Annotations for James

1:1 The three basic elements of a letter’s introduction were (1) the author’s name; (2) the name of the recipient(s); (3) a greeting (typically the same greeting as here). Although framed as a letter, this work is at most a “general letter” or “letter-essay”; thus, after the introduction it proceeds immediately to the argument, without other features characteristic of letters. James . . . To the twelve tribes scattered. Because James in the NT is always an English substitution for the original “Jacob,” some scholars suggest that the author plays on his own name, addressing the 12 tribes of Israel. Plays on names were common. Jews spoke of themselves as “scattered” or dispersed; this Diaspora included Jews in the Parthian Empire as well as the Roman Empire (although this letter’s Greek language and often illustrations probably suggests a more limited primary audience). Most Jewish people believed that 10 of the 12 tribes had been scattered for centuries, and they would be restored only at the end of the age. James’s address could, however, simply imply “to all God’s people scattered among the nations.” Some commentators believe that he means the term symbolically for all Christians as spiritual Israelites (cf. 1Pe 1:1), whereas others think that he addresses specifically Jewish followers of Jesus. Jewish people who did not believe Jesus was the Messiah but appreciated James’s piety may have also appreciated the letter’s message.

1:2 trials. Includes the suffering of the poor (vv. 9–11; 2:2–7; 5:1–6).

1:3 testing of your faith. Like some Gentile philosophers, many Jewish thinkers emphasized enduring times of testing, and occasionally even joy in them, due to faith in God’s sovereignty (see note on 1Pe 1:6).

1:5 If any of you lacks wisdom, you should ask God. Jewish wisdom traditions offered practical advice concerning how to deal with trials. Jewish tradition, following Scripture, also emphasized asking God for wisdom (e.g., 1Ki 3:5, 9; Pr 2:3).

1:6 the one who doubts is like a wave of the sea. Both Greek and Jewish (Isa 57:20) sources sometimes portrayed the unstable as being blown on the sea, as here, so hearers would relate readily to James’s image. In James, a request for wisdom offered in faith (v. 5) must mean that one is prepared to obey whatever God reveals (cf. 2:14–26).

1:8 double-minded. Jewish wisdom texts condemn the double-minded (cf. 4:8) or double-tongued person; like philosophers, Jewish sages abhorred the hypocrisy of saying one thing and living another way, and speaking or living inconsistently.

1:11 scorching heat. Some suggest that James might refer to an especially devastating hot wind blowing into Judea from the southern desert (cf. Ge 41:23; Eze 17:10). But the summer sun by itself also wilted Judean flowers, which were then useless except as fuel. the rich will fade away. Wealthy landowners regularly exploited the poor throughout the empire, and Judea and Galilee were no exception. Such economic tensions eventually exploded into a Judean war against Rome, in the course of which many less well-to-do Jewish patriots slaughtered Jewish aristocrats. Both Biblical and post-Biblical Jewish wisdom literature stress that riches fade, that God eventually vindicates the oppressed and the needy, and that God judges persons of means who fail to share their resources with the needy. James’s final statement here resembles Isa 40:6–7; Ps 102:4, 11—although the idea was by this time common.

1:12 Blessed is the one who. A common Jewish literary form, which we call a beatitude. trial. The Greek term does not imply that the tester necessarily wants the person to fail; e.g., when God tests he desires perseverance. Specific trials in view in this context (although the principle extends beyond them) include poverty and oppression.

1:13 tempted. Testing had a wide semantic range, including but not limited to the sense used in this verse, that of tempting. God cannot be tempted by evil. People clearly did “test” God (Nu 14:22; Ps 78:18, 41, 56; 95:9; Mal 3:15), but more in the sense that they tried his patience, not that they could lead him to succumb to temptation. God also clearly did “test” people (Ge 22:1; Dt 8:2; 13:3; Jdg 2:22), but he never tested them in the sense that is implied here: seeking for them to fail instead of to persevere. Jewish texts distinguished between God’s motives in testing people (in love, seeking their good) and Satan’s motives in testing them (to make them fall). Although James does not deny Satan’s indirect role (4:7), he emphasizes here the human element in succumbing to temptation. In contrast to Greek sources, where people often protested that temptation was irresistible, Jewish wisdom recognized that people were responsible for their choices if they fell during testing.

