moment when food is vital and Ritual isn’t: you can make lots of things seem more important that way, not just food. And it’s pointless to compare sex and Ritual at a moment when sex is vital and Ritual isn’t: you can make lots of things seem more important that way, not just sex.
“Go say this to him: Suppose the only way you could get food was by twisting your brother’s arm behind his back and stealing his food. Would you do it? And suppose the only way you could get a wife was by climbing over your east wall and dragging off the neighbor’s daughter. Would you do that?”
2 Lord Chiao of Ts’ao asked: “Is it true anyone can be a Yao or Shun?”
“Yes,” replied Mencius.
“I’ve heard that Emperor Wen was ten feet tall,” said Chiao, “and T’ang was nine feet tall. I’m nine feet four inches, but I have nothing but grain to eat. What shall I do?”
“Isn’t it easy?” said Mencius. “Just act like Yao and Shun. If you can’t lift a baby chicken, you are weak indeed. If you can lift three thousand pounds, you are strong indeed. And if you can lift as much as Wu Huo,1 you’re an Wu Huo. Why do people agonize over what they cannot do? They simply aren’t trying.
“If you follow your elders, walking with dignity and respect, you can be called a younger brother. If you hurry ahead of your elders, you cannot be called a younger brother. How can anyone say they haven’t the capacity to walk slowly behind? They just aren’t trying. The Way of Yao and Shun is simple: act with the respect proper to a son and younger brother. If you dress the way Yao dressed, speak the way Yao spoke, and act the way Yao acted – then you’re a Yao. And if you dress the way Shun dressed, speak the way Shun spoke, and act the way Shun acted – then you’re a Shun. It’s that simple.”
“The Chou sovereign would listen to me and give me a place to live,” said Chiao, “but I want to stay here, receiving your beautiful teachings with the other disciples.”
“The Way is like a great highway,” replied Mencius. “It’s easy to find. People just don’t bother to look. Go back to your home. Look for it there, and you’ll find teachers aplenty.”
3 Kung-sun Ch’ou said: “Master Kao claims ‘Tiny Wingbeats’ is the poem of a little person.”
“Why did he say that?” asked Mencius.
“Because it’s so full of resentment.”
“Old Kao was awfully dogmatic about the Songs,” said Mencius. “Suppose a man from Yüeh drew his bow and shot someone: I might tell the story with a smile because the man’s a stranger to me. But suppose my brother drew his bow and shot someone: then I’d be in tears when I told the story because he’s my own flesh and blood. The resentment of ‘Tiny Wingbeats’ comes from the close bonds of family, for those bonds are themselves Humanity. Old Kao was impossibly dogmatic about the Songs.”
“Why is there no resentment in ‘Gentle Wind’?
“In ‘Gentle Wind’ the parent’s fault is slight, but in ‘Tiny Wingbeats’ the parent’s fault is great. If you don’t resent a parent’s fault when it’s serious, you’re treating parents like strangers. And if you resent a parent’s fault when it’s slight, you’re treating parents with abandon. Treating them like strangers, treating them with abandon – either is no way for a child to honor parents. Confucius said:
Shun was masterful in honoring his parents: at fifty, he was still longing for them.”
4 Sung K’eng was traveling to Ch’u. Meeting him at Chih Ch’iu, Mencius said: “Where are you going?”
“I’ve heard that war has broken out between Ch’u and Ch’in,” replied Sung K’eng, “so I’m going to see the Ch’u emperor. I’ll try to convince him to end the fighting. If I can’t convince him, I’ll go see the Ch’in emperor. I hope one of them will listen.”
“I won’t ask about the details, if you don’t mind,” said Mencius, “but I would like to ask about the essence of your plan, and how you intend to convince these emperors to act on it.”
“I’ll show them how there’s no profit in it.”
“Your intent is noble, but your appeal misguided. If you talk to these emperors about profit, and in their love of profit they stop their armies – their armies will rejoice in peace and delight in profit. Soon ministers will embrace profit in serving their sovereign, sons will embrace profit in serving their fathers, younger brothers will embrace profit in serving their elder brothers – and all of them will have abandoned Humanity and Duty. When these relationships become a matter of profit, the nation is doomed to ruin.
