CHAPTER EIGHT

1. David H. Donald, Lincoln (New York, 1995), 237–38.

2. Andrew A. Freeman, Abraham Lincoln Goes to New York (New York, 1960), 1–21, 58–66 (quotation p. 17).

3. Francis F. Browne, The Every-Day Life of Abraham Lincoln (New York, 1886), 323; William F. Barnard, Forty Years at the Five Points: A Sketch of the Five Points House of Industry (New York, 1893), 69.

4. Henry J. Raymond, History of the Administration of President Lincoln (New York, 1864), 42–43.

5. Times, July 10, 1897, p. 12; Denise Bethel, “Mr. Halliday’s Album,” Seaport 28 (Fall 1994): 16–21; Massachusetts Commission on Hours of Labor, Reports of the Commissioners on the Hours of Labor (Boston, 1867), 102 (quotation).

6. Samuel B. Halliday, The Lost and Found; or Life Among the Poor (New York, 1859), 118–23. When Halliday’s book was reprinted in 1861 the title was changed to The Little Street Sweeper, a decision that reflected the appeal of Mullen’s story.

7. Halliday, Lost and Found, 53–55, 123 (quotation); Bethel, “Mr. Halliday’s Album,” 16–21.

8. Donald, Lincoln, 238–40; Tribune, February 28, 1860. For Hyer’s presence in Chicago, see Murat Halstead, The Caucuses of 1860: A History of the National Political Conventions of the Current Presidential Campaign (Columbus, OH, 1860), 141.

9. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 16, 1873): 363 (“no church”); David Clarkson, History of the Church of Zion and St. Timothy, 1797–1894 (New York, 1894), 60 (“idolatrous”); Tribune, February 19, 1855; Graham Hodges, “‘Desirable Companions and Lovers’: Irish and African Americans in the Sixth Ward, 1830–1870,” in Ronald Bayor and Timothy Meagher, eds., The New York Irish (Baltimore, 1996), 111–12; Times, April 11, 1860 (“peculiar repulsiveness”).

10. Hyman B. Grinstein, The Rise of the Jewish Community of New York, 1654–1860 (Philadelphia, 1945), 472–74.

11. Ibid., 50–52, 54–55, 295.

12. Ibid., 50–52, 295.

13. Ibid., 62–64, 172, 341, 345. A “seatholder” was allowed to attend services but could not vote for the officers of the congregation.

14. Ibid., 50, 472–77; J. D. Eisenstein, “The History of the First Russian-American Jewish Congregation,” Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society 9 (1901): 63–65; Barnard, Forty Years at the Five Points, 8.

15. Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860 (Urbana, 1982), 69; Advocate of Moral Reform 5 (September 9, 1839): 130; Carroll Smith Rosenberg, Religion and the Rise of the American City: The New York City Mission Movement, 1812–1870 (Ithaca, 1971), 206–7.

16. Rosenberg, Religion, 206–7, 247–48, 251, 255; Annual Report of the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor 3 (1846): 15–20.

17. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 114; Times, April 11, 1860; Tribune, January 16, 1855.

18. Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church 1 (1845): 13; The Old Brewery, and the New Mission House at the Five Points, By Ladies of the Mission (New York, 1854), 36 (quoting their annual report of 1848).

19. Old Brewery, 36, 38; entry of July 1,1851, New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church Board Minute Book (hereafter cited as Board Minute Book), Five Points Mission Records, United Methodist Church Archives, Drew University.

20. Letter of Henry R. Remsen, et al., in Times, October 15, 1853 (“gin shop”); Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 32 (1876): 6–8; family 1069, fifth election district, Sixth Ward, 1855 New York State manuscript census, Old Records Division, New York County Clerk’s Office; Five Points Monthly (March 1854): 4, in Isaac J. Quillen, “A History of the Five Points to 1890: The Evolution of a Slum” (M.A. thesis, Yale University, 1932), 49 (Lenox); entry of April 1,1851, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records.

21. Letter of L. M. Pease in Times, November 19, 1852.

22. Times, December 15, 1853.

23. Times, November 19, 1852.

24. Times, November 19, 1852 (quotation), October 15, 1853; Barnard, Forty Years at the Five Points, 14–15; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 2 (1858): 77–78. The dates Pease gives for the commencement of these activities differ in his various accounts. Those used here seem most consistent with other contemporary evidence.

25. Times, November 19, December 21 (Pease to the editor), 1852; entry of September 3, 1850, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records.

26. Entries of March 4 (quotation) and June 6, 1851, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Times, November 19, 1852, October 15, 1853; Rosenberg, Religion, 232–33; Old Brewery, 40–41; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 7 (1851): 9–10. Although Carroll Smith Rosenberg states in Religion and the Rise of the American City, 233, that she used the “Five Points House [of Industry] Archives” for her work, I was not able to track down the current location of these papers.

27. Entry of February 3, 1852, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Old Brewery, 42, 64, 80, 214–22; John Francis Richmond, New York and Its Institutions, 1609–1872 (New York, 1872), 480; Times, January 28, 1853; Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion 4 (January 15, 1853): 40.

28. Times, October 11, 16, 1852; Freeman’s Journal, October 16, 1852. Old Brewery, 63, states that the city did contribute $1,000 toward the project, but I could find no record of any such expenditure in the Common Council records.

29. Old Brewery, 64; Tribune, June 18, 1853; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 2 (1859): 210; 8 [really 9] (April 1866): 185; Barnard, Forty Years at the Five Points, 19–22; Times, February 7, 1870.

30. Freeman’s Journal, October 15, 1853; Tribune, June 18, 1853; Old Brewery, 77; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 12 (1856): 8–9; 23 (1867): 30–31.

31. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 2 (May 1858): 8; Times, November 19, 1852, October 4, 1853.

32. Edward K. Spann, The New Metropolis: New York City, 1840–1857 (New York, 1981), 78; Tribune, December 15, 1848 (Tyng and Griscom’s House of Industry); Freeman’s Journal, February 5, March 4, 1848; Brace, Short Sermons to News Boys (New York, 1866), 9–10; [New York] Christian Advocate and Journal (December 8, 1853): 194, (February 22, 1855): 30 (quotation). Charles Fourier was an early nineteenth-century French critic of capitalism who advocated the establishment of agricultural communes.

33. Rosenberg, Religion, 229–30, 234; Benson J. Lossing, History of New York City (New York, 1884), 632; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 37; 2 (1858): 116–17; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 24 (1868): 7; 26 (1870): 11; 28 (1872): 10–11; 35 (1879): 8.

34. Times, December 21, 1852 (“soup-room”), October 15, 1853 (“the room so stank”); Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years Work Among Them, 3rd ed. (New York, 1872), 132, 143; [New York] Christian Advocate and Journal (December 8, 1853): 194.

35. Entries of May 6, July 1, 1851, November 14, 1854, December 2, 1856, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Pease to the Editor, October 3, 1853, in Times, October 4, 1853.

36. Freeman’s Journal, October 15, 1853; Times, October 4, 13, 1853.

37. Herald, October 10, 1853 (story written by Pease); A. Stonelake to the Editor, Tribune, October 24, 1853; Freeman’s Journal, October 15, 1853.

38. Times, October 13, 1853; Benjamin M. Adams to the Editor, Tribune, October 13, 1853; entry of October 7, 1856, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 20 (1864): 7; Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin, “The Passing Away of Tony Gimp,” Catholic Youth (1899), in Peter P. McLoughlin, Father Tom: Life and Lectures of Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin (New York, 1919), 85.

39. Old Brewery, 80; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 179; 2 (1859): 250; Rosenberg, Religion, 237; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 12 (1856): 8–9.

40. Times, May 9, 1866; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 24 (1868): 7; Lossing, History of New York City, 631.

41. Old Brewery, 88.

42. Voice from the Old Brewery, May 1, 1869. By 1857, even the House of Industry emphasized the religious motivation behind its distribution of food and clothing. “We call our entire work a mission work, even to feeding the hungry and clothing the naked,” stated its Monthly Record. “Nothing but illness . . . will be accepted as an excuse for the absence of any individual” from morning or evening prayer services. Such statements, so unlike Pease’s earlier remarks, suggest that the organization began to change significantly after he left Five Points in early 1857 to take charge of the House of Industry’s Westchester County farm—Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 125–26.

43. America As I Found It. By the Mother of Mary Lundie Duncan (New York, 1852), 87–88.

44. “Five Points Mission: Historical Presentation,” Five Points Mission Records. For the shoe club, see Voice from the Old Brewery, passim.

45. Times, December 20, 1852; Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (1890; New York, 1971), 151.

46. Irish-American, February 25, October 14 (“Publicola”), 1854; Freeman’s Journal, October 15, 1853.

47. Entries of September 20, October 18, 1856, Adoption Case Histories, entry of January 6, 1857, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Francis E. Lane, American Charities and the Child of the Immigrant (Washington, DC, 1932), 88; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1858): 228–29.

48. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 3–5, 127.

49. Entry of October 7, 1856, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 125–27; Barnard, Forty Years at the Five Points, 34; Rosenberg, Religion, 234–35.

50. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1858): 252–54, 265.

51. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Five Points House of Industry (1855): 15–18; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 15; Halliday, Lost and Found, 95–96.

52. Tribune, November 22, 1856. For the Children’s Aid Society adoption efforts, see Miriam Z. Langsam, Children West: A History of the Placing-Out System of the New York Children’s Aid Society, 1853–1890 (Madison, 1964).

53. Entry of July 1, 1856, Board Minute Book, Five Points Mission Records; Belleville Weekly Democrat, April 17, 1858, quoted in Marilyn I. Holt, The Orphan Trains: Placing Out in America (Lincoln, 1992), 99–100; Voice from the Old Brewery 1 (June 1, 1861): 24; John Morrow, A Voice from the Newsboys (New York, 1860), 95–98; Langsam, Children West, 27; Brace, Dangerous Classes, 241. The mission and House of Industry never released figures on the precise number of children they gave up for adoption.

54. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 2 (1859): 235–36; Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society 23 (1867): 31; entries of November 8, 23, 1856, Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records.

55. Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society 8 (1861): 11–12; Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry, passim.

56. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Five Points House of Industry (1855): 15–16; entry of August 15, 1856, Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records.

57. Solon Robinson, Hot Corn: Life Scenes in New York Illustrated (New York, 1854), 52–75 and ff. (quotation p. 54). Mission officials groused that Maggie was never really as wild as Pease claimed, but the life story of the Maggie they describe is so different from that of Robinson’s “Wild Maggie” that they must be different children—Old Brewery, 182–90.

58. Entries of September 16, 1856, January 29, 1857, Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records.

59. Entries of July 25, December 5, 1856, Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records.

60. Entries of August 20, October 14, 1856, Adoption Case Histories, Five Points Mission Records; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 2 (1858): 66–67.

61. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Five Points House of Industry (1855): 16–18.

62. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 136–42.

63. Morrow, Voice from the Newsboys, 91–92.

64. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Five Points House of Industry (1855): 20–24.

65. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (1857): 87–90.

66. Ibid., 212–14.

67. Irish-American, April 23, 1859.

68. Irish-American, November 14, 1863; Freeman’s Journal, May 2, 1863; “Public Charities,” Catholic World 17 (1873): 3–7, in Langsam, Children West, 52; Brace, Dangerous Classes, 234–35.

69. Lane, American Charities and the Child of the Immigrant, 118; Holt, Orphan Trains, 62–63, 99–100; Langsam, Children West, 56, 65; Brace, Dangerous Classes, 268.