1:14–15 Skilled speakers sometimes used a rhetorical form in which one point led to another, yielding a list of multiple items (as here; Ro 5:3–5; 2Pe 1:5–7). James may personify desire as enticing a person, then illegitimately conceiving the child (“sin”), which in turn brings forth “death.” Ancient writers sometimes used personification to reinforce a point (Jewish teachers, e.g., occasionally personified the evil impulse and death).

1:17 Every good and perfect gift is from above . . . does not change. Rather than sending testing to break people (vv. 12–16), God sends good gifts, including creation or rebirth (v. 18). That God is the author of everything good was a commonplace idea of Jewish and Greek wisdom. People in antiquity often affirmed that what was in the heavens was perfect and thus changeless, and Jewish writers sometimes used “from above” to mean “from God.” Father of the heavenly lights. Could mean “Creator of the stars.” Many people believed that stars controlled their fate in arbitrary ways, but James instead proclaims that our lives rest in the hands of a loving Father.

1:18 give us birth through the word of truth. God’s giving birth contrasts with desire’s negative bearing in v. 15; scholars dispute whether the issue here is humanity’s initial creation by God’s word (Ge 1:26) or believers’ rebirth through the gospel (cf. v. 21; 1Pe 1:23; for background if the latter view is correct, see notes on Jn 3:3, 5).

1:19 These are by far some of the most common admonitions in Jewish wisdom, from Proverbs on (e.g., Pr 14:29; 15:18; 16:32; 19:11); Greeks offered similar wisdom. James contrasts this Biblical and traditional wisdom with the revolutionary fervor sweeping his land.

1:20 Jewish nationalists, having suffered much oppression, were tempted to strike at the Romans and their aristocratic vassals, thinking that such revolt (which broke out fully in AD 66) would serve God’s righteous indignation. But James associates righteousness with peace (3:18) and nonresistance (5:7).

1:22 Do what it says. Whatever their personal practice, James’s audience would not challenge his point here: Moral teachers widely emphasized the warning that truth must be obeyed and not just studied.

1:23–24 looks at his face in a mirror . . . forgets what he looks like. Some moral teachers recommended use of a mirror for moral reflection. Ancient mirrors rarely produced the more accurate images available today (cf. 1Co 13:12 and note). Those with enough resources to own mirrors used them when fixing their hair; if James alludes to such people, he portrays the forgetful hearer as stupid. Alternatively, he refers to many people who had no mirrors and saw themselves rarely, who might more naturally forget their own appearance. In this case the reference is to the ease with which one loses the memory of the word if one does not work hard to put it into practice.

1:25 freedom. See notes on Jn 8:32, 34.

1:26 Cf. note on 1:19.

1:27 look after orphans and widows. In Scripture, true piety included defending the oppressed and vulnerable (cf. Am 2:6–7; 5:21–24), including widows and orphans (Isa 1:17). In most ancient cultures, fatherless children and widows had neither direct means of support nor automatically dependable legal defenders. God took special interest in defending them (Dt 10:18; Ps 68:5; 146:9), and wanted leaders to defend them (Ps 82:3; Isa 1:23; Jer 5:28) and not exploit them (Ex 22:22–24; Dt 24:17; Ps 94:6; Isa 10:2; Jer 7:6; 22:3; Eze 22:7; Zec 7:10). Traditional Greek society did look out for freeborn orphans, but not other ones. Jewish people valued providing for widows and the fatherless. the world. See note on 4:4.

2:1 believers . . . must not show favoritism. Scripture prohibited showing favoritism in legal settings (Ex 23:3; Dt 1:17; 16:19; Pr 18:5; 24:23; 28:21), including toward the powerful (Lev 19:15). glorious Lord Jesus Christ. Jewish people normally reserved the title “glorious Lord” for God.

