Notes

1 Egypt at the exhibition

1 Muhammad Amin Fikri, Irshad al-alibba’ ila mahasin Urubba (Cairo, 1892), p. 128.

2 ibid. pp. 128–36.

3 R. N. Crust, ‘The International Congresses of Orientalists’, Hellas 6 (1897): 351.

4 ibid. p. 359.

5 Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, vol. 2: al-Siyasa wa-l-wataniyya wa-l-tarbiya, p. 76.

6 Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, Qala’id al-mafakhir fi gharib awa’id al-awa’il wa-l-awakhir (1883), p. 86.

7 Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982), p. 299.

8 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 177, 119–20; Alain Silvera, ‘The first Egyptian student mission to France under Muhammad Ali’, Modern Egypt: Studies in Politics and Society, ed. Elie Kedourie and Sylvia G. Haim (London: Frank Cass, 1980), p. 13.

9 Georges Douin, Histoire du règne du Khédive Ismaïl, 2: 4–5.

10 The Times, 16th June 1846; Aimé Vingtrinier, Soliman-Pacha, Colonel Sève: Généralissime des armées égyptiennes; ou, Histoire des guerres de l’Egypte de 1820 à 1860 (Paris: Didot, 1886), pp. 500–1.

11 Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din (Alexandria, 1882), p. 816.

12 Lewis, Muslim Discovery, pp. 299–301.

13 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 121.

14 Of the eight works published in Cairo during the last ten years of the nineteenth century describing the countries and ideas of Europe, five were accounts of a trip to an Orientalist congress or a world exhibition: Dimitri ibn Ni`mat Allah Khallat, Sifr al-safar ila ma`rad al-hadar, an account of the Paris world exhibition of 1889 (Cairo: Matba`at al-Muqtataf, 1891); Mahmud Umar al-Bajuri, al-Durar al-bahiyya fi al-rihla al-urubawiyya, an account of a journey to the Exposition Universelle in Paris, and the Eighth International Congress of Orientalists, Stockholm, 1889 (Cairo, 1891); Muhammad Amin Fikri, Irshad al-alibba’ ila mahasin Urubba, an account of the same journey; Ahmad Zaki, al-Safar ila al-mu’tamar, wa hiya al-rasa’il aliati katabaha ala Urubba, an account of a journey to the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists, London 1892 (Cairo, 1893), and al-Dunya fi Baris, an account of the Paris world exhibition (Cairo, 1900). In the preceding decade (the 1880s), the two major works on Europe had included accounts of the Paris Exhibition of 1878 and the Milan Exhibition of 1881 in Muhammad Bayram, Safwat al-i`tibar bi-mustawda` al-amsar wa-l-aqtar, 5 vols. (Cairo, 1302–131 lh, 1884/5–1893/4), 3: 54, 73–81, and of a fictional Congress of Orientalists in Paris in Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 1153–79. On Egyptian writing about Europe in the nineteenth century, see Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, and Anouar Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains égyptiens en France au XIXe siècle.

15 Asa Briggs, The Age of Improvement, 1783–1867, rev. ed. (London: Longmans, 1979), p. 398.

16 International Congress of Orientalists, Transactions of the Ninth Congress, London, 5–12 September 1892, ed. E. Delmar Morgan, 2 vols. (London, International Congress of Orientalists, 1893), 1: 34.

17 Cited Edward W. Said, Orientalism, p. 165.

18 Theodor Adorno, Minima Moralia: Reflections From a Damaged Life, trans. E. F. N. Jephcott (London: Verso, 1978), p. 116; on the theatre, see for example Muhammad al-Muwailihi, Hadith Isa ibn Hisham, aw fatra min al-zaman, p. 434; on the public garden, Muhammad al-Sanusi al-Tunisi, al-Istitla`at al-barisiyya fi ma`rad sanat 1889 (Tunis, 1309h), p. 37.

19 International Congress of Orientalists, Transactions, 1: 35.

20 Martin Heidegger, ‘The age of the world picture’ in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, p. 127.

21 al-Sanusi, al-Istitla`at, pp. 243–4.

22 Clovis Lamarre and Charles Fliniaux, L’Egypte, la Tunisie, le Maroc et l’exposition de 1878, in the series, Les pays étrangers et l’exposition de 1878, 20 vols. (Paris: Libraire Ch. Delagrave, 1878), p. 123.

23 al-Sanusi, al-Istitla`at, p. 242.

24 Lamarre and Fliniaux, L’Egypte, la Tunisie, le Maroc et l’exposition de 1878, p. 133.

25 Edmond About, Le fellah: souvenirs d’Egypte (Paris: Hachette, 1869), pp. 47–8.

26 On this labyrinth see Jacques Derrida, Speech and Phenomena, and other Essays on Husserl’s Theory of Signs, p. 104, as well as his subsequent writings, all of which, he once remarked, ‘are only a commentary on the sentence about a labyrinth’: ‘Implications: Interview with Henri Ronse’, in Positions, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), p. 5.

27 Susan Lee Yeager, ‘The Ottoman Empire on exhibition: the Ottoman Empire at international exhibitions 1851–1867, and the sergi-i umumi osmani, 1863’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1981), p. 168.

28 David Harvey, Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), p. 118.

29 Cited Walter Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, in Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writings, pp. 146–7.

30 Mubarak, Alam al-Din, p. 818.

31 Idwar Bey Ilyas, Mashahid Uruba wa-Amirka (Cairo, 1900), p. 268.

32 Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 829–30.