70. Clarkson, History of the Church of Zion and St. Timothy, 60–63; John G. Shea, The Catholic Churches of New York City (New York, 1878), 693–96; Transfiguration Church: A Church of Immigrants, 1827–1977 (New York, 1977), 9; Jay P. Dolan, “Urban Catholicism: New York City, 1815–1865” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1970), 313–17; Dolan, The Immigrant Church: New York’s Irish and German Catholics, 1815–1865 (Baltimore, 1975), 47–51 (quotation).

71. Freeman’s Journal, February 20, 1847; Holt, Orphan Trains, 106–7, 112–13; Langsam, Children West, 48; John F. Maguire, The Irish in America (London, 1868), 512–14.

72. Evening Post, February 7, 1854; Old Brewery, 64; Gleason’s Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion 4 (January 15, 1853): 48; America As I Found It, 90–91.

73. Annual Report of the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor 16 (1859): 39; Harper’s Weekly, February 21, 1857; Times, February 7, 1870; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (October 1857): 151; 3 (March 1860): 250; Voice from the Old Brewery 1 (February 1, 1861): 5; Seventeenth Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society (1861): 7–8.

74. Times, February 7, 1870; Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform in Mid-Nineteenth Century America (New York, 1957): 169–70.

75. John W. Pratt, “Boss Tweed’s Public Welfare Program,” New-York Historical Society Quarterly 45 (1961): 396–411.

CHAPTER NINE

1. Express, Tribune, Times, and Herald, July 6, 1857; Lyman Abbott, Reminiscences (Boston, 1915), 35.

2. Times, March 8, 1878 (William), June 26, 1899, p. 2 (quotation).

3. New York City Board of Aldermen, Documents 25 (1858), doc. 6, p. 53 (Walsh as assistant foreman).

4. Trow’s New York City Directory for 1859–60 (New York, 1859), 881; Trow’s New York City Directory for 1860–61 (New York, 1860), 889; Trow’s New York City Directory for 1861–62 (New York, 1861), 884; p. 927, district two, Sixth Ward, 1860 United States manuscript census, National Archives. For conditions in these tenements, see Denis T. Lynch, The Wild Seventies, 2 vols. (1941; Port Washington, NY, 1971), 2: 293–95; Times, July 2, 1871, August 27, 1873; Harper’s Weekly 17 (September 13, 1873): 796.

5. Leader, November 27, 1858 (William), January 3, 1863 (Tammany general committee); Irish-American, November 19, 1859 (William); Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1862 (New York, 1862), 57 (street inspector); Times, June 26, 1899, p. 2 (superintendent of markets); Frank Moss, The American Metropolis, 3 vols. (New York, 1897), 3: 52 (quotation). The polling place for this district was, by 1860, located at the same address as Walsh’s saloon. Although the Herald stated that the voting station there was located in a butcher shop, it was undoubtedly placed at that address to allow Walsh to monitor the voting—Herald, November 7, 1860.

6. William’s break with Tammany apparently began in 1864, when he had a falling-out with Brennan and ran for Congress against the Tammany nominee, Brennan confidant Morgan Jones—Times, March 8, 1878.

7. Times, March 8, 1878, June 26, 1899, p. 2; Matthew P. Breen, Thirty Years of New York Politics Up-to-Date (New York, 1899), 529–31; Trow’s New York City Directory for the Year Ending May 1, 1871 (New York, 1870), 1257.

8. Times, June 26, 1899, p. 2.

9. Times, December 23 (“pothouse,” p. 4), 24 (“inevitably become,” p. 4), 25 (p. 4), 26 (p. 9), 1886.

10. Times, December 25, 1886, p. 4, April 13, 1888, p. 5.

11. Times, November 1, 1915, p. 11; Herald, June 26, 1899, p. 4 (quotation); John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., American National Biography, 24 vols. (New York, 1999), 22: 563.

12. Times, June 26, 1899, p. 2.

13. Times, June 26 (quotation, p. 2), 30 (p. 14), 1899.

14. Herald, October 26, November 4, 1853 (political advertisements in which Kerrigan is identified as head of the movement to defeat the regular Democratic nominee for council from the twelfth district), October 17, 1860; Times, August 8, 1887, p. 2 (quotations), November 3, 1899, p. 7; Irish-American, October 29, 1853; Florence E. Gibson, The Attitudes of the New York Irish Toward State and National Affairs, 1848–1892 (New York, 1951), 58.

15. Times, March 23, 1855, August 8, 1887, p. 2 (dominated board of councilmen).

16. Herald, January 10, 30, 1856, November 2, 1899; Tribune, January 30, 1856.

17. Herald, December 3, 1852, January 20, June 7, 1853; statement of Schell, December 13, 1852, in indictment of December 23, 1852, New York County District Attorney’s Indictment Papers, New York Municipal Archives; Times, January 20, 24, 1853; Irish-American, October 29, 1853; Gibson, Attitudes of the New York Irish, 58; family 424, dwelling 85, fourth election district, Sixth Ward, 1855 New York State manuscript census, Old Records Division, New York County Clerk’s Office. For Mathews’s status as a sporting man, see Times, January 14, 1885, and Ned James to the Editor, Clipper, January 24, 1885. Gilmartin may have been one of the many Five Pointers who had emigrated from North Sligo. That surname, not a common one in New York at the time, was very prominent among the Palmerston and Gore Booth immigrants, and is still common today in Ahamlish and Drumcliff.

18. Times, November 5–6, 1856; Citizen, November 15, 1856 (“regular running street fight”); Tribune, November 5, 1856; Herald, November 5, 1856; testimony of William A. Smith (“Mulberry St. Boys”), July 6, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests. In Ireland in the 1850s, the term “Molly Maguires” referred to members of a secret anti-British society who pledged allegiance to a mythical woman who symbolized their struggle against injustice. The term was later adopted by Irish labor activists in Pennsylvania coalmining regions.

19. Jerome Mushkat, Fernando Wood: A Political Biography (Kent, OH, 1990), 41–75; Leader, September 14, 1856; Irish-American, October 26, 1850, November 4, 1854, November 15, 1856, October 24, 1857 (for Wood’s popularity with the Irish).

20. Irish-American, July 11, 1857; The Diary of George Templeton Strong, ed. Allan Nevins, 5 vols. (New York, 1952), 2: 342; Times, May 1, 1857; Harper’s Weekly (January 31, 1857): 65.

21. Tyler Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s (New York, 1992), 143–45; Irish-American, August 9, 1856; Tribune, July 6, 1857 (quotation).

22. Citizen, November 22, 1856 (quotation); Irish-American, January 31, 1857, August 14, 1858 (quotation); European, December 6, 1856; Irish News, June 19, 1858; Tribune, February 1, 1850; Robert Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 1825–1863 (1949; Port Washington, NY, 1965), 164; Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York, 1999), 838–39.

23. Tribune, July 4, 6, 1857; Herald, July 4, 1857; testimony of Joseph Souder, July 10, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests; Times, July 6, 1857.

24. Herbert Asbury, Gangs of New York, 113, quoted in Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (Cambridge, 1978), 69; Diary of George Templeton Strong, 2: 346; Times, July 11, 13 (final quotation), 1857.

25. “UN QUI SAIT” to the Editor, July 11, 1857 (“beat all the new policemen”) in Times, July 13, 1857; testimony of William A. Smith (“hooting & cheering”), Richard Quinn, July 6, 1857, microfilm roll 89, New York County Coroner Inquests (Smith’s and Quinn’s testimony is paraphrased in the Times, July 7, 1857); testimony of Josiah McCord in Herald, July 6 (“Bowery boys”), 7 (for 40 Bowery as Mathews’s headquarters), 10 (testimony of Metropolitan Police Sergeant Joseph Souder on Florentine), 1857; Morning Express, July 6, 1857 (“coffee and cake” and Mathews); Tribune, July 6, 1857 (final two quotations).

26. American Republican Party General Executive Committee Minute Book, New-York Historical Society; Herald, October 29, 1854 (“reform” nominations); family 363, dwelling 64, second division, third electoral district, Sixth Ward, 1855 New York census (previous white native-born male head of household was a twenty-two-year-old sailor in family 211); Trow’s New York City Directory for 1855–56 (New York, 1855), 292. While it cannot be proven that the “reform” slate was the Know Nothing ticket, given Florentine’s father’s affiliation and the Know Nothing tendency to use this ploy in 1854, this seems the most logical explanation. For this tactic, see Anbinder, Nativism and Slavery, 52–53.

27. Testimony of William Y. Taft, July 8, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests; Tribune, July 6, 1857.

28. Tribune, July 6, 1857.

29. Tribune and Herald, July 6, 1857; Abbott, Reminiscences, 33 (“blood streaming”).

30. Morning Express and Tribune, July 6, 1857; Clipper, January 24, 1885 (on Mathews and Kerrigan as sporting men).

31. Marcus Horbalt [sic] to the Editor, July 7, 1857, in Times, July 8, 1857; Herald, July 7 (testimony of Charles Francis), 10 (Molony to the Editor), 1857; account 8355, Emigrant Savings Bank Test Books, New York Public Library (Roche).

32. Testimony of Thomas Harvey, July 6, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests; Morning Express, July 8, 1857.

33. Annual Report of the Chief Engineer of the Fire Department (New York, 1858), in Board of Aldermen, Documents 25 (1858), doc. 6, pp. 53, 171; Leader, October 31, 1857 (Horbelt as election inspector); Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1858 (New York, 1858), 102; family 904, dwelling 144, fifth election district, Sixth Ward, 1855 New York census (Horbelt); Trow’s New York City Directory for 1856–57 (New York, 1856), 701 (Roche).

34. Herald (“busily engaged”) and Morning Express, July 6, 1857.

35. Morning Express and Herald, July 6, 1857.

36. Abbott, Reminiscences, 34; Robert F. Lucid, ed., The Journal of Richard Henry Dana, Jr., 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1968), 2: 823–24.

37. Tribune and Times, July 6, 1857; Joshua Brown, “The ‘Dead Rabbit’-Bowery Boy Riot: An Analysis of the Antebellum New York Gang” (M.A. thesis, Columbia University, 1976), 24–27.

38. Herald and Times, July 6, 1857. The press occasionally referred to Kerrigan and Mathews’s followers as the “Atlantic Boys” because many of them belonged to Atlantic Hose Company No. 14.

39. Times and Tribune, July 6–7, 1857; Evening Post, July 6, 1857; Brown, “‘Dead Rabbit’-Bowery Boy Riot,” 165–69. Brown lists twelve killed in the riot, but I believe that one of those he lists as killed—William “Fatty” Walsh—is actually Thomas Walsh or his brother William, both of whom survived the riot. No Walsh was found in any of the coroner’s reports. But Brown does not include among the dead Metropolitan Thomas Sparks, who died as a result of injuries sustained at the hands of the mob on Chatham Street in the early morning hours of the Fourth. Consequently, I believe the figure of twelve killed is accurate.

40. Herald, July 10, 1857; Times, July 8, 10, 13 (Clancy quotation), 17 (Gallagher quotation), 1857; Citizen, August 1, 1857; testimony of policeman James Irving, July 8, 1857, testimony of policeman Thomas Dutcher, July 10, 1857, statements of prisoners Edward Doyle, Patrick Mooney, Patrick McBride, Thomas McGaraghy, and Barney Gallagher, July 9, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests. The outcome of the case of Owen Gilmartin, who demanded a jury trial, could not be determined.