2:2 Many ancient writers ridiculed the extent to which people deferred to the wealthy, often before soliciting their funds. meeting. Lit. “synagogue,” used either because James addresses the entire Jewish community or because some Jewish-Christian congregations (cf. 5:14) also considered themselves Messianic synagogues. gold ring. A mark of great wealth and status. In Rome, it often marked equestrians (the knight class), but throughout the empire it also marked wealth. fine clothes. The wealthy often dressed ostentatiously, whereas the poorest peasants had only one cloak.

2:3 good seat. Many people in synagogues sat on benches, with the most prestigious seats on the raised platforms (see note on Mt 23:6); given limited seating, however, in some synagogues the poorest may have access only to the floor. stand . . . Sit. Although the setting in vv. 2–3 is not exclusively legal, it may be of interest (cf. vv. 4, 6) that Jewish legal texts condemn judges who make one litigant stand while another is permitted to sit. These hearings often took place in synagogues (v. 2), which doubled as community centers.

2:4 judges with evil thoughts. Roman courts favored the rich; in the second century, this preference was even written into laws, as it also was in many other legal collections such as those from the ancient Near East. Judges were of higher social rank and did not ordinarily trust persons of lower class, who were thought to act from economic self-interest when they brought accusations against persons of higher class. Biblical law (Lev 19:15), most Jewish law and traditional Greek philosophers had always rejected such distinctions as immoral. In normal times, the urban public respected the rich as public benefactors.

2:5 chosen those who are poor. God heard the cries of the poor, who were the most easily oppressed judicially (Ex 22:27; Dt 15:9).

2:6 dragging you into court. Roman courts favored the rich, who could initiate lawsuits against social inferiors, although social inferiors could not hope to win lawsuits against them. In theory, Jewish courts sought to avoid this discrimination, but as in most cultures people of means naturally had legal advantages; e.g., they could hire others to provide articulate defenses.

2:7 blaspheming the noble name. Rather than pronouncing the divine name, Jewish people sometimes spoke simply of “the name.” In its most technical form, “blaspheming” meant reviling the divine name (Lev 24:16). Some of the poor considered some aristocrats (such as those settled in Tiberias) impious, but the divine name here may be that of Jesus (see note on v. 1), which even some Jewish aristocrats who were considered pious might speak against. Sadducean aristocrats were among the main enemies of Jesus’ followers in Jerusalem (Ac 4:1; 23:6–10), and not many years later one such aristocrat had James executed.

2:8 royal law. Normally meant an imperial edict, which should outweigh prejudices in court (v. 6); Jewish people could envision the divinely given Law of Moses as a king’s law. James here cites Lev 19:18. Some Jewish teachers (notably Rabbi Akiba) came to regard this as the chief commandment; James probably thinks of Jesus’ use of Lev 19:18 to epitomize the law (cf. Mk 12:29–31).

2:9 favoritism. Violated God’s law (e.g., Lev 19:15, which might be one element subsumed under loving one’s neighbor in Lev 19:18; cf. Jas 2:8).

2:10 whoever . . . stumbles at just one point is guilty of breaking all. Some ancient thinkers viewed all sins as equal; while many Jewish teachers distinguished more severe sins from lesser ones, even they usually demanded obedience to even the smallest commandments. To reject the authority of one commandment was to cast off the rightful authority of God’s law. In principle rejecting God’s law meant apostasy, though in practice these teachers recognized that everyone sinned. stumbles. A common Jewish metaphor for sin.

2:11 You shall not murder. When James was writing, Judean revolutionaries were periodically murdering aristocrats in the temple. Likewise, careless governors sometimes slaughtered protestors and bystanders indiscriminately, some members of the priestly aristocracy hired assassins, and rich landlords sometimes killed tenants (cf. 5:6). Some of these people, especially the revolutionaries, may have justified their behavior religiously.