“But if you talk to these emperors about Humanity and Duty, and in their love of Humanity and Duty they stop their armies – their armies will rejoice in peace and delight in Humanity and Duty. Soon ministers will embrace Humanity and Duty in serving their sovereign, sons will embrace Humanity and Duty in serving their fathers, younger brothers will embrace Humanity and Duty in serving their elder brothers – and all of them will have abandoned profit. When these relationships become a matter of Humanity and Duty, then the sovereign is sure to be a true emperor. So why mention profit?”
5 When Mencius was living in Chou, Chi Jen was the governor of Jen. As a token of friendship and respect, he sent Mencius a gift. Mencius accepted it, but without any show of gratitude. When Mencius was living in P’ing Lu, Lord Ch’u was the prime minister in Ch’i. As a token of friendship and respect, he too sent Mencius a gift. Mencius accepted it, but again without any show of gratitude.
Later, when he traveled from Chou to Jen, Mencius went to visit Lord Chi Jen. But when he traveled from P’ing Lu to Ch’i, he didn’t visit Lord Ch’u. Adept Wu-lu was overjoyed at this, and said: “Now I see!”
“You visited Lord Chi Jen when you went to Jen,” he said to Mencius, “but you didn’t visit Lord Ch’u when you went to Ch’i. Is this because Lord Ch’u is a prime minister?”
“No,” replied Mencius. “The Book of History says:
The gift is in the giving. If the giving isn’t equal to the gift, it’s like no gift at all, for the gift isn’t invested with your good will.
That is, it isn’t a true gift at all.”
Adept Wu-lu was delighted at this. When someone asked why, he said: “Lord Chi Jen couldn’t leave his responsibilities and go to Chou, but Lord Ch’u could have gone to P’ing Lu.”
6 Ch’un-yü K’un said: “If you consider fame and achievement primary, you serve the people. If you consider fame and achievement secondary, you serve yourself. You were one of the three high ministers, but you left before your fame and achievement had spread to sovereign and people. Is that really how the Humane act?”
“Po Yi lived in a humble position,” said Mencius, “and refused to put his wisdom in the service of an unworthy ruler. Yi Yin approached both the noble T’ang and the tyrant Chieh five times. And Liu Hsia-hui didn’t despise defiled rulers and didn’t reject common positions. Each of these masters had his own Way, but they all shared the same goal.”
“What was it?”
“Humanity. The noble-minded are Humane, so why must they share anything else?”
“Lord Kung-yi was prime minister in Duke Mu’s time, Master Liu and Master Szu were counselors – but Lu lost territory faster than ever. Does this mean the wise and worthy can do nothing for a country?”
“When the nation of Yü ignored Po-li Hsi,” replied Mencius, “it perished. When Duke Mu employed him well in Ch’in, the duke became the finest of august lords. Whenever countries ignore the wise and worthy, they don’t just lose a little territory: they perish entirely.”
“In ancient times,” said Ch’un-yü K’un, “when Wang Pao settled at the Ch’i River, people west of the Yellow River became eloquent carolers. When Mien Chü settled in Kao T’ang, people in Ch’i’s right-hand regions became eloquent singers. And the wives of Hua Chou and Ch’i Liang wept so eloquently for their husbands that they transformed the country’s mourning traditions.
“What lies within reveals itself without. No one’s ever been devoted to a purpose and had no achievements for the world to see. So there cannot be anyone wise and worthy among us: if there were, I would know of them.”
“When Confucius was justice minister in Lu,” said Mencius, “he was ignored. He took part in the sacrifices, but received no sacrificial meat, so he left Lu without even taking off his ceremonial cap. Those who didn’t understand him thought he left because of the meat. But those who did understand him knew it was because Lu was violating Ritual. Confucius preferred to leave over a slight offense rather than wait for a grievous wrong. Commoners never understand the ways of the noble-minded.”
7 Mencius said: “The five chiefs of the august lords were offenders against the three emperors. The august lords of today are offenders against the five chiefs. And the high ministers of today are offenders against our august lords.