41. For the Astor Place death toll, see Edward K. Spann, The New Metropolis: New York City, 1840–1857 (New York, 1981), 237–38; Peter G. Buckley, “To the Opera House: Culture and Society in New York City, 1820–1860” (Ph.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1984), 3.

42. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 839; William D’Arcy, The Fenian Movement in the United States: 1858–1886 (Washington, DC, 1947), 159–66, 244–48.

43. Citizen, July 18, 1857. That a large number of the Roche Guard hailed from lower Mulberry is indicated by both the location of Roche’s original saloon and the addresses given by those questioned by the coroner in the death of William Cahill. The questioning indicated the coroner’s belief that these men were active members of the Roche Guard. The Times identified these men as John Roche (probably William’s brother) of 5 Mulberry; Philip Murphy of 9 Mulberry; Thomas White of 11 Mulberry; Michael Finane of 6 Mulberry; and Patrick Lane, whose address was not given—Times, July 7, 1857.

44. Irish-American, July 18, 1857; Herald, July 6, 1857.

45. Tribune, July 6, 1857; testimony of Louis B. Pike, July 8, 1857, reel 89, New York County Coroner Inquests.

46. Journal of Richard Henry Dana, Jr., 2: 824–25; Times, July 7, 1857.

47. Times, July 20, 1857.

48. Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1858, 143, 438; Herald, May 14, 1876 (Dowling); Times, October 10, 1870 (Jourdan).

49. Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1859 (New York, 1859), 116 (Kerrigan’s clerkship).

50. Leader, July 2, 1864.

51. Leader, October 2, 1858. In his listing of Sixth Warders who had held citywide office, Clancy did not include Andrew H. Mickle, elected mayor in 1846. Mickle, a Protestant, had been born in a Five Points tenement with pigs in both the basement and attic, but married the daughter of his employer, a successful tobacco dealer. Mickle later took over the business and died a millionaire. By the time he became mayor, he had not lived in the Sixth Ward for decades, explaining why Clancy did not include him in his account of Sixth Warders who had held important city offices—Harlow, Old Bowery Days, 302.

52. Leader, November 6, 1858 (“too Irish”); Irish-American, August 14 (Dispatch quotation), October 23 (“claims of the Sixth Ward”), 1858.

53. Clancy captured 38,077 votes, while his Republican opponent received 30,092. John Kelly, running for sheriff at the head of the Democratic ticket, won about 1,000 more votes than Clancy—Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1859, 413.

CHAPTER TEN

1. Herald, December 13, 14, 1860.

2. Manual of the Corporation of the City of New York for 1859 (New York, 1859), 116 (Kerrigan’s clerkship); Herald, October 17, 1860.

3. Herald, October 17, 1860.

4. Ibid.

5. Philip Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill, 1941), 294–95.

6. Tribune, December 17, 1860; Herald, January 19, 22, 23, 1861; Times, January 19, 22, 24, 1861, January 16, 1862 (size of Kerrigan’s regiment).

7. William H. Russell, My Diary North and South (Boston, 1863), 507–8.

8. The account of Kerrigan’s service and court-martial is based on his service records and on court-martial II/680, both in Record Group 153, National Archives. Sketchy accounts of the trial can be found in Tribune, December 11, 12, 18, 20, 21, 1861, and Times, January 16, 1862. For Kerrigan’s arrest, see Congressional Globe, 37th Congress, 3rd Sess., 1545; Herald, March 4, 1863.

9. Times, August 8, 1887, p. 2 (“dare-devil”); William D’Arcy, The Fenian Movement in the United States: 1858–1886 (Washington, DC, 1947), 159–66; Herald, June 5–7, 1866.

10. D’Arcy, Fenian Movement, 244–48; Times, November 3, 1899, p. 7.

11. John S. Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, 1865–1877 (1905; New York, 1969), 152–53.

12. Herald, November 2, 1899 (“never uttered”); Times, November 3, 1899, p. 7 (“syndicate”).

13. Irish-American, October 29, 1853, January 31, 1857; Day Book, November 11, 1857.

14. Freeman’s Journal, July 22, 1843, October 6, 1860.

15. Freeman’s Journal, July 22, 1843 (O’Connell quotation); Irish-American, August 12, 1849 (quotation), May 17, 1851, June 11, 1853.

16. Freeman’s Journal, July 22, 1843; Irish-American, January 31, 1857.

17. Irish-American, January 9, 1858; Leader, October 9, November 6, 1858 (on Douglas), March 12, 1859 (Ivy Green).

18. Herald, November 7, 1860.

19. Irish-American, January 26, February 16 (quotation), 1861; Leader quoted in Jerome Mushkat, Tammany: The Evolution of a Political Machine, 1789–1865 (Syracuse, 1971), 327; Times, April 16, 1861.

20. Herald, January 23, 1861; Irish-American, April 27, 1861; Eighteenth Annual Report of the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor (1861): 17; Voice from the Old Brewery 1 (August 2, 1861): 35; Twenty-first Annual Report of the New-York Ladies’ Home Missionary Society (New York, 1865): 9.

21. Robert Crowe, Reminiscences of Robert Crowe, the Octogenerian [sic] Tailor (New York, 1901), 26; M. R. Werner, It Happened in New York (New York, 1957), 196; Edward Lubitz, “The Tenement Problem in New York City and the Movement for Its Reform, 1856–1867” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1970), 319.

22. Herald, November 4 (quotation), 6, 1861; Times, July 23, 1896, p. 5 (Stacom); military service file of John Stacom, National Archives; Supplement to the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part II—Record of Events, 80 vols. (Wilmington, NC, 1997), 44: 695 (Petersburg). For the Sixth-ninth Regiment, see Irish-American, June 4, July 6, 1861; Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York, 1999), 870–71; Joseph G. Bilby, The Irish Brigade in the Civil War: The 69th New York and Other Irish Regiments of the Army of the Potomac (1995; Conshohocken, PA, 1998), 11–17.

23. Leader and Tribune, July 2, 1864; Mushkat, Tammany, 330–32; Florence E. Gibson, The Attitudes of the New York Irish Toward State and National Affairs, 1848–1892 (New York, 1951), 117.

24. Leader, June 28, 1862, quoted in Mushkat, Tammany, 342; Times, November 15, 20, 21, 23, 1862; Official Proceedings of the Democratic Republican Nominating Convention of Tammany Hall, Which Nominated Matthew T. Brennan for the Office of Comptroller of the City of New York . . . November 20, 1862 [New York, 1862].

25. Leader, November 22, 1862; Times, November 23, 29, 1862; Herald, November 26, 28 (“at all qualified”), 29, December 3, 1862. Brennan captured about 30,000 votes, while his running mate for corporation counsel, John E. Develin, received 33,000—Times, December 3, 1862.

26. Leader, January 10, 1863; Board of Aldermen, Documents 25 (1858), doc. 6, p. 171; Times, July 16, 1894, p. 5. Walsh by this point lived just across the Bowery in the Fourth Ward on Madison Street (the aldermanic district included portions of both wards), but his ties to Five Points remained strong with his brother Tom still a political force on lower Mulberry Street.

27. Times, November 20, 1863, October 10, 1870, May 14, 1876. Although both Jourdan and Dowling were good fighters, Jourdan was said to have had “the greater coolness in times of bodily peril.” Once when Dowling and Jourdan went in plainclothes to capture two noted Sixth Ward thieves, they were attacked in a dark room with iron bars. Dowling drew his pistol, but Jourdan knocked his arm away, insisting on capturing the thieves alive. After a long hand-to-hand struggle, the policemen overpowered the thieves with their pistol butts, but not before the policemen were left “with blood streaming from head and face.” The two officers “dragged their equally disfigured captives . . . into a hack, where, exhausted and almost senseless, the four brutally beaten contestants rested from their labors and mingled their blood until they reached the station house. . . . From the encounter resulted Dowling’s premature and excessive baldness. He was about as nearly scalped as mortal man ever was, and from that day, instead of having a thick and heavy head of hair, his poll shone like a polished billiard ball.” In his years on the bench Dowling was consequently known as “old Baldy”—Herald, May 14, 1876.

28. Herald, November 6, 1861; Robert Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 1825–1863 (1949; reprint, Port Washington, NY, 1965), 291 (Hughes).

29. Tribune, April 8, 1863; Leader in James F. Richardson, The New York Police: Colonial Times to 1901 (New York, 1970), 131; Irish-American, passim late 1862–early 1863.

30. Edward K. Spann, “The Irish Community and the Civil War,” in Ronald Bayor and Timothy Meagher, eds., The New York Irish (Baltimore, 1996), 203–4; Tribune, April 14, 1863; Albon P. Man, Jr., “Labor Competition and the New York Draft Riots of 1863,” Journal of Negro History 36 (1951): 398–400. The April strikers found only ten African Americans at Pier Nine and “a few” at the other East River docks, confirming that no sweeping replacement of Irish Americans by African Americans had occurred. The original culprit in the misrepresentation of this incident seems to have been Emerson D. Fite, Social and Industrial Conditions in the North During the Civil War (1910; Williamstown, MA, 1976), 189–90. None of the contemporary descriptions of the June strike that I was able to locate mentioned black workers replacing white strikers. See Tribune, June 8, 9, 15, 20, 1863, and Herald, June 9, 16, 1863.

31. Day Book quoted in Spann, “Irish Community,” 203; Irish-American, July 4, 1863.

32. People v. Denis P. Sullivan, December 9, 1862, New York County District Attorney’s Indictment Papers, New York Municipal Archives; Herald, November 30, December 1, 1862; Times, February 11–15, 1863.

33. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 887–88; Irish-American, May 16, 1863; Herald, July 14, 1863.

34. Irish-American, July 25, 1863.

35. Leader, November 7, 1863; Luc Sante, Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York (New York, 1991), 353; Richard O’Connor, Hell’s Kitchen: The Roaring Days of New York’s Wild Side (New York, 1958), 16.

36. Adrian Cook, The Armies of the Streets: The New York City Draft Riots of 1863 (Lexington, KY, 1974), 213–16; Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots (New York, 1990), 28, 31–36; Tribune, July 18, 1863; Leader, July 18, November 7, 1863.

37. Cook, Armies of the Streets, 256–68.

38. Herald, July 14 (“Mr. Crook”) and 17, 1863; David M. Barnes, The Draft Riots in New York (New York, 1863), 14, 42–44 (all other quotations). The most recent account of the riots to repeat the erroneous story of the mission’s burning is Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 890.

39. Herald, July 17, 1863; districts 5–11, Sixth Ward, 1870 United States manuscript census, National Archives. For Five Points’ importance as a residence for African-American sailors on shore leave, see W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 185.

40. Sixth Ward draft statistics based upon the list of draftees published in the Herald, August 26, 1863, supplemented and corrected by Register of Drafted Men, Fourth Congressional District of New York, Entry 1589, Record Group 110, National Archives. Five Pointers did not respond to the draft much differently from other New York Irish Americans. In the August 1863 draft in the Fourth Ward, the district demographically most similar to the Sixth Ward, 50% of the draftees failed to report, 40% were exempted, 2% paid the commutation fee, 7% hired substitutes, and not a single drafted man entered the army. Upstate, the draft produced far more recruits. In the Ontario county seat of Canandaigua, for example, fully 24% of those drafted paid the commutation fee, hired a substitute, or enlisted—Register of Drafted Men, Entry 1589 (Fourth Ward), Descriptive Roll of Drafted Men, Entry 2194 (Canandaigua), Record Group 110, National Archives. For Nealis, see Times, February 12–15, 1863.