2:12 freedom. Cf. 1:25; see notes on Jn 8:32, 34.

2:13 Whether or not they showed favoritism (v. 9), God would not do so (Dt 10:17; 2Ch 19:7). Jewish tradition similarly warned that the merciless would receive no mercy (cf. also Jesus’ teaching in Mt 5:7; 6:15; Lk 6:36–37). Later rabbis emphasized that God’s attribute of mercy prevailed over his attribute of judgment when offered even the slightest grounds to do so; Paul indicates that in Christ mercy triumphs without neglecting justice (Ro 3:26).

2:14–26 James could be responding partly to a misinterpretation of Paul’s teaching, as some commentators have suggested. More likely, however, he is reacting especially against a strain of Jewish piety that was fueling the revolutionary fervor that was leading toward war (cf. v. 19; 1:26–27). James uses the term “faith” differently here from the way Paul does, but neither writer would disagree with the other’s point: genuine faith is a reality on which one stakes one’s life, not merely passive assent to a doctrine. For James, expressions of faith—like nondiscrimination (vv. 8–9) and nonviolence (vv. 10–12)—must be lived, not merely acknowledged.

2:14–16 Scripture commanded care for the needy (e.g., Dt 15:7–8); such behavior distinguished the righteous from the wicked (e.g., Dt 15:9; Pr 29:7; Jer 22:16).

2:16 Go in peace. A Jewish farewell blessing; but Jewish people were expected to show hospitality to other Jewish people in need. They held Abraham as the ultimate example of good hospitality (cf. vv. 21–23). keep warm. Alludes to how cold the homeless could become, in Judea relevant especially in Jerusalem and the Judean hill country. Teachers sometimes used absurd examples like this one to point out where faulty thinking can lead.

2:18 someone will say. Writers on moral topics often advanced their argument by citing and refuting an imaginary critic’s objection. They often introduced the objection with “someone will say.” Show me. James challenges the imaginary critic; some writers, like the Stoic philosopher Epictetus, also challenged imaginary critics by demanding, “Show me,” or, “Demonstrate your case.” Here the objection claims that one may have faith, and another deeds; James counters that genuine faith is expressed by deeds.

2:19 there is one God. Jewish people daily recited the Shema, which consisted of Dt 6:4 (and associated texts), including this line: “the LORD is one.” This confession was the cornerstone of Jewish faith, and what Jewish people often meant by faith (’emuna). This confession demanded more than empty words, however; if God is one, he must be the supreme object of our love (Dt 6:4–5). Nearly all Jewish teachers would have agreed with James that loyalty to God demanded corresponding behavior. the demons believe that—and shudder. Jewish tradition and sometimes even Gentile magical texts recognized that demons trembled at God’s name.

2:21–23 Although God accepted Abraham’s initial faith (Ge 15:6), it was incomplete (cf. Ge 15:8; 16:2). In the years that followed, Abraham’s faith matured as part of his continuing relationship with God; offering Isaac was the ultimate test of his faith. Jewish tradition already had connected Ge 15:6 with the offering of Isaac (Ge 22:1–14), as here. Abraham demonstrated his mature faith (Ge 22:12) and God reaffirmed his promise (Ge 22:16–18).

2:23 he was called God’s friend. Jewish tradition celebrated Abraham being God’s friend, following 2Ch 20:7; Isa 41:8.

2:25 even Rahab . . . considered righteous for what she did. Like Abraham (see note on v. 16), Rahab was known for hospitality; but her act of saving the spies saved her as well (Jos 2:1–21; 6:22–25).

2:26 the body without the spirit is dead. Many people used “spirit” and “soul” interchangeably; they recognized that when one’s spirit departed, one died.

3:1 we who teach will be judged more strictly. Other Jewish sages also warned against teaching error and recognized that teachers would be judged strictly if they led others astray. Some teachers were now advocating a sort of “wisdom” that would soon lead to a failed revolt against Rome and massive suffering (AD 66–70; cf. vv. 13–18).

