Northern Africa is a region of long, complex, and varied histories. The countries of the Maghrib had a long history of resistance to outside forces and successfully overcame Punic, Roman, and Christian invasions. It was not until the 7th and 8th centuries CE that the Maghrib was conquered, when Arab forces invaded and were victorious. They imposed on the native peoples both the religion of Islam and the Arabic language, and thus absorbed the Maghrib into the Muslim world, where the countries of the Maghrib—Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia—remain today. Despite this absorption, most of the native peoples in the Maghrib have managed to preserve their cultural identity throughout the centuries.
The histories of Egypt and Sudan are closely intertwined, yet each country also has unique aspects of its historical past. Egypt’s long historical continuity is marked by a succession of major religions, cultural trends, and foreign powers. Today it is a leader of the Arab world and, despite its location on the African continent, is more often associated with the countries of the Middle East than with its African neighbours. For many centuries Egypt’s history included that of Sudan, although that country also has a singular history of its own. Given its location, Sudan has long served as an arena for interaction between the cultural traditions of Africa and those of the Mediterranean world. The impact of its historical interactions are evident even today as Sudan straddles two worlds within one country: northern Sudan is dominated by Islam and the Arabic language and is closer to the Mediterranean world, while southern Sudan is instead influenced by sub-Saharan African languages and cultures. Indeed, as the first decade of the 21st century drew to a close, it was not clear if northern and southern Sudan would remain united, or if the country would divide into two separate entities.
Owing to the fact that the modern-day country of Libya comprises three historical regions—Tripolitania in the northwest, Cyrenaica in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest—Libya’s history is likewise diverse. For much of Libya’s early history, both Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were more closely linked with neighbouring territories than with one other. For several centuries, the Ottoman authorities recognized them as separate provinces. In the early 20th century, however, the regions were unified to form a single colony under Italian rule, which gave way to the modern-day country of Libya.
An examination of the histories of countries of northern Africa makes evident a pattern of shared as well as distinct experiences. This pattern is also evident today, in both the experiences of each country and the challenges that they face in the 21st century.