41. Boyle’s service record can be found in the papers of the Eighteenth New York Cavalry Regiment, National Archives. The movements of his unit can be traced in Supplement to the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Part II—Record of Events, 41: 600–602; Frederick H. Dyer, Compendium of the War of the Rebellion, 3 vols. (1908; Dayton, OH, 1978), 1: 380.

42. Times, December 2, 1863; Irish-American, December 12, 1863.

43. Irish-American, October 8, 1864.

44. Irish-American, October 15 (“own aggrandizement”), November 5 (block quotation), 1864.

45. Herald, November 17, 19 (quotation), 1866.

46. Leader, Times, Herald, and Tribune, July 2, 1864. The press offered widely divergent accounts of the cause of Clancy’s death. The Herald reported that he had succumbed to Bright’s disease, a chronic inflammation of the kidneys, while the Times attributed his death to “a brain fever caused by a sunstroke received at Lake Mahopac on the 20th of last month.”

47. William M. Ivins, Machine Politics and Money in Elections in New York City (1887; New York, 1970), 19; Matthew P. Breen, Thirty Years of New York Politics Up-to-Date (New York, 1899), 516–17. Brennan told a congressional committee in 1868 that he lived at 84 White Street and voted in the Sixth Ward, but admitted he almost always slept at his “summer residence” on “the Bloomingdale Road.” By 1869, he had given up any pretense of still residing in the Sixth Ward, listing the location of his residence as 105th Street and Broadway in the city directory—New York Election Frauds, 40th Congress, 3rd Sess. House Report No. 31 ([Washington, DC]: 1869), 442; Trow’s New York City Directory for 1869–70 (New York, 1869). I have not been able to identify with certainty the year in which this primary took place, but a story on the front page of the Times, February 26, 1872, implies that it was in 1871.

48. Times, November 9, 1859, November 7, 1860; Herald, November 7, 1860.

49. Testimony Relating to the Great Election Frauds of 1838 (New York, 1840); Irish-American, October 2, 1858, February 12, April 23, June 25 (quotation), 1859. For one of the few antebellum references to significant voter fraud in Five Points, see Herald, December 9, 1858.

50. Times, November 7, 1863; John I. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds in New York City, 1860–1870, 2nd ed. (New York, 1894), 49–56; Albie Burke, “Federal Regulation of Congressional Elections in Northern Cities, 1871–1894” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1968), 71.

51. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 49–56.

52. Ibid., 92–93, 117–23, 274–75 (quotation). To be naturalized legally, an immigrant had to have resided in the United States for five years and to have declared his or her intention to become an American citizen at least two years before seeking naturalization. Those who had emigrated before their eighteenth birthday did not have to make the advance declaration, and those honorably discharged from the American armed forces could become citizens both without the prior declaration and after only one year of residence in the United States. In all cases the prospective citizen had to provide witnesses who could confirm that the applicant met these prerequisites and was “of good moral character.” Political parties in New York had offered, since at least the 1840s, to pay the fees and in other ways facilitate the naturalization process for immigrants, hoping of course that the grateful new citizens would cast their first ballots for their benefactors.

53. Tribune, November 5, 1867; Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 107; The Nation 7 (November 5, 1868): 362.

54. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 123, 141; Times, October 24, 1868; Burke, “Federal Regulation of Congressional Elections,” 47; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (November 13, 1869): 141.

55. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 176–78, 242; New York Election Frauds, report p. 436, testimony pp. 239, 244, 248–50 (all references refer to “report” pages rather than the separately paginated “testimony” section, unless otherwise noted).

56. New York Election Frauds, 505–6, 626–27; Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 180.

57. New York Election Frauds, testimony pp. 409–11.

58. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 246, 286; Times, November 9, 1864; The Nation 9 (September 8, 1870): 147.

59. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 256–59, 284, 343; Burke, “Federal Regulation of Congressional Elections,” 17, 25.

60. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds, 341–43; Gustav Lening, The Dark Side of New York Life and Its Criminal Classes: From Fifth Avenue Down to the Five Points (New York, 1873), 288 (Five Points’ reputation for voter fraud).

61. Official Proceedings of the National Democratic Convention (New York, 1868): 36; Times, April 13, 1870 (Jourdan); Tribune, March 8, 1878 (Walsh); Herald, January 20, 1879 (Brennan). Brennan could not have been on terribly bad terms with Tweed, as both Matthew Brennan and his brother Owen accepted memberships in the Americus Yacht Club that Tweed established in Greenwich, Connecticut. See Leo Hershkowitz, Tweed’s New York: Another Look (New York, 1977), 123.

62. Alexander B. Callow, The Tweed Ring (New York, 1966), 23 (Board of Supervisors); Times, February 14, 1872 (street openings).

63. On O’Brien’s failure to receive renomination, see Hershkowitz, Tweed’s New York, 155.

64. Harper’s Weekly (November 18, 1871): 1084 (“You’re my man”); Tribune, October 28, December 16, 1871 (other quotations); Times, February 26, 1872.

65. O’Donovan Rossa’s Prison Life (New York, 1874), 431–32, 436; Denis T. Lynch, The Wild Seventies, 2 vols. (1941; Port Washington, NY, 1971), 1: 135; Joseph I. C. Clarke, My Life and Memories (New York, 1925), 106; John Devoy, Recollections of an Irish Rebel (1929; Shannon, 1969), 328–29; Alvin Harlow, Old Bowery Days: The Chronicles of a Famous Street (New York, 1931), 417.

66. Tyler Anbinder, “William M. Tweed,” American National Biography, 24 vols. (New York, 1999), 22: 60–62.

67. Breen, Thirty Years, 304, 512, 555 (quotation); Jacob A. Riis, The Battle with the Slum (New York, 1902), 5.

68. Times, August 10, 1870, October 30, 1875 (both describe funds received by Transfiguration).

69. Times, February 14, March 11, 1872, January 3, 1874.

70. Times, June 15, 25, October 3 (quoting Tribune), November 8, December 21, 1872, August 27, 1873.

71. Times, June 21, September 26, October 21, 1873.

72. Breen, Thirty Years, 504–11; Times, December 23, 1873, February 5, 1878, November 12, 1881, September 7, 1889 (Genet’s obituary); Herald, January 20, 1879; Hershkowitz, Tweed’s New York, 262–63. Genet gave himself up in February 1878 and eventually served eight months behind bars.

73. Breen, Thirty Years, 504–5; Times, January 20, 1879.

74. Times, January 20, 1879.

75. Times, October 11, 14, 1870, July 3, 7, 1872, March 8, 1878. The Times obituary erroneously states that McCunn died at age fifty-seven, but it accurately lists his date of birth as 1825.

76. National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 63 vols. (New York, 1893–), 3: 391 (“amused himself”); Tribune, May 15, 1876; Herald, May 14, 1876; Times, May 14, 1876; Breen, Thirty Years, 523–24.

77. Times and Herald, January 20, 1879; Tribune, January 21, 1879.

78. Daniel Czitrom, “Underworlds and Underdogs: Big Tim Sullivan and Metropolitan Politics in New York, 1889–1913,” Journal of American History 78 (1991): 539–42 (“political ruler”); Times, April 30, 1887 (“Five Points Sullivan”), October 16, 1902, p. 3; Herald, April 18, 1889, p. 7, October 16, 1902, p. 5, May 19, 1907, magazine sect., part 1, pp. 1–2 (quotations); Sun, April 18, 1889, p. 5.

79. For postwar comment on improving conditions in Five Points, see Whitelaw Reid, After the War: A Southern Tour (London, 1866), 356; Edward W. Martin [pseud. for James D. McCabe], The Secrets of the Great City (Philadelphia, 1868), 189; Junius H. Browne, The Great Metropolis: A Mirror of New-York (Hartford, 1869), 272, 523; and Edward Crapsey, The Nether Side of New York; or, the Vice, Crime and Poverty of the Great Metropolis (New York, 1872), 155.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

1. Jacob A. Riis, The Making of an American (1901; New York, 1936), 1–25.

2. Riis, Making of an American, 26–79, 98–102. That Riis cried on the pier, not mentioned in Making of an American, is taken from his handwritten outline for the book, found in his papers at the Library of Congress.

3. Riis, Making of an American, 80–112.

4. Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 13 (April–May 1870): 300–301 (expansion that eliminated Cow Bay).

5. John I. Davenport, Election and Naturalization Frauds in New York City, 1860–1870, 2nd ed. (New York, 1894), 15, 17 (population and density statistics); Herald, September 18, 1892, p. 11 (Lower East Side tenements).

6. Tribune, June 21, 1885, p. 9; Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin, “In Darkest Chinatown,” Donahue’s Magazine (November 1897), in Peter P. McLoughlin, Father Tom: Life and Lectures of Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin (New York, 1919), 102; Herald, November 30, 1878.

7. The 1880 Five Points adult population figures are based on a random sampling of Five Points residents age seventeen and older from the 1880 United States manuscript census, National Archives. Five Points is defined (as it has been throughout this book) as the area bounded by Canal Street to the north, the Bowery and Chatham Square to the east, Pearl Street to the south, and Centre Street to the west. Children have been excluded from this calculation because they inflate the figures for U.S. natives. For the method used to compile the 1855 figures, see Chapter Two, note 10.

8. Election districts 18–27, Sixth Ward, 1890 Police Census, New York Municipal Archives. The federal manuscript census of 1890 was destroyed by fire. Ethnicity was determined by examining first and last names. The police figures probably exaggerate the decline of Five Points’ Irish population to some extent because many of the residents whose surnames did not definitively reveal their ethnicity were probably Irish Americans.

9. Jacob A. Riis, The Children of the Poor (New York, 1892), 67–68.

10. Isaac N. P. Stokes, Iconography of Manhattan Island: 1498–1909, 6 vols. (1915–28; New York, 1967), 3: 1012; John J. Post, Old Streets, Roads, Lanes, Piers, and Wharves of New York (New York, 1882), 76; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 16, 1873): 363; Viola Roseboro, “The Italians of New York,” Cosmopolitan 4 (January 1888): 404. The Worth Street project had been contemplated for years—see Tribune, January 21, 1854.

11. Alvin Harlow, Old Bowery Days: The Chronicles of a Famous Street (New York, 1931), 387–88.

12. Junius H. Browne, The Great Metropolis: A Mirror of New-York (Hartford, 1869), 137; J. Frank Kernan, Reminiscences of the Old Fire Laddies (New York, 1885), 64.

13. The rise of large-scale manufacturing in Five Points can be seen in the Perris insurance maps of 1857, 1875, and 1884.

14. Building material comparison based on Perris insurance maps of 1855 and 1884.

15. Lawrence Veiller, “Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1834–1900,” in Robert W. DeForest and Lawrence Veiller, eds., The Tenement House Problem, 2 vols. (1903; New York, 1970), 1: 94–96; Edward Lubitz, “The Tenement Problem in New York City and the Movement for Its Reform, 1856–1867” (Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1970), 514–18, 521, 529.

16. DeForest and Veiller, eds., Tenement House Problem, 1: 99–100; Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: Dwelling Type and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York, 1990), 24–27.

17. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (1890; New York, 1971), 13; Harper’s Weekly (July 12, 1873): 603, 606; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (September 20, 1884): 65, 70; Tribune, July 15, September 10 (p. 8), 1884; Proceedings of the New York State Conference of Charities and Correction (1901), in Roy Lubove, The Progressive and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890–1917 (Pittsburgh, 1962), 89 (Gilder quotation).

18. Times, March 16, 1879.

19. “Tenement Evils as Seen by the Tenants,” in DeForest and Veiller, eds., Tenement House Problem, 1: 386, 388 (quotation), 397, 407–8, 413 (quotation).

20. Times, July 2, 1871; DeForest and Veiller, eds., Tenement House Problem, 1: 394.

21. DeForest and Veiller, eds., Tenement House Problem, 1: 385, 414–15; “Report of Tenement-House Commission,” February 17, 1885, Documents of the Senate of the State of New-York, 108th Session, 1885 (Albany, 1885), vol. 5, doc. 36, p. 100; Herald, September 18, 1892, p. 11.

22. Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years Work Among Them, 3rd ed. (New York, 1872), 223.

23. Gustav Lening, The Dark Side of New York Life and Its Criminal Classes: From Fifth Avenue Down to the Five Points (New York, 1873), 17–19; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (July 5, 1873): 271; Times, July 2, 1871. Because overcrowding was now a crime, tenement dwellers had an incentive to underreport the number of boarders they took in. As a result the census, which so vividly documented the overcrowding of the 1850s, is an unreliable guide to postwar conditions.

24. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 58–59.

25. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 18, 1882): 55–57.

26. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 11; Denis T. Lynch, The Wild Seventies, 2 vols. (1941; Port Washington, NY, 1971), 2: 293–95; Times, August 27, 1873. Why the owner was allowed to build such low ceilings, despite the 1867 law, is unclear. Perhaps the old building, as an existing structure, did not have to meet the new requirements.

27. Harper’s Weekly 17 (September 13, 1873): 796; Times, July 2, 1871 (“foul stench”), August 27, 1873 (remaining quotations).

28. Times, July 2, 1871, August 27, 1873.

29. Times, January 20, November 23, 1871, August 27, 1873; Jacob A. Riis, The Battle with the Slum (New York, 1902), 16 (“repulsive pile”).

30. Times, March 22, 1880; Plumber and Sanitary Engineer (December 15, 1879): 26; folder 200/27, “Block and Lot Folders,” New York Municipal Archives. According to the Plumber and Sanitary Engineer, the buildings at 65 Mott were the first erected in New York specifically for use as tenements.

31. Times, July 2, 1871 (quotation); Herald, December 26, 1869; Tribune, July 8, 1879.

32. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (September 15, 1866): 405; Harper’s Weekly 23 (March 22, 1879): 226–27.

33. Harper’s Weekly 23 (March 22, 1879): 226–27; 24 (February 28, 1880): 142; Tribune, July 8, 1879.

34. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (September 15, 1866): 405; Harper’s Weekly 23 (March 22, 1879): 226–27; 24 (February 28, 1880): 142; Tribune, July 8, 1879; Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 54.

35. “Flashes from the Slums,” Sun, February 12, 1888, p. 10; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 11, 1888): 415; Allan Forman, “Some Adopted Americans,” American Magazine 9 (November 1888): 46–47; Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 49–60. The first published use of the term “Mulberry Bend” that I have found is in a January 1888 article by Viola Roseboro, in which she describes her “unusually careful examination [of] Mulberry Street, particularly the part known as the ‘Bend.’” See “The Italians of New York,” Cosmopolitan 4 (January 1888): 397.

36. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 50.

37. Riis, Battle with the Slum, 39–40; advertisements in Il Progresso, September 4, 1889, August 1, 1891 (for Mulberry Bend businesses).

38. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 52–54; Page Smith, The Rise of Industrial America (New York, 1984), 367; “Report of Tenement-House Commission,” February 17, 1885, in Documents of the Senate, 108th Session, vol. 5, doc. 36, pp. 233–35.

39. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 47, 62; Tribune, July 8, 1879.

40. Tribune, July 8, 1879; Harper’s Weekly 24 (February 28, 1880): 142; Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 61.

41. Sun, February 12, 1888, p. 10.

42. Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 62.

43. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 11, 1888): 415; Charlotte Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine 62 (April 1881): 681.

44. Forman, “Some Adopted Americans,” 46–47 (first quotation); Riis, The Making of an American, 181 (“worst slum”); I[gnatz] L. Nascher, The Wretches of Povertyville: A Sociological Study of the Bowery (Chicago, 1909), 67.

CHAPTER TWELVE

1. Times, June 17, 1873.

2. Times, June 18, 1873.

3. Times, February 1, 1869; John E. Zucchi, The Little Slaves of the Harp: Italian Child Street Musicians in Nineteenth-Century Paris, London, and New York (Montreal, 1992), 39.

4. Times, June 17, 19, 1873; Zucchi, Little Slaves of the Harp, 114–15. Basilicata specialized in the production of these small harps. Photos of child street musicians playing harps, violins, and triangles in Basilicata, London, and America can be found in Giulia Rosa Celeste, L’Arpa Popolare Viggianese nelle Fonti Documentarie (Viggiano, Italy, 1989), 108–14.

5. Times, June 20, 1873 (“where’s my mother”), June 4, 1874 (“slaves of the harp”); Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years Work Among Them, 3rd ed. (New York, 1872), 195. This child’s comment may have indicated that his parents, rather than a padrone, forced him to work on the streets.

6. Times, June 17 (final quotation), 19 (all other quotations), 1873; Eco d’Italia, July 23, 1869; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 22, 1873): 28.

7. Zucchi, Little Slaves of the Harp, 191. Horatio Alger wrote one of his early dime novels about an Italian child street musician, based largely on accounts of their lives provided by the head of the Children’s Aid Society’s Five Points Italian School. See Phil the Fiddler, or the Story of a Young Street-Musician ([New York], 1872).

8. Times, August 1, 20, 27, December 16, 1873; Zucchi, Little Slaves of the Harp, 125; Twenty-second Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1874): 33; Jacob A. Riis, The Children of the Poor (New York, 1892), 148–50. The “Padrone Act” did not prevent parents from sending their own children into the streets to play music, and consequently some Italian youngsters continued to perform for money on New York’s sidewalks. But those who examined Italian life in New York in the 1880s and ’90s agreed that “since the abolishment of the padrone system one sees few child-musicians.” Charlotte Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine 62 (April 1881): 684.

9. Second division, third election district, Sixth Ward, 1855 New York State manuscript census, Old Records Division, New York County Clerk’s Office; George E. Pozzetta, “The Mulberry District of New York City: The Years Before World War One,” in Robert F. Harney and J. Vincenza Scarpaci, eds., Little Italies in North America (Toronto, 1981), 9, 11, 29; Brace, Dangerous Classes, 196–98; Third Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: 1856): 17–18; Fourth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (New York: 1857): 15–17; Seventh Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1860): 15–16.

10. Tenth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1863): 28 (“colony”); Twelfth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1865): 29; John I. Davenport, comp., The Registered Voters of the City of New York (New York: 1877), 43, 706 (showing a marked increase in the number of Italian voters since 1874); Eco d’Italia, October 29, 1869.

11. Robert F. Foerster, Italian Emigration of Our Times (Cambridge, MA, 1919), 38; Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1881): 32–33; G. Florenzano, Della Emigrazione Italiana in America (Naples, 1874), 140; Times, December 13, 14, 1872, June 17, 18, 19, 1873, April 4, 1885, p. 8 (Jersey Street).

12. George E. Pozzetta, “The Italians of New York City, 1890–1914” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina, 1971), 40–54; Tribune, April 13, 1890, p. 17 (Argentina); Dino Cinel, The National Integration of Italian Return Migration, 1870–1929 (New York, 1991), 123 (quotations); Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 11, 1888): 415; George J. Manson, “The ‘Foreign Element’ in New York City. V—The Italians,” Harper’s Weekly 34 (October 18, 1890): 817.

13. Eco d’Italia, October 22, 1869 (waxed eloquent), April 15, 1881, and April 26, 1883 (advertisements for neighborhood businesses); Brace, Dangerous Classes, 194 (“dirty macaroni”).

14. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 29, 1885): 27.

15. Solon Robinson, Hot Corn: Life Scenes in New York Illustrated (New York, 1854), 213; Tribune, May 12, 1883; Denis T. Lynch, The Wild Seventies, 2 vols. (1941; Port Washington, NY, 1971), 2: 287–88.

16. Brace, Dangerous Classes, 194; Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” 682; Manson, “‘Foreign Element,’” 818; Edwin Winslow Martin [pseud. James D. McCabe], The Secrets of the Great City (Philadelphia, 1868), 124–25; Sixth Ward, 1880 United States manuscript census, National Archives.

17. Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” 681–82.

18. My translation of Adolfo Rossi, Un Italiano in America (Milan, 1892), 64.

19. Manson, “‘Foreign Element,’” 818.

20. Ibid., 817; Viola Roseboro, “The Italians of New York,” Cosmopolitan 4 (January 1888): 400–402; Herald, September 18, 1892, p. 11; Rossi, Un Italiano in America, 67–68; Edwin Fenton, Immigrants and Unions, A Case Study: Italians and American Labor, 1870–1920 (New York, 1975), 95–135; Gunther Peck, Reinventing Free Labor: Padrone and Immigrant Workers in the North American West, 1880–1930 (New York, 2000); Humbert Nelli, “The Italian Padrone System in the United States,” Labor History 5 (1964): 153–67.

21. Herald, September 18, 1892, p. 11; E. Idell Zeisloft, ed., The New Metropolis (New York, 1899), 523; Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (1890; New York, 1971), 52.

22. John Koren, “The Padrone System and the Padrone Banks,” United States Bureau of Labor, Special Bulletin No. 9 (March 1897): 126. For the watchmaker and the wine shop, see advertisements in Il Progresso, September 4, 1889, August 1, 1891.

23. Pozzetta, “Italians of New York City,” 329–36; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 16–17.

24. Giovanni Lordi, et al., to the Editor, Herald, September 25, 1892, p. 13.

25. Il Progresso, September 4, 1889, April 2, 1893; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 10; Trow’s New York City Directory for the Year Ending May 1, 1893 (New York, 1892), 301.

26. Manson, “‘Foreign Element,’” 817; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 15; Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1907): 94–95.

27. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (October 14, 1882): 123–24; Tribune, January 23, 1887, p. 9.

28. Pete Daniel, The Shadow of Slavery: Peonage in the South, 1901–1969 (Urbana, 1972), 103–06; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 14–15, 31; Times, October 10, 1895, p. 25 (Ellis Island alternatives to padrone).

29. Charlotte Erickson, American Industry and the European Immigrant, 1860–1885 (Cambridge, MA, 1957), 111; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (August 11, 1888): 412–13.

30. John Swinton’s Paper, January 20, 1884, p. 1; my translation of Rossi, Un Italiano in America, 64.

31. Pozzetta, “Italians of New York City,” 243–48; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 19–20.

32. Giovanni Lordi, et al., to the Editor, Herald, September 25, 1892, p. 13; Tribune, April 13, 1890, p. 17; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 1, 1880): 139; Pozzetta, “Italians of New York City,” 172–75; Cinel, National Integration of Italian Return Migration, 128–34, 141–49, 186.