3:2 at fault in what they say. That everyone sinned was standard Jewish doctrine; that one of the most common instruments of sin and harm was the human mouth was also a common Jewish idea (as early as the book of Proverbs; e.g., Pr 11:9; 12:18; 18:21).

3:3–4 bits . . . small rudder. In the ancient Mediterranean world, most people understood the common illustrations of controlling horses with bits and ships with rudders (see note on Ac 27:40). Jewish texts often cast wisdom, reason and God in the role of ideal pilots, but James’s point here is not what should control or have power. His point is simply the power of a small instrument (v. 5).

3:5–6 a great forest is set on fire by a small spark. The tongue also is a fire. Others also compared the spread of rumors to the igniting of what would rapidly become a forest fire. Here the image is that of a tongue that incites the whole body to violence. Scripture and other sources already warned of the boastful, hostile tongue (Ps 52:1–4) and the tongue as a hurtful fire (Ps 39:1–3; 120:2–4; Pr 16:27; 26:21).

3:6 set on fire by hell. That the fire (see vv. 5–6 and note) is sparked by hell suggests where it leads; Jewish pictures of Gehenna typically included flame.

3:7–8 All kinds of animals . . . deadly poison. Made in God’s image (v. 9), people were appointed over all creatures (Ge 1:26). But although other creatures could be subdued as God commanded (Ge 1:28; 9:2), the tongue was like the deadliest snake, full of toxic venom (Ps 58:3–6; 140:3; cf. also Jewish tradition).

3:9 With the tongue we praise . . . and with it we curse. James’s audience would readily grasp his point. Jewish teachers emphasized that however one treated other humans, it was as if one did it to God himself, because people were made in his image. Sometimes they also noted, as here, the specific incongruity of blessing God while cursing other people, who were made in his image. The issue here (as in 1:19–20; 4:11; 5:9) is speech hostile to others—fitting the letter’s setting (see Introduction: Setting; see also note on vv. 13–18).

3:12 can a fig tree bear olives, or a grapevine bear figs? In vv. 11–12, James produces two other common examples of impossible incongruity. Figs, olives and grapes were the three most common agricultural products of the Judean hills, and alongside wheat and barley they would have constituted the most common crops of the Mediterranean region as a whole. That everything brought forth after its kind was a matter of common observation and became proverbial in Greco-Roman circles (cf. also Ge 1:11–12, 21, 24–25).

3:13–18 Especially since the era of the Maccabean revolt against Syrian oppressors, many Judeans had valued revolt against oppressors as an act of devotion to God. This time, however, revolt would lead to Judea’s devastation, Jerusalem’s destruction, and the enslavement of many survivors (AD 66–73). Although some Pharisees emphasized peace, many popular teachers urged that revolt was the only solution to current problems. Instead of this popular course, James counseled waiting on God (5:7–11); cf. Jesus’ warning in Mk 13:1–2, 14–16.

3:14 envy. The Greek term here was also the term for “zeal” used by some who wanted to overthrow Roman rule. The Maccabees and others used Phinehas as their model for violent zeal for God (Nu 25:11, 13; 1 Maccabees 2:26–27, 54).

3:15 does not come down from heaven but is earthly, unspiritual, demonic. James contrasts divine wisdom with that inspired by evil. Jewish people often used “heaven” and “above” to mean “God.” In contrast to heavenly wisdom, violent “wisdom” (cf. v. 14; 4:1–2) was earthly and demonic (cf. Mk 8:33). Some Jewish groups believed that evil spirits inspired all sin; the idea that demons surrounded everyone also grew in folk beliefs. James might suggest a more indirect demonic activity here through people imbibing dominant values of a surrounding culture influenced by evil.

3:17 wisdom that comes from heaven. Jewish tradition often envisioned true wisdom as descending “from heaven.” peace-loving . . . full of mercy and good fruit. A description of God’s wisdom, in contrast to counsel supporting retaliation.

