Introduction to 1-2 Samuel.
Historical Setting
The events described in the books of Samuel took place in the eleventh and early tenth centuries BC. This time period (falling mostly within what archaeologists call Iron Age I, c. 1200–1000 BC) was one in which the superpowers of the preceding Bronze Ages were having little impact in Syro-Palestine. The Anatolian kingdom of the Hittites had been essentially destroyed by the Sea Peoples and other land-based movements. The Egyptians exercised limited control along the coast of Canaan until the mid-twelfth century BC and then withdrew. The Assyrians were occupied with troubles closer to home, not least was their rivalry with Babylonia to their south. The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser I did push as far west as the northern Mediterranean coast near the end of the twelfth century BC, defeating some Aramean territories along the way, but he did not move south into Syro-Palestine itself. Babylonia too in the period in question, was incapable of giving much, if any, attention to Syro-Palestine, finding plenty to keep it busy protecting its interests against neighboring Assyria and Elam. Thus, as the books of Samuel open, the land in which they are set was experiencing what has been described as an eclipse of the great powers. Conditions were ripe for the emergence of smaller territorial powers such as the kingdom ascribed to David in the text of Samuel (see the article “David’s ‘Empire’ ”).
The transition to monarchy was a departure in the political and religious life of tribal Israel. But it was not a surprising or unanticipated development. The concept of kingship was well known and widely observable in the ancient Near East from at least early in the third millennium BC. Understanding ancient Near Eastern patterns of royal accession and vassal kingship, the interplay of religion and politics, the interaction of prophets with kings, and so forth will help us in grasping the social and religious dynamics reflected in the pages of Samuel.
Literary Setting
Determining precisely what genre(s) one is reading is not always an easy task, especially when one is reading texts from a distant time and place. In seeking to discover what the books of Samuel should be “read as,” we must bear in mind the broader ancient Near Eastern literary culture in which the texts were first written.
Underneath the broad genre categories of story (narrative) and poem, the books of Samuel seem to incorporate a number of more specific literary forms or subgenres: e.g., birth narratives, call narratives, dream theophanies, prophetic judgment speeches, battle reports, accession accounts, court intrigues, regnal formulas/summaries—just to name a few. In one way or another, these subgenres are attested not only in the Bible but also in the ancient Near East more generally.
David is without doubt the central character in the books of Samuel. And, though the Biblical writers show no reticence to expose his serious failings, David is defended from start to finish as rightly occupying the throne of Israel. Royal apologies are well known from the ancient Near East, and though no exemplar of the genre comes close to the books of Samuel in terms of length, depth, complexity or tone, there are some shared traits. Ancient Near Eastern royal apologies, like the books of Samuel, offer a defense of the right of a certain individual to occupy the throne. This individual is typically not the hereditary heir to the throne and has often come to the throne by a path that some, then as now, would regard as suspicious. The charge of usurpation is often a catalyst for the writing of a royal apology. Some ancient Near Eastern royal apologies may, of course, amount to little more than deceptive political propaganda. But the mere fact that circumstances may be such that an individual, such as David, requires defense, in no way proves that the individual is unworthy of defense.
Difficulty in putting a date on texts that refuse to date themselves is self-evident, and the books of Samuel have been assigned dates across a wide spectrum—from quite early (close to the events they describe) to quite late (in the exilic period). A possible scenario would see the book as containing early sources that have been edited to one degree or another in order to incorporate them into a larger corpus. ◆
Key Concepts
• Samuel is established as a recognized and verified man of God.
• God established a kingship covenant with David and his descendants.
• The key to successful kingship is the recognition that Yahweh is the true king, therefore a king’s reign must reflect Yahweh’s values (represented in the law and the covenant).
• It is important to honor the presence of God (ark, temple).