33. Jacob A. Riis, The Making of an American (1901; New York, 1936), 178 (“grouped by villages”); Alberto Pecorini, “The Italians in the United States,” Forum 45 (January 1911), quoted in Pozzetta, “Italians of New York City,” 96; Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 18. This clustering was even well known in Italy. See Umberto Bosco, et al., Basilicata (Milan, 1965), 43. For Italian housing patterns north of Five Points in the early twentieth century, see Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street: Housing and Social Change Among Italian Immigrants, 1880–1930 (Albany, 1984).

34. Tribune, June 2, 1895, p. 26 (quotation); Roseboro, “Italians of New York,” 399.

35. Tribune, June 2, 1895, p. 26.

36. Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” 677; Times, October 6, 1895, p. 25; Il Progresso, August 17, 1890; Manson, “‘Foreign Element,’” 818.

37. Adams, “Italian Life in New York,” 678 (artificial flowers); Times, October 6, 1895, p. 25 (garment work). Women’s occupations in 1880 broke down as follows:

38. Virginia Penny, The Employments of Women: A Cyclopaedia of Woman’s Work (Boston, 1863), 467; Times, January 22, 1853; Lynch, Wild Seventies, 1: 60–62; Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 1 (January 1858): 227; Robinson, Hot Corn, 194–98, 202–4, 213–19, 223–24; Herald, November 5, 1853.

39. J. Gilmer Speed, “The Mulberry Bend,” Harper’s Weekly 36 (April 30, 1892): 430.

40. George Ellington, The Women of New York (New York, 1869), 605; Howard R. Weisz, Irish-American and Italian-American Educational Views and Activities, 1870–1900: A Comparison (New York, 1976), 407; Pozzetta, “Italians of New York City,” 310–11; Foerster, Italian Emigration, 335; Times, November 15, 1896, p. 15.

41. Times, June 10, 1874, October 6, 1895, p. 25.

42. Erickson, American Industry and the European Immigrant, 119–20; World, July 12, 1882, p. 1; Times, October 6, 1895, p. 25. For the view that the Italians’ aversion to organized labor in this period has been overstated, see Donna Gabaccia, “Neither Padrone Slaves nor Primitive Rebels: Sicilians on Two Continents,” in Dirk Hoerder, ed., “Struggle a Hard Battle”: Essays on Working-Class Immigrants (DeKalb, 1986), 95–117.

43. Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin, “In Darkest Chinatown,” Donahue’s Magazine (November 1897), in Peter P. McLoughlin, Father Tom: Life and Lectures of Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin (New York, 1919), 95.

44. Bishop Thomas A. Becker to Archbishop James Gibbons, December 17, 1884 (photocopy), Box 1, Records of the St. Raphael Society, Center for Migration Studies, Staten Island, NY; Becker and Archbishop James Gibbons to Rev. Simeoni, in Stephen M. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants (Huntington, IN, 1994), 29.

45. Bernard J. Lynch, “The Italians in New York,” Catholic World 47 (April 1888): 68–70; Thomas F. Lynch to Archbishop Corrigan, March 26, 1888, file C-19, microfilm roll 12, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York, Archives of the Archdiocese of New York. Bernard Lynch’s comments, while distasteful, were nonetheless typical of this period. Just a few months after his article was published, an editorial in Frank Leslie’s asserted that “of the 40,000 Italian immigrants who have landed at Castle Garden since the 1^st of January last, probably not one out of ten was a desirable addition to the population of the country.” They lack “that feeling of self-respect and personal independence which is desirable in a free, governing people. We cannot become enthusiastic in contemplating a manhood that would prefer driving a shoebrush to a plane, or turning the crank of a hand-organ to digging a ditch or paving a street.”—Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (July 14, 1888): 343.

46. Lynch to Archbishop Michael A. Corrigan, March 26, 1888, file C-19, microfilm roll 12, and “A Short History of the Spiritual Work Done for Italians in the Roman Catholic Church of the Transfiguration,” undated MS in the handwriting of Rev. Thomas F. Lynch, Transfiguration parish history file, series D, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York; Mary Elizabeth Brown, Churches, Communities, and Children: Italian Immigrants in the Archdiocese of New York, 1880–1945 (New York, 1995), 51; Lynch, “The Italians in New York,” 71.

47. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 60, 241; Lynch, “The Italians in New York,” 72.

48. Father Francesco Zaboglio to Giovanni Scalabrini, June 28, 1888, in Silvano M. Tomasi, Piety and Power: The Role of the Italian Parishes in the New York Metropolitan Area, 1880–1930 (New York, 1975), 79; Marcellino Moroni to Cardinal Giovanni Simeoni, May 16, 1888, in DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 99–101.

49. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 63–65; Times, January 3, 1889, p. 5. See also Grace Abbott, “Leo XIII and the Italian Catholics in the United States,” American Ecclesiastical Review 1 (February 1889): 41–45, and Henry J. Browne, “The ‘Italian Problem’ in the Catholic Church of the United States, 1880–1900,” United States Catholic Historical Society, Historical Records and Studies 35 (1946): 46–72.

50. Lynch to Corrigan, March 26, 1888, file C-19, microfilm roll 12, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York.

51. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 98–99, 129, 135–36, 143, 145, 241.

52. Tomasi, Piety and Power, 143; Robert A. Orsi, The Madonna of 115th Street: Faith and Community in Italian Harlem, 1880–1950 (New Haven, 1985), 55–59.

53. Jacob A. Riis, “Feast-Days in Little Italy,” Century Magazine 58 (August 1899): 496–98.

54. Ibid., 495.

55. Tribune, August 17, 1901; Denise M. DiCarlo, “The History of the Italian Festa in New York City: 1880’s to the Present” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1990), 85–94; Il Progresso, August 16–19, 1890.

56. Il Progresso, August 16, 1891. Although press reports tended to focus on the part of the festa that took place on upper Mott Street outside the Five Points district, the head of the festa in 1890 was Gabriele Isola, probably the same man listed in the city directory as living at 14 Baxter Street near the Five Points intersection—Il Progresso, August 19, 1890; Trow’s New York City Directory for the Year Ending May 1, 1893, 692.

57. Il Progresso, August 17, 1890, August 16, 1891, August 16, 1892.

58. Bernardino Ciambelli, I Misteri di Mulberry Street (New York, 1893), translated in Mario Maffi, Gateway to the Promised Land: Ethnic Cultures on New York’s Lower East Side (New York, 1995), 113–14.

59. Il Progresso, August 16, 1891, August 18, 1896 (“rivers of beer”); Tribune, August 17, 1902, part II, p. 5.

60. Lynch to Corrigan, August 10, 1892 (photocopy), Transfiguration folder, Box 1, Italian-Americans and Religion Collection, Center for Migration Studies.

61. Riis, “Feast-Days in Little Italy,” 493.

62. For more on Italian religious feste, see Tribune, July 18, 1904, p. 5; Times, July 12, 1903.

63. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 129, 135–36, 143, 145; Most Precious Blood parish history file, series D; Lynch to Corrigan, January 23 (“slaves of the Irish”), February 3 (“no privileges”), 1894, file G-5, roll 15, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York.

64. DiGiovanni, Archbishop Corrigan and the Italian Immigrants, 144–48, 165–70; Souvenir History of Transfiguration Parish—Mott Street (New York, 1897), 44, quoted in Tomasi, Piety and Power, 77; McLoughlin, Father Tom, 80; [Corrigan] to Rev. T. J. Campbell, November 2, 1893, file G-6, roll 16, and McLoughlin to Corrigan, November 10, 1898, August 28, 1901, February 28, 1902, Transfiguration parish history file, series D, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York.

65. Transfiguration Church: A Church of Immigrants, 1827–1977 (New York, [1977]), 16–17.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

1. John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore, 1999), 90, 284–85.

2. Ibid., 91; Times, October 22, 1876, p. 2. The various accounts of Appo’s early life differ in many of the particulars. When in doubt I have relied upon information provided by Professor Timothy Gilfoyle of Loyola University of Chicago, who thoroughly studied the life of Quimbo Appo for “A Pickpocket’s Tale: The Autobiography of George Appo,” Missouri Review 16 (1993): 34–77, as well as for his forthcoming book on the history of crime in New York.

3. Times, December 26, 1856, June 20, 1859; Trow’s New York City Directory for 1855–56 (New York, 1855), 37; Trow’s New York City Directory for 1857–58 (New York, 1857), 36. Tchen identifies a Bowery tea clerk mentioned in an 1854 magazine article as Appo, but there is no evidence that the immigrant described in the passage is actually him. It appears likely that Appo did not yet live in New York in 1854. E. W. Syle to the Editor, Spirit of the Missions 19 (August 1854): 325; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 91.

4. Times, March 9, 10, April 12, 1859; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 159–62.

5. Times, March 10, April 12, 13, 1859.

6. Times, March 9, 10, April 12, 13, November 10, 1859, October 22, 1876; Herald, October 18, 25, 1859; Tribune, November 2, 1859; Brother Jonathan, May 19, 1860 (sentence commuted); Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 160–61. Tchen mistakes the appeals process for a “second trial.” The clerks in the Old Records Division, New York County Clerk’s Office, can no longer locate the writ that details the appeals case.

7. Times, October 22, 23, 1876; “Autobiography of George Appo,” typescript, pp. 1–3, Society for the Prevention of Crime Papers, Columbia University. Much of this memoir is reprinted in Gilfoyle, “A Pickpocket’s Tale.” The available sources provide contradictory evidence as to Appo’s release date. According to Gilfoyle, Sing Sing’s records indicate that he was still there in April 1869. I suspect that he was paroled sometime later that year.

8. “Autobiography of George Appo,” pp. 1–3; Daily Graphic, March 18, 1873 (quotations); Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 16, 1872): 5, (July 5, 1873): 271.

9. “Autobiography of George Appo,” pp. 1–3; Gilfoyle, “A Pickpocket’s Tale,” 42–45. Newspaper articles, all written years later, provide contradictory information concerning Quimbo’s second arrest. Neither Gilfoyle nor I could find any information concerning it in the District Attorney’s Papers.

10. “Autobiography of George Appo,” pp. 1–3; Gilfoyle, “A Pickpocket’s Tale,” 42–45; People v. Appo, December 13, 1871, District Attorney’s Papers, and arrests of September 20, 1875 and January 31, 1876 (“Charles Gimbo”), First District Police Court Docket Books, both at New York Municipal Archives; Times, September 30 (“notorious”), December 15 (p. 6), 16 (p. 6), 19 (p. 2), 1871, October 21–23, 1876; Herald, August 10, 1871, January 5 (p. 11), 6 (p. 11), 1872. My dating of Appo’s release from prison for his various crimes is based on prison records uncovered by Gilfoyle that I have not examined.

11. Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 285–88.

12. Times, October 21 (p. 1), 22 (p. 2), 25 (p. 10), December 21 (p. 6), 22 (p. 6), 1876; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 285–88.

13. Gilfoyle, “A Pickpocket’s Tale,” 37–38; Times, August 6 (p. 2), 7 (p. 8), 8 (p. 12), 28 (p. 8), September 4 (p. 8), 1880, June 17 (p. 3), July 11 (p. 9), 12 (p. 17), 1896, June 15, 1899 (p. 3). Information on George Appo’s last years was provided to me by Gilfoyle.

14. Louis Beck, New York’s Chinatown (New York, 1898), 250, 259–60, quoted in Gilfoyle, “A Pickpocket’s Tale,” 37.

15. Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 284.