4:1 desires that battle within you. Most Gentile philosophers and many Diaspora Jewish thinkers condemned those ruled by their passions; they described such desires for pleasure as battling against reason. Many writers such as Plato, Plutarch and Philo attributed all literal wars to such physically based desires. Judean thinkers also spoke of an evil impulse; later rabbis believed that it influenced every member of the body.

4:2 so you kill. Teachers often used hyperbole: graphic, rhetorical exaggeration for effect. Presumably most members of James’s original audience had never literally killed anyone, but they were exposed to violent teachers (3:13–18) who regarded killing as a satisfactory means of attaining justice and redistribution of wealth. Or James may think of wealthy landowners ready to kill others to achieve their ends (cf. 5:6).

4:3 you ask with wrong motives. Prayers for basic needs were common and differ from the seeking condemned here (cf. Pr 30:8–9; Mt 6:11).

4:4 friendship with the world means enmity against God. When Israel broke covenant with God and pursued idols, God charged her with adultery (e.g., Isa 1:21; Jer 2:20; 3:1–3; Eze 16:15–17; Hos 1–3). friend of the world . . . enemy of God. Friends were expected to be friends with their friends’ friends and enemies of their friends’ enemies. Those who claimed to be God’s friends (2:23) but shared the world’s values (see note on 3:13–18) were unfaithful to God.

4:5 he jealously longs for the spirit he has caused to dwell in us. Because no Biblical text says exactly this, and there is more than one way to translate the Greek expression, scholars debate the exact source. Like other Jewish writers, NT authors sometimes blended various texts together; this does not resolve, however, which texts James has in view. Some suggest that James means that “this human spirit jealously longs,” as in vv. 1–3, perhaps thinking of the Jewish idea of the evil impulse. (Alternatively, but less likely, he could mean that one’s spirit or soul ought to long—but for God, as in Ps 42:1–2; 63:1; 84:2.) Second, God’s Spirit within us could be jealous for our affection (cf. Ge 6:3). A third possibility is that James cites here a maxim that summarizes some Biblical texts (such as Ex 20:5 or Dt 32:21) with the sense that “God is jealous over the spirit he gave us” and will tolerate no competition for its affection (v. 4).

4:6 God opposes the proud. James closely follows the common Greek version of Pr 3:34 (cited here), merely changing “the Lord” to “God.” Jewish sources often developed this idea. In this context, being humble includes submitting to God (vv. 7, 10).

4:7 he will flee from you. Ancient magical texts sometimes depicted demons fleeing before incantations, but the idea here is moral, not magical. One must choose between God’s values and the world’s (v. 4), between God’s wisdom and that which is demonic (3:15, 17).

4:8 Wash your hands. In this period Jewish people washed their hands before prayer; Jewish people also used the language of purity figuratively, so that pure hands could signify not having committed sin with them (Ps 24:3–4). Those responsible for bloodshed (Mt 27:24), even if only as representatives of a corporately guilty group (cf. v. 2; Dt 21:6), were to wash their hands. double-minded. People disrespected the double-minded, i.e., hypocrites (cf. v. 4).

4:9–10 Grieve, mourn and wail . . . Humble yourselves. Scripture often connected mourning and humbling oneself with repentance (Lev 23:27–29; 26:41), especially when confronted with divine judgment (2Ki 22:11; Joel 1:13–14; 2:12–13). Biblical prophets also announced the exaltation of the humble (see note on Mt 23:12).

4:11 do not slander one another. The issue here (as in 1:19–20, 3:9–10; 5:9) is speech hostile to others—fitting the letter’s setting (see Introduction: Setting; see also note on 3:13–18). Part of the law’s teaching about loving one’s neighbor was avoiding slander (Lev 19:16–18).

4:12 only one Lawgiver and Judge. Jewish and Christian teachers often recognized that God was the only rightful judge.

