Despite the many English translations that refer to radiance or brightness emanating from the face of Moses, it is not clear what the Hebrew text means to say. Literally, Ex 34:29 says, “The skin of his face qaran.” The main reason why many English translations refer to brilliance is that several ancient translations do so: the Septuagint, the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT (done two centuries before Christ), the Peshitta (the Syriac translation probably completed by the fourth or fifth century AD), and the Targums (the Aramaic translations of OT books that originated during the first few centuries BC and continued to develop throughout the first millennium AD).
The most basic meaning of the Hebrew word qaran is “to have horns.” Iconography, notably the representation of Moses by Michelangelo, portrays Moses with horns protruding from his head. This interpretation is not so far-fetched as one might think. Besides the surface meaning of the Hebrew, horns are a prevalent symbol of divinity throughout Mesopotamian art (though the focus of the Biblical text is on his face, not the top of his head).
Somewhat more convincing is an interpretation that attempts to combine the concepts of horns and light. The basis for this comes from a series of astronomical texts from ancient Babylonia known as Enuma Anu Enlil, and the way in which these texts use the Sumerian word SI. At one point the text states: “If the sun’s horn (SI) fades and the moon is dark, there will be deaths; (explanation:) in the evening watch, the moon is having an eclipse (and in this context,) SI means ‘horn,’ and SI means ‘shine’. . . .” The Exodus passage may thus be referring to “horns” of light radiating from Moses’ face (similar to a halo expressed using vectors rather than a circle). This would be similar to a phenomenon labeled melammu in ancient Near Eastern texts that pertains to the brilliant glow of light from the gods (and kings) sometimes portrayed as rays of light that look a bit like horns. ◆
A lamassu (Mesopotamian celestial being) with horns on its helmet, c. 721–705 BC. Horns are a prevalent symbol of divinity throughout Mesopotamian art. It is possible that Moses’ encounter had left him with horns or “horns of light” radiating from his face (Ex 34:29).
Kim Walton. The Oriental Institute Museum, the University of Chicago.
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36:8 made the tabernacle. Chs. 35–40 recount the fulfillment of the instructions given to Moses in chs. 25–31. Much of this fulfillment section repeats or restates passages from the instructions section. One plausible explanation is that the entire section in Exodus devoted to the tabernacle (chs. 25–31; 35–40) is based, in part, on a particular literary pattern for describing the building of divinely sanctioned shrines in the ancient Near East. One feature of this pattern was its requirement that the building be described after an account of the preparations and before the dedication ceremonies.
38:8 women who served at the entrance. Unlike much of the rest of Ex 35–40, this verse contains information not already given in Ex 25–31. Women could serve in a variety of capacities at a sacred shrine. Some temples maintained large estates, operated economic ventures, and thus employed women to provide labor in the form of agricultural and weaving work. Some women served as devotees of a particular deity and lived, often as celibates, within the precinct of that deity’s shrine. Others held what was essentially the status of slave and served the temple to which they were attached; some speculate that such women could have been hired out as prostitutes to generate income for the temple.
Exodus offers no clear indication regarding the precise role these women played in the life of the tabernacle, though it seems unlikely that their service was economic in nature. Since we know that women in other societies were involved in the basic operations and upkeep of religious shrines, it is reasonable to assume that Exodus is speaking of similar functions here, though it may be hinting that they remained at the door of the shrine because they were not allowed to enter within it.
39:3 thin sheets of gold. The Egyptians were well-known for their ability to cover items of wood in a layer of thin gold. A number of objects from the famous tomb of the Egyptian king Tutankhamun are remarkable attestations to this skill. This verse, then, may be referring to a method of gilding that was derived from an originally Egyptian practice.
39:27 fine linen. Linen has already been mentioned a number of times in the instructions for and the construction of the tabernacle. The linen here, though, is for the priestly garments. This material was considered to be of a high quality and was known for its white color. The art of weaving is well documented and depicted in Egypt, and the Biblical text may be referring to a method of performing this craft that originated there.
Several instances throughout Exodus (e.g., Ex 16:10; 34:5) have made clear that the visible manifestation of Yahweh’s presence often occurs in the form of a cloud. Since the Israelites conceived of Yahweh as invisible, they needed a visible entity—a reminder or symbol that could be seen by the human eye—to reassure them that Yahweh was indeed present with them. That visible entity is often referred to in the OT as the “glory” (kabod) of Yahweh. Isa 40:5, e.g., states that it is the “glory of the LORD” that “all people will see.”
Once the construction and arrangement of the tabernacle in Exodus is complete, the glory of Yahweh, in the form of a cloud, so fills the place that Moses is unable even to enter it (Ex 40:35). It seems, therefore, to have been more than something that could merely be seen; it could be sensed in other ways. At one point in Exodus, the “glory” is called a “consuming fire” (24:17). The glory of Yahweh was reassuring and fear-inspiring all at the same time.
This is reminiscent of the Mesopotamian concept of melammu (“radiance, supernatural awe-inspiring sheen”)—a quality that gods and goddesses possessed and one that they could bestow on humans, typically royalty, and take back again if they so desired. In fact, anything that was imbued with divine power and presence was believed to possess melammu. On the one hand, it was a blessing, for it was considered part of what gave legitimacy to a king and his rule; on the other hand, it was a terror that could overwhelm and decimate one who had become the enemy of the gods.
Yahweh’s glory was also dual in nature, bringing reassurance to some, terror to others, and probably equal parts of both to most. This recalls Moses’ close encounter with Yahweh in Ex 33, when Moses asked to see Yahweh’s “glory” (33:18). When he is granted this request, Yahweh descends, stands before him, and proclaims both his love and loyalty and his willingness to punish. Throughout the Exodus narrative, Moses himself has experienced both aspects of Yahweh’s presence—the providential deliverance of the Israelites and yet an angry Yahweh threatening to annihilate his people. It is this glory, as both cloud and fire, that, as Exodus comes to a close, is always “in the sight of all the Israelites” (40:38), ever reminding them of God’s presence and their covenantal obligation to obey him. ◆
Seal impression depicting emanating rays may indicate the figure on the right is the sun god or could be the melammu (divine glow).
Kim Walton. The Oriental Institute Museum, the University of Chicago.
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