16. Times, December 26, 1856, June 20, 1859; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 74–86.

17. Tribune, January 4, 1869; Daily Graphic, March 18, 1873; Harper’s Weekly 18 (March 7, 1874): 222; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 236; Sixth Ward, 1870 United States manuscript census, National Archives.

18. Daily Graphic, March 18, 1873; Times, December 26, 1873, February 16, 1874.

19. Times, December 26, 1873, March 22, 1880; Sun, February 16, 1874; World, January 30, 1877; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 225, 232–33, 236–37.

20. Arthur Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither? The Chinese in New York, 1800–1950 (Cranbury, NJ, 1997), 41–42; John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., American National Biography, 24 vols. (New York, 1999), 12: 421–22.

21. Herald, March 3, 1880; Tribune, March 4, 1880, p. 8.

22. Times, March 4, 6, 1880, both p. 8; Herald, March 6 (p. 3), 7 (p. 8), 1880; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 27, 1880): 55; Sixth Ward, 1880 United States manuscript census.

23. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 27, 1880): 55, (June 30, 1888): 324; districts 18–27, Sixth Ward, 1890 Police Census, New York Municipal Archives.

24. David M. Katzman and William M. Tuttle, Jr., eds., Plain Folk: The Life Stories of Undistinguished Americans (Urbana, 1982), 168–69. For the regional origin of the New York Chinese, see Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 67.

25. Harper’s Weekly 12 (September 19, 1868): 604; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 233–34.

26. Junius H. Browne, The Great Metropolis: A Mirror of New-York (Hartford, 1869), 97–98; Tribune, January 4, 1869, June 21, 1885, p. 9; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 227–28.

27. Tribune, June 21, 1885, p. 9; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (January 28, 1888): 398; Times, March 6, 1880; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 67; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 227–28.

28. The best descriptions of the laundryman’s working conditions are Renqui Yu, To Save China, To Save Ourselves: The Chinese Hand Laundry Alliance of New York (Philadelphia, 1992), 8–30, and Paul C. P. Siu, The Chinese Laundryman: A Study of Social Isolation (New York, 1987).

29. Wong Ching Foo, “The Chinese in New York,” Cosmopolitan 5 (October 1888): 298.

30. Ibid., 298–300.

31. Ibid., 301; Mary Lui, “Groceries, Letters, and Community: The Local Store in Chinatown’s ’Bachelor Society,’” Bu Gao Ban [New York Chinatown History Museum] 8 (Winter 1991): 1–4.

32. Sun, March 7, 1880.

33. Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 71; Herald, August 2 (quotation, p. 9), November 7, 1894.

34. The Tribune asserted that New York’s Chinese population in 1885 consisted of 4,500 laundrymen, 300 cigarmakers, 200 sailors, 200 gamblers, 300 unemployed looking for places to start laundries, and 100 merchants. It is difficult to verify the Tribune’s figures with the census because Chinatown was just beginning to expand rapidly as the 1880 census was conducted, and the Chinese were just beginning to turn to laundrywork in large numbers. The 1890 census returns were destroyed in a fire. A sample of the 1880 census reveals the following occupational breakdown among Five Points Chinese Americans: 38% cigarmakers, 24% merchants and professionals, 14% laundrymen, 10% cooks, 5% sailors, and the remainder in miscellaneous or difficult to classify occupations. Tribune, June 21, 1885, p. 9; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (June 30, 1888): 324; Sixth Ward, 1880 United States manuscript census.

35. Herald, March 3, 5, 1880; Times, March 6, 1880, p. 8; Sun, March 7, 1880 (not quoted).

36. Times, May 6, 1880, p. 8; Evening Post, May 10, 1880.

37. Times, May 7, 1880, p. 4; Evening Post, May 10, 1880; Thomas F. Lynch to Archbishop Corrigan, May 4, 1889, Transfiguration parish history file, series D, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York.

38. Herald, March 5, 1880, p. 8; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (March 27, 1880): 55; Sun, March 7, 1880; Times, April 7, 1883, p. 8.

39. Times, April 7, 1883, p. 8, April 12, 1883, p. 8. Although the Times reported that Lee bought 18 Mott, city real estate records indicate that he actually purchased 16 Mott. But he did lease 4 and 18 Mott in their entirety. See lots 3, 9, and 10, block 162, “Block and Lot Folders,” New York Municipal Archives.

40. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (June 30, 1888): 324; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 304.

41. Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 304; George Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police (New York, 1887), 430–31; Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin, “In Darkest Chinatown,” Donahue’s Magazine (November 1897), in Peter P. McLoughlin, Father Tom: The Life and Lectures of Rev. Thomas P. McLoughlin (New York, 1919), 100–101 (on Chinese vegetables).

42. Frank Leslie’s and the Tribune quoted in Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 97, 105; E. Idell Zeisloft, ed., The New Metropolis (New York, 1899), 271.

43. Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police, 423; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 305.

44. Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 306; Steward Culin, “The Gambling Games of the Chinese in America,” University of Pennsylvania Series in Philology, Literature and Archaeology 1, no. 4 (1891): 1–5; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 62–64; Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police, 426; Frank Moss, The American Metropolis, 3 vols. (New York, 1897), 2: 427–29.

45. Moss, American Metropolis, 2: 427–29; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 306; Culin, “Gambling Games of the Chinese,” 6–11; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 66; Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police, 423–25. A block away on Mulberry Street, Italian Five Pointers gambled as well. They had their own numbers game, called lotto, while Italian newsboys were especially fond of craps. George E. Pozzetta, “The Mulberry District of New York City: The Years Before World War One,” in Robert F. Harney and J. Vincenza Scarpaci, eds., Little Italies in North America (Toronto, 1981), 25–26; Forty-eighth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1900): 67.

46. Herald, December 26, 1869; Times, March 22, 1880; Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police, 418–22; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 308–11.

47. Daily Graphic, March 18, 1873; Harper’s Weekly 18 (March 7, 1874): 222; Times, August 11, 1878, p. 5; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 12, 1883): 181, 190; (May 19, 1883): 204, 206.

48. Tribune, September 28, 1904, p. 3, January 11, 1918, p. 13; Herald, January 11, 1918; Times, April 2, 1882, p. 2.

49. Herald, August 11, 1878, February 5, 1879, April 25, 1883, p. 10.

50. Daily Graphic, March 26, 1879.

51. Bruce Edward Hall, Tea That Burns: A Family Memoir of Chinatown (New York, 1998), 59; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 42–45, 61–62; Times, April 25, 1883, p. 8.

52. Times, April 28, 1880, p. 1; Tribune, October 18, 1885, p. 9; Herald, April 25, 1883, p. 10; Sun, January 31, 1881.

53. Times, April 25, 1883, p. 8; Herald, April 25, 1883, p. 10.

54. Times, April 25 (p. 8), 26 (p. 8), May 3 (p. 3), 1883. The affidavits can be found in People v. Tom Lee, et al., folders 1098 and 1101, Box 103, Court of General Sessions Indictment Papers, New York Municipal Archives.

55. Times, April 24 (p. 8), 26 (p. 8), May 17 (pp. 2 and 4), 1883; Herald, April 25, 1883, p. 10.

56. Herald, May 11 (p. 3, “little girls”), 12 (p. 9, “girl trap”), 1883; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 12, 1883): 190 (“can’t do without it”).

57. Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 19, 1883): 206; Herald, May 11, 1883, p. 3; Sun, May 11, 1883; Tribune, May 11, 13, 1883; arrests of May 10, 11, 12, pp. 257, 260, 262, First District Police Court Docket Books, New York Municipal Archives; Augustine E. Costello, Our Police Protectors: The History of the New York Police from the Earliest Period to the Present Time ([New York], 1885), 517 (full text of 1882 opium law).

58. Herald, May 11 (p. 3, “buncombe”), 12 (p. 9), 14 (p. 8, “not general”).

59. Herald, May 11 (p. 3), 13 (p. 11), 1883; Tribune, May 13, 1883 (p. 5).

60. Tribune, May 12, 1883; Herald, May 11, 1883, p. 3. In internal archdiocese correspondence, Lynch complained that the Young Men’s Association organized its own “promiscuous balls” and that the group continued to tell the press that it was associated with Transfiguration even though “they have been cut off from the church for the past two years”—Lynch to Archbishop Corrigan, May 16, 1886, file C-9, reel 9, Papers of the Archdiocese of New York. Chinese Americans sometimes complained to the police about the opium dens. See Capt. John McCullagh to Police Superintendent William Murray, June 30, 1887, Box 87-HAS-30, Abram S. Hewitt Mayoral Papers, New York Municipal Archives.

61. Tribune, May 12, 1883; Herald, May 12, 1883, p. 9; Times, May 17, 1883, pp. 2 and 4; Ah Chung affidavit in People v. Ah Chung, May 15, 1883, folder 1091, Box 102, People v. Tom Lee et al., May 1, 1883, folders 1098 and 1101, Box 103, Court of General Sessions Indictment Papers. Ah Chung was tried and acquitted. The Times’s statement that charges against Lee were dropped on May 16 is contradicted by the indictment records. It is unclear whether the Ah Chung who implicated Lee after his arrest in the opium raids is the same person as the “Ar Chun” who filed an affidavit in the gambling case, or the “Ah Chum” who was the only witness called at Lee’s hearing. The Herald and Frank Leslie’s named Wo Kee (sometimes referred to by this point as “Sam Kee”) as the leader of the Chinatown forces opposing Lee. See Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper (May 12, 1883): 190.

62. Allen S. Williams, The Demon of the Orient and His Satellite Fiends of the Joints: Our Opium Smokers as They Are in Tartar Hells and American Paradises (New York, 1883), 12, 32 (“magnate”).

63. Peter Kwong, Chinatown, New York: Labor and Politics, 1930–1950 (New York, 1979), 39–41; Hall, Tea That Burns, 58–59; Times, August 1, 1883, p. 8 (Wong society).

64. Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 39–40.

65. Times, December 8, 1884, p. 3; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 82.

66. Tribune, January 4, 1869.

67. Times, December 26, 1873; Walling, Recollections of a New York Chief of Police, 429–30; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 308.

68. McLoughlin, “In Darkest Chinatown,” 91–93.

69. Sun, May 12 (quotation), 13, 1879; Times, April 25 (p. 3), May 5 (p. 8), 28 (p. 8), 1879; Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 110.

70. Herald, December 2, 1894; McLoughlin, “In Darkest Chinatown,” 96.

71. Times, December 26, 1856; Yankee Notions (March 1858): 65; Tribune, January 4, 1869; Herald, December 26, 1869; World, January 30, 1877; Wong, “Chinese in New York,” 308. It is possible that the press exaggerated the extent of these Chinese-Irish marriages. The census documents eighty-two Chinese-white couples living in Five Points in 1900, and of these, only one in seven involved an Irish immigrant. But Chinese-Irish unions may have been more common in the immediate postwar years. Record of Marriages, p. 362, Five Points Mission Records, United Methodist Church Archives, Drew University; Mary Ting Li Lui, “Contested Relations: Interracial Marriages and Families in New York City’s Chinatown, 1880–1910,” paper presented at the Fourteenth National Conference of the Association for Asian American Studies, April 1997, pp. 3–9.

72. Times, December 9, 1890, p. 3; Tribune, February 15, 1885, p. 12; Herald, March 3, 1885, p. 10; Hall, Tea That Burns, 105–11; Lui, “Contested Relations,” 14.