4:13–17 In the Roman Empire, people acquired wealth in especially two ways: landowners, with high social status, profited from crops raised by tenant farmers or slaves; merchants, by contrast, usually accumulated wealth without the corresponding social status. James addresses both merchants (vv. 13–17) and the landed aristocracy (5:1–6).

4:13 Now listen. Speakers often used expressions such as this, including when making an argument or speaking harshly. Today or tomorrow. Many thinkers urged their audiences to remember that one cannot control one’s future (cf. Pr 27:1). this or that city. Towns and cities offered the primary markets for manufactured goods, where some traders could acquire wealth. Tentatively projecting commitments and profits was prudent. The sin here is not their thinking ahead (cf. Pr 6:8; 20:18; 22:3; 24:27; 27:12; 30:25) but their arrogant presumption—acting as if their lives are in their own hands rather than God’s (v. 16; cf., e.g., Am 4:1; 6:1).

4:14 You are a mist. For life as but a fleeting breath, see, e.g., Job 7:7; Ps 39:5; for the transitory character of mist, see, e.g., Pr 21:6; Hos 6:4; 13:3.

4:15 If it is the Lord’s will. Both Jews and Gentiles often qualified plans with “If God wishes” or similar expressions.

5:1–6 See the article “Poverty and Revolt in Judea.” James here denounces wealthy exploiters of peasant labor; he does so in a manner resembling Biblical prophets’ warnings of judgment, also echoed in other early Jewish sources. James condemns speech that incites human violence (1:19, 26; 3:1–12; 4:11), but this does not mean remaining silent about injustice. Like some Jewish visionaries of his day, James appeals to God’s judgment rather than to human retribution (4:12; cf. Dt 32:35; Pr 20:22). His prophetic warning proved on the mark; a few years later the Judean aristocracy was mostly obliterated during the revolt against Rome.

5:1 weep and wail. Prophets sometimes summoned people to weep and wail as a warning of what was coming (e.g., Isa 13:6; Joel 1:8).

5:2 clothes. The poorest peasants might have just a single cloak. Expensive clothing was a sign and form of wealth; a fairly expensive cloak could cost many times the entire property of many poor persons.

5:3 hoarded wealth. Various moral teachers in antiquity mocked the vanity of hoarded wealth. the last days. Not a wise time to be sinning: God’s day of reckoning was coming soon (cf. Isa 2:2; Mic 4:1).

5:4 For this setting, see the article “Poverty and Revolt in Judea.” wages you failed to pay the workers. Wealthy landowners often lived far away from the estates where their laborers worked. Tenant farmers normally paid the landowner a share of the crops, but landowners could also use slaves or, as in this case, temporary workers. Day laborers—especially in demand during the harvest—made subsistence wages; they depended on these daily wages to feed themselves and their families. crying out against you. If an employer withheld a worker’s wages (in violation of Lev 19:13; Mal 3:5), the worker would cry out to God and God would avenge him (Dt 24:14–15). Lord Almighty. A familiar phrase in the standard Greek translation of the OT, where it translates a phrase suggesting that God had vast hosts, or armies (the phrase here, including God’s “ears,” recalls the Greek version of Isa 5:9.)

5:5 fattened yourselves in the day of slaughter. The rich and their guests consumed much meat in a day of slaughter, i.e., at a feast (e.g., at sheep-shearing or harvest; cf. 1Sa 25:4, 36); once an animal was slaughtered, as much as possible was eaten at once, because only drying and salting could preserve the rest. Meat was rarely available to the poor except during public festivals.

Here, however, the picture is of the rich being fattened like cattle for the day of their own slaughter, as in some Jewish apocalyptic works. day of slaughter. Recalls Jer 12:3. God regarded as sin not only direct exploitation, as in v. 4, but also living lavishly while others go hungry (cf., e.g., Am 6:4–7).

5:6 murdered the innocent one. Murder was increasingly common in the land (see note on 2:11). During a temporary period between Roman governors, the high priest had James himself executed, along with some other innocent people. James was so respected by those who kept the law that their outcry caused this lawless high priest to be deposed.