“When the Son of Heaven visited the august lords, it was called an Inspection Tour. And when the august lords went to the Son of Heaven’s court, it was called a Duty Report. In spring, the purpose was to inspect the planting and provide whatever the farmers lacked. And in autumn, it was to inspect the harvest and help whoever didn’t bring in enough. An august lord was rewarded with more territory if the Son of Heaven came to his domain and found the land opened up and the fields cultivated well, the old nurtured, the wise and worthy honored, and the distinguished serving in office. An august lord was reprimanded if the Son of Heaven came and found the land overgrown, the old abandoned, the wise and worthy neglected, and oppressors serving in office. The first time an august lord failed to appear at court, his rank was reduced. The second time, his territory was reduced. And if he failed to appear a third time, the Son of Heaven’s armies removed him from power. Hence the Son of Heaven disciplined but never attacked. The august lords, on the other hand, attacked but never disciplined. Indeed, the five chiefs of the august lords often coerced august lords into attacking other august lords. That’s why I say: The five chiefs of the august lords were offenders against the three emperors.
Duke Huan was the most illustrious of the five chiefs. When he called the august lords together at K’uei Ch’iu, they bound a sacrificial animal and recorded their covenant, but they didn’t trace their mouths with blood to consummate the covenant. Their first article stated: Children who don’t honor their parents shall be punished. Descendants shall not be set aside. Mistresses shall not be given the status of wives. The second article stated: Let Integrity shine forth by honoring the wise and nurturing the talented. The third article stated: Show reverence for elders, gentleness for children, and never forget the traveler and guest. The fourth article stated: Let no one hold office by hereditary privilege, and let no one hold more than one office at a time. In selecting officials, select only the most qualified. No ruler shall have sole authority to execute a high minister. The fifth article stated: Let no one build threatening earthworks. Let no one ban the sale of grain. And let no one confer land and title without the proper announcements. The agreement also stated: All who are united in this covenant shall hereafter live in harmony. The august lords of today all violate these five precepts. That’s why I say: The august lords of today are offenders against the five chiefs.
“Encouraging a sovereign’s evil is nothing compared to the high crime of collusion in a sovereign’s evil. The high ministers of today are all colluding in their sovereign’s evil. That’s why I say: The high ministers of today are offenders against our august lords.”
8 When the Lu sovereign wanted to make Lord Shen commander of his armies, Mencius said: “Sending the people to war without training – that is called ravaging the people. In the time of Yao and Shun, there was no toleration for a person who ravaged the people. It would be wrong even if Ch’i could be defeated and Nan-yang reclaimed, all in a single battle.”
Lord Shen’s face darkened, and he said: “I don’t understand this at all.”
“Let me explain it to you clearly,” responded Mencius. “The Son of Heaven’s territory covers a thousand square miles. If it’s any less than a thousand square miles, he doesn’t have enough to provide hospitality for the august lords. An august lord’s territory covers a hundred square miles. If it’s any less than a hundred square miles, he doesn’t have enough to keep the canons of the ancestral temple.
“When Duke Chou was given Lu to rule, he had a hundred square miles. Still, it was plenty because he used it wisely. When Duke T’ai was given Ch’i to rule, he too had a hundred square miles. Again, it was plenty because he used it wisely. Today, Lu is five times a hundred square miles. If a true emperor arose, do you think Lu is one of those states he would pare down or one he would enlarge? A Humane person wouldn’t even take what belongs to one state and give it to another, let alone kill people in his pursuit of land. The noble-minded address fundamentals when they serve a sovereign: they make the Way his guide and Humanity his resolve.”
9 Mencius said: “In serving their sovereign, people these days all say: I’m expanding his territory and filling his treasury. But what the world now calls a distinguished minister, the ancients called a plunderer of the people. To enrich a sovereign when he doesn’t make the Way his purpose and Humanity his resolve – that is to enrich another tyrant Chieh.
“They say: I’m forming alliances and winning wars for him. But what the world now calls a distinguished minister, the ancients called a plunderer of the people. To strengthen a sovereign for war when he doesn’t make the Way his purpose and Humanity his resolve – that is to empower another tyrant Chieh.
“When you abide by the Way of our times, leaving the practices of this world unchanged, then even if you’re given all beneath Heaven, you won’t keep it for a single morning.”
10 Po Kuei said: “I’d like to see people taxed one part in twenty. What would you think of that?”
“Your Way is the Way of northern barbarians,” replied Mencius. “In a nation of ten thousand families, would a single potter be sufficient?”