73. Times, June 20, 1859; World, January 30, 1877.

74. Lucy E. Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers: Chinese Immigrants and the Shaping of Modern Immigration Law (Chapel Hill, 1995), 47–55 (including Times quotation); Charles J. McClain, In Search of Equality: The Chinese Struggle Against Discrimination in Nineteenth-Century America (Berkeley, 1994), 201–13; Harper’s Weekly (April 16, 1892): 362.

75. Times, March 18 (p. 1), May 11 (p. 11), 16 (p. 9), 22 (p. 11, for the dissenting opinions as unusually “vigorous”), 1893; Salyer, Laws Harsh as Tigers, 47–58; McClain, In Search of Equality, 201–13; Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U.S. 698 (1893). Without the budget to deport the tens of thousands who failed to register, Secretary of the Treasury John G. Carlisle ordered Customs and Internal Revenue agents not to enforce this provision of the act. I have not been able to determine whether Fong Yue Ting and his codefendants were actually deported after the Supreme Court’s ruling. The Times reported that “the three Chinamen . . . will probably be sent out of the country at an early date unless some expedient be devised to circumvent the law,” but apparently never followed up on the story—Times, May 16, 1893, p. 9.

76. Times, August 17, 1904, p. 7; Tribune, September 28, 1904, p. 3.

77. Harper’s Weekly (April 16, 1892): 362; Herald, January 11, 1918, p. 10 (Lee); Bonner, Alas! What Brought Thee Hither?, 48; Tribune, September 10, 1884, p. 8 (Assing); Hall, Tea That Burns, 209 (Hor Poa). On second-generation Italian-American teenagers’ desire to assimilate, see Viola Roseboro, “The Italians of New York,” Cosmopolitan 4 (January 1888): 404, who notes that an immigrant’s daughter was anxious “to sink her foreign extraction and be considered an American.” On the same phenomenon among second-generation Irish Americans, see Irish-American, April 30, 1858, and Thomas D’A. McGee, A History of the Irish Settlers in North America, 6th ed. (Boston, 1855), 236. I had hoped to be able to say more about assimilation in Five Points, but there is very little evidence concerning this issue in the neighborhood’s documentary record.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN

1. Jacob A. Riis, The Making of an American (New York, 1901), 113–24.

2. Ibid., 124–29.

3. Ibid., 130–43.

4. Ibid., 152–53; James B. Lane, Jacob A. Riis and the American City (Port Washington, NY, 1974), 29–44. Those who blamed the immigrants for tenement conditions reasoned that their American homes were an improvement over their European abodes, and that the newcomers therefore felt no compulsion either to maintain them properly or to complain about landlord abuses. As one observer put it in the 1880s, the tenements were “an upward step in evolution so far as many foreigners are concerned. . . . Indeed, in the last analysis, many of the worst social conditions we see are really stages of an upward advance”—Henry D. Chapin, “Preventable Causes of Poverty,” Forum 7 (1889): 415–23, in David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity and the American City, 1840–1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (New York, 1989), 63.

5. Riis, Making of an American, 173. Riis wrote (p. 178) that “my scrap-book from the year 1883 to 1896 is one running comment on the Bend.” This scrapbook is in the Riis Collection, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress.

6. Times, April 21 (p. 8), 30 (p. 5, quotation), May 14 (p. 5), 1887; World, April 21, 1887, p. 10; Allan Nevins, Abram S. Hewitt: With Some Account of Peter Cooper (1935; New York, 1967), 504–5.

7. Riis, Making of an American, 174–77. For the dating of Riis’s first tenement photographs to 1887, I have relied on Maren Stange, Symbols of Ideal Life: Social Documentary Photography in America, 1890–1950 (New York, 1989), chap. 1.

8. Riis, Making of an American, 173–75.

9. Ibid., 192–93.

10. Tribune, January 26, 1888, p. 10; Riis, Making of an American, 193.

11. Stange, Symbols of Ideal Life, 5–6; Evening Post, February 28, 1888; Riis, Making of an American, 193.

12. Sun, February 12, 1888, p. 10. One newspaper, the Daily Graphic, had begun printing photos using the halftone process in March 1880, but New Yorkers considered that journal a scandal sheet rather than a serious newspaper.

13. Riis, Making of an American, 193–94; Jacob A. Riis, “How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements,” Scribner’s Magazine 6 (December 1889): 643–62.

14. Riis, Making of an American, 177. Five Pointers were discussing the plans to tear down Mulberry Bend by the spring of 1888. See Thomas F. Lynch to Michael Corrigan, March 26, 1888, C-19, roll 12, Archives of the Archdiocese of New York. In his Iconography of Manhattan Island, Isaac Stokes states that plans for the park were submitted in 1889, but I could not find the Tribune article he cites. See Isaac N. P. Stokes, Iconography of Manhattan Island: 1498–1909, 6 vols. (1915–1928; New York, 1967), 5: 2000. For an earlier proposal to tear down part of the Bend, see “Report of Tenement-House Commission,” February 17, 1885, in Documents of the Senate of the State of New-York, 108th Session, 1885 (Albany, 1885), vol. 5, doc. 36, pp. 3–5, 7–15.

15. Riis, Making of an American, 196–97, 199 (quotation).

16. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (1890; New York, 1971), 214.

17. Ibid., 211–12.

18. Ibid., 212.

19. Lowell to Riis, November 21, 1890, in Riis, Making of an American, 199; Press, November 23, 1890; The True Nationalist, November 29, 1890; Chicago Times, December 20, 1890; Boston Times, November 30, 1890; The Critic, December 27, 1890; The Independent, January 1, 1891, all in Riis Scrapbook, Riis Collection.

20. Brooklyn Times, November 29, 1890; Chicago Tribune, December 13, 1890, both in Riis Scrapbook, Riis Collection; Riis, Making of an American, 212; Luc Sante, Introduction to Penguin Books edn. of How the Other Half Lives (New York, 1997), xi.

21. Times, July 17, 1891, p. 8, October 7, 1892, p. 10, January 21 (p. 9), 28 (p. 10), May 20 (p. 9), 1893.

22. Stokes, Iconography of Manhattan Island, 5: 2018; Times, December 7, 1894, p. 2, January 22 (p. 9), June 7 (p. 7), 20 (p. 3), 1895.

23. Times, December 21, 1895, p. 14, June 23, 1896, p. 9, June 16, 1897, p. 7; Jacob A. Riis, The Battle with the Slum (New York, 1902), 269–70.

24. Times, June 16, 1897, p. 7; Riis, Battle with the Slum, 264 (quotation), 268; Riis, Making of an American, 183; Riis, “The Clearing of Mulberry Bend: The Story of the Rise and Fall of a Typical New York Slum,” Review of Reviews 12 (August 1895): 172.

25. Riis, Battle with the Slum, 286–87, 289 (quotation), 307–9, 355 (quotation); James Ford, Slums and Housing, with Special Reference to New York City: History, Conditions, Policy, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA, 1936), 1: 201.

26. Times, November 15, 1896, magazine p. 15; E. Idell Zeisloft, ed., The New Metropolis (New York, 1899), 522–23; Charles Hemstreet, When Old New York Was Young (New York, 1902), 194; Fifty-fifth Annual Report of the Children’s Aid Society (1907): 107.

27. Gwendolyn Berry, Idleness and the Health of a Neighborhood: A Social Study of the Mulberry District (New York, 1933), 4–7; Walter Laidlaw, ed., Population of the City of New York, 1890–1930 (New York, 1932); Pozzetta, “Mulberry District of New York City,” 28.

28. Times, September 19, 1891, p. 1 (municipal building), June 26 (p. 3, Elm Street), November 7 (magazine, p. 6), 1897; Harlow, Old Bowery Days, 508.

29. Walter M. Whitehill, Boston: A Topographical History (Cambridge, MA, 1968), 174–75; Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus, OH, 1993).

30. See Ford, Slums and Housing; Roy Lubove, The Progressive and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1890–1917 (Pittsburgh, 1962); and Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity and the American City, passim.

31. Evening Post, August 20, 1850; Times, July 1, 1859; Riis, How the Other Half Lives, 32.

32. Times, March 28, 1856; Robert W. DeForest and Lawrence Veiller, eds., The Tenement House Problem, 2 vols. (1903; New York, 1970), 1: 87; Robert H. Bremmer, “The Big Flat: A History of a New York Tenement,” American Historical Review 64 (1958): 54–62. The only “model tenement” built in Five Points was the one constructed in the 1850s at 34 Baxter Street. “Filthy,” “wretched,” and “impregnated with the effluvia” from the commodes, this tenement suffered the same fate as the Big Flat and Gotham Court. Architect John Sexton owned the property and probably designed it as well. See Monthly Record of the Five Points House of Industry 3 (March 1860): 249–50; “Report of the Select Committee Appointed to Examine into the Condition of Tenant Houses in New-York and Brooklyn,” Documents of the Assembly of the State of New-York, Eightieth Session—1857 (Albany, 1857), doc. 205, p. 28; Manhattan Records of Real Estate Assessment, Sixth Ward, 1860, New York Municipal Archives (for Sexton as owner); Times, February 20, 1904, p. 9 (Sexton’s obituary).

33. Donna R. Gabaccia, From Sicily to Elizabeth Street: Housing and Social Change Among Italian Immigrants, 1880–1930 (Albany, 1984).

34. Bruce Edward Hall, Tea That Burns: A Family Memoir of Chinatown (New York, 1998), 119–21; Alvin Harlow, Old Bowery Days: The Chronicles of a Famous Street (New York, 1931), 483–84; Philip Furia, Irving Berlin: A Life in Song (New York, 1998), 18; Gene Fowler, Schnozzola: The Story of Jimmy Durante (New York, 1951), 19–21.

35. Herbert Asbury, The Gangs of New York: An Informal History of the Underworld (New York, 1928), 272–95; Harlow, Old Bowery Days, 501–3; Luc Sante, Low Life: Lures and Snares of Old New York (New York, 1991), 234.

36. Asbury, Gangs of New York, 299–324; Herald, January 11, 1918, p. 10; Hall, Tea That Burns, 132–61.

37. Pozzetta, “The Italians of New York City,” 27 (quotation), 373–75; Viola Roseboro, “The Italians of New York,” Cosmopolitan 4 (January 1888): 400, 402–3.

38. Riis, Battle with the Slum, 186–87; Tribune, September 21, 1894, p. 4; Times, October 6, 1895, p. 25.

39. See Hsiang-Shui Chen, Chinatown No More: Taiwan Immigrants in Contemporary New York (Ithaca, 1992); Ko-Lin Chin, Smuggled Chinese (Philadelphia, 1999); Peter Kwong, The New Chinatown (New York, 1987); and Gwen Kinkead, Chinatown: Portrait of a Closed Society (New York, 1992).

40. “The Egg-Cake Lady of Mosco Street,” Times, December 11, 1994, sect. 13, p. 4.

41. Times, April 26, 1974, p. 39, July 13, 1980, sect. 4, p. 6, May 7, 1995, sect. 13, p. 6.

42. Times, June 22 (sect. 13, p. 1), November 20 (p. B3), 1997.

43. Times, December 28, 1981, p. A1, February 14, 1998, p. B6; Daily News, July 5 (p. 22), 6 (p. 16), 1998.

44. Times, February 6 (p. A1), March 12 (sect. 1, p. 1), 1995, July 8 (p. A15), November 12 (sect. 14, p. 9), 2000; Daily News, November 8, 1999, p. 14.

45. Daily News, November 10, 1995, p. 7; Times, October 6, 1996, sect. 1, p. 1.