5:7 the farmer waits for the land to yield its valuable crop. Harvest here (cf. v. 4) becomes an image of the day of judgment, as elsewhere in Jewish literature. The chief Judean wheat harvest ran from mid-April through the end of May (earlier than in Greece or Italy). The crop was valuable; farmers’ lives depended heavily on good harvests. autumn and spring rains. Judea’s early, autumn rains fell in October and November; the winter rains (roughly three-quarters of the year’s rainfall) fell from December through February. But the late rains of March and April were particularly needed for the main grain harvests.

5:10 as an example . . . take the prophets. In Scripture, prophets sometimes faced persecution; by Jesus’ day, Jewish tradition highlighted this point even more.

5:11 Job’s perseverance. Although later rabbis debated how faithful Job was, earlier Jewish traditions in the Diaspora praised and even amplified Job’s endurance already depicted in Scripture.

5:12 do not swear. An oath invoked a deity’s witness that one was telling the truth, and hence a curse if one was lying. One of the Ten Commandments prohibited swearing falsely in God’s name (Ex 20:7). A few radical sages and sects forbade oaths, demanding that one’s integrity be so great that oaths were unnecessary. For swearing by other things besides God’s name, see notes on Mt 5:33–35. James clearly evokes Jesus’ teaching here (Mt 5:33–37).

5:13 Let them sing songs of praise. Many of the psalms (here translated “songs of praise”) are joyful (e.g., Ps 100), although others are more helpful for times of suffering.

5:14 elders. The rulers of OT villages, elders continued to fill a respected leadership role in this period. Usually they functioned as a group. anoint them with oil. People anointed wounds with oil (cf. Isa 1:6; Lk 10:34) and thought it also had medicinal properties for some ailments; such functions may contribute to its symbolic relevance here. In ancient Israel oil was used to anoint and consecrate priests or rulers (e.g., Ex 30:30; Jdg 9:8). Jesus and his followers may have combined a symbolic medicinal use with a symbol of fresh power from God’s Spirit (Mk 6:13; cf. 1Sa 16:13; Isa 61:1).

5:15 the prayer offered in faith will make the sick person well. The power for answered prayer that Jewish tradition associated with only the most holy (cf. vv. 17–18) James here expects for God’s people more widely (having already explained genuine faith and proper asking in 1:3–8; 2:22; 4:2–3). they will be forgiven. Biblical prophets often used healing from sickness as an image for healing from sin (e.g., Isa 6:10), and Jewish literature often associated sin and sickness. Some later rabbis even associated specific afflictions with specific sins. Nevertheless, neither the OT nor James associates every person’s sickness with their sin (cf., e.g., 1Ki 14:4; 2Ki 13:14, 21).

5:17–18 Elijah . . . prayed . . . Again he prayed. Judeans and Galileans prayed for rain, but only exceptional holy men were thought able to secure it miraculously (and the legends about them securing rain were sometimes told centuries after they lived). These holy men modeled themselves after the prophet Elijah, whom James cites here as a model for all righteous people (v. 16; cf. 1Ki 17:1; 18:41–46).

5:17 a human being, even as we are. In Scripture, Elijah comes across as fully human (e.g., 1Ki 17:20; 19:4, 14). James thus invites all his hearers to use Elijah as a model of a righteous though frail person of prayer.

5:19–20 If one abandoned one’s former righteousness, it no longer counted in one’s favor (Eze 18:24–25); yet the repentance of the wicked also canceled their former wickedness (Eze 18:21–23). Some Jews regarded some forms of apostasy as unforgivable, but James welcomes the sinner back.

5:20 cover over a multitude of sins. The language recalls Pr 10:12, where it probably means keeping quiet about another’s wrongs (cf. Pr 17:9). The idea here seems closer to the Jewish use of similar phrases for securing forgiveness. Later rabbis even claimed that when a person converted another to the Jewish faith it was as if the person had created that person. Here one who turns another back to the way rescues them from death.