“No, there wouldn’t be enough pottery.”
“Northern barbarians don’t grow the five grains, only millet. They have no city walls or buildings, no ancestral temples, no sacrificial rituals. They have no august lords, no diplomatic hospitality or gifts. And they don’t have the hundred government offices and officials. That’s why one part in twenty is enough tax for them. But here in the Middle Kingdom, how can we do without noble-minded leaders and the bonds of human community? If a country is crippled without potters, what happens without noble-minded leaders? If our rulers levy tax rates below that prescribed by the Way of Yao and Shun, they’ll be nothing but barbarians great and small. And if our rulers levy tax rates above that prescribed by the Way of Yao and Shun, they’ll be nothing but tyrant Chiehs great and small.”
11 Po Kuei said: “I can manage high waters better even than Yü.”2
“You’re wrong,” replied Mencius. “Yü’s management of water is the very Way of water. And so he used the four seas as valleys to drain the floodwaters away. But you use neighboring countries. When you force water out of its natural course, it becomes a flood. And a flood is nothing less than a deluge, which is something the Humane despise. No, you’re quite wrong.”
12 Mencius said: “If the noble-minded are not faithful and sincere, how can they take command of a situation?”
13 The Lu sovereign wanted Adept Yüeh-cheng to preside over his government.
“When I heard this,” said Mencius, “I was so happy I couldn’t sleep.”
“Is Yüeh-cheng a man of great strength?” asked Kung-sun Ch’ou.
“No.”
“Is he a man of wisdom and foresight?”
“Is he a man of broad learning?”
“No.”
“Then why were you so happy you couldn’t sleep?”
“Because he’s one of those men who loves virtue and benevolence.”
“Is loving virtue and benevolence sufficient?”
“Loving virtue and benevolence is enough to govern all beneath Heaven,” replied Mencius, “and what is Lu compared to that? If you love virtue and benevolence, people everywhere within the four seas will think nothing of a thousand miles: they’ll come share their thoughts about virtue and benevolence. If you don’t love virtue and benevolence, people will think your smug and arrogant manner says I understand all things. The tone and bearing of such smug arrogance – that alone will keep people a thousand miles away. And when worthy scholars stay a thousand miles away, people with flattering smiles and pleasing tongues come crowding around. Once that happens, how could anyone govern a country well?”
14 Adept Ch’en said: “In ancient times, when would a noble-minded man take office?”
“There were three situations where a noble-minded man would take office,” replied Mencius, “and three where he would renounce office. First – he would take office when invited with reverence, according to Ritual, and told that his counsels would be put into practice. Then he would renounce office if his counsels were not put into practice, even if the Ritual courtesies hadn’t been violated. Second – he would take office when invited with reverence, according to Ritual, even if his counsels weren’t put into practice. Then he would renounce office if the Ritual courtesies were neglected. Third – if he had no food morning or night, and so lived in such hunger that he couldn’t walk out his gate, he would accept office if the sovereign heard about his plight and offered assistance, saying: I’ve failed in the great work of putting his Way into practice, and I’ve failed to follow his counsels. Now if I let him starve to death in my domain, how could I live with the shame? But in such a case, he accepts only to escape starvation.”
15 Mencius said: “Shun issued forth from farmlands. Fu Yüeh rose from builders, Chiao Ko from salt and fish, Kuan Chung from jails, Sun Shu-ao from the sea, and Po-li Hsi from markets. So it is that whenever Heaven invests a person with great responsibilities, it first tries his resolve, exhausts his muscles and bones, starves his body, leaves him destitute, and confounds his every endeavor. In this way his patience and endurance are developed, and his weaknesses are overcome.
“We change and grow only when we make mistakes. We realize what to do only when we work through worry and confusion. And we gain people’s trust and understanding only when our inner thoughts are revealed clearly in our faces and words. When it has no lawful families or wise officials within and no enemy threats without, a nation will surely come to ruin. Then its people will understand that through calamity and grief we flourish, and through peace and joy we perish.”
16 Mencius said: “There are many ways to teach. I don’t bother with teaching and instructing, but that’s just another way of teaching and instructing.”