33 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 55–6; for another example see Mubarak, Alam al-Din, p. 817.

34 The phrase ‘organisation of the view’ occurs in Mubarak, Alam al-Din, p. 817. The zoo is described in Sanusi, al-Istitla`at, p. 37, the theatre in Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 119–20, the model farm outside Paris in Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 1008–42, the visual effect of the street in ibid. pp. 448, 964, and in Ilyas, Mashahid, p. 268, the new funicular at Lucerne and the European passion for panoramas in Fikri, Irshad, p. 98.

35 See Heidegger, ‘The age of the world picture’.

36 The best accounts of nineteenth-century Egypt are to be found in Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939, Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914, and, for the first half of the century, Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali.

37 Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, pp. 146, 152; Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 76. The reflection of these changes in European and American writings of the period is explored in Rachel Bowlby, Just Looking: Consumer Culture in Dreiser, Gissing and Zola (New York: Methuen, 1985).

38 See André Raymond, Artisans et commerçants au Caire au XVIIIe siècle, 1: 173–202; Roger Owen, The Middle East in the World Economy 1800–1914; and Charles Issawi, An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa.

39 Roger Owen, Cotton and the Egyptian Economy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), p. 307.

40 On the Saint-Simonists in Egypt, see Anouar Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance nationale: l’Egypte moderne, pp. 191–7; on Chevalier see J. M. Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains français en Egypte, 2: 326, and Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, p. 152.

41 The Times, 13th October 1851.

42 Cited Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, p. 151.

43 Sulayman al-Harayri, Ard al-bada’i` al-amm (Paris, 1867).

44 Yeager, ‘Ottoman Empire on exhibition’, pp. 120–2.

45 Mary Rowlatt, A Family in Egypt (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p. 42. On the rebuilding of Cairo see Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious, pp. 98–113; on similar projects for the rebuilding of Istanbul, see Zeynep Çelik, The Remaking of Istanbul: Portrait of an Ottoman City in the Nineteenth Century (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1986).

46 Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, pp. 151–2.

47 Karl Marx, Capital, 1: 163–77.

48 Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, p. 152.

49 Marx, Capital, 1: 173.

50 ibid. pp. 173, 283; Karl Marx, Selected Writings, ed. David McLellan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977), p. 455.

51 See Jean Baudrillard, The Mirror of Production, pp. 21–51.

52 Marx, Selected Writings, pp. 455–6.

53 Cited Yeager, ‘Ottoman Empire on exhibition’, p. 39.

54 The Times, 13th October 1851. Yeager, ‘Ottoman Empire on exhibition’, p. 8.

55 Charles Edmond, L’Egypte à l’exposition universelle de 1867 (Paris: Dentu, 1867).

56 Marx, Selected Writings, p. 456. See Stefania Pandolfo, ‘The voyeur in the old city’, mimeo, October 1983, for the following argument.

57 On the exhibition as the origin of the tourist industry, see C. R. Fay, Palace of Industry, 1851: A Study of the Great Exhibition and its Fruits (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), pp. 76, 94.

58 Gustave Flaubert, Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour, p. 79.

59 Mubarak, Alam al-Din, p. 308.

60 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, vol. 1: Le voyage en Orient (1851), p. 400, n. 104.

61 Flaubert, Flaubert in Egypt, p. 23.

62 Cited Kenneth P. Bendiner, ‘The portrayal of the Middle East in British painting, 1825–1860’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1979), p. 314.

63 The phrase belongs to Eliot Warburton, author of The Crescent and the Cross, or Romance and Realities of Eastern Travel (1845), describing Alexander Kinglake’s Eōthen, or Traces of Travel Brought Home from the East (London, 1844; reprint ed., J. M. Dent, 1908). Cf. Oxford Companion to English Literature, 5th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).

64 Edward Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1835), pp. vii, xvii; Stanley Lane-Poole, ‘Memoir’, in Edward Lane, An Arabic-English Lexicon, derived from the best and most copious Eastern sources (London: William and Norgate, 1875; reprint ed., Beirut: Libraire du Liban, 1980), 5: xii.

65 Leila Ahmed, Edward W. Lane: A Study of His Life and Work, and of British Ideas of the Middle East in the Nineteenth Century, John D. Wortham, The Genesis of British Egyptology, 1549–1906 (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), p. 65. The camera lucida was the invention of Edward Lane’s friend Dr Wollastone (Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 5: xii).

66 Bendiner, ‘The Middle East in British painting’, pp. 13–18.

67 Dolf Sternberger, Panorama of the Nineteenth Century, Trans. Joachim Neugroschel (New York: Urizen Books, 1977), pp. 188–9; Benjamin, ‘Paris, capital of the nineteenth century’, p. 150.

68 Cited Ahmed, Edward Lane, p. 26.

69 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, 1: 281–90.

70 Muhammad al-Muwailihi, Hadith Isa ibn Hisham, aw fatra min al-zaman, pp. 405–17.

71 Jeremy Bentham, ‘Panopticon’, in The Complete Works of Jeremy Bentham, ed. John Bowring, 4: 65–6.

72 Malek Alloula examines the voyeurism of the European photographer as a mode of colonial presence in The Colonial Harem.

73 Handbook for Travellers in Lower and Upper Egypt (London: John Murray, 1888), p. 12.

74 Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains, 1: 272.

75 Ibrahim Abduh, Tatawwur al-sahafa al-misriyya, 1798–1951, pp. 242–4.

76 Cited Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains, 2: 191; cf. Said, Orientalism, pp. 160–1,168, 239.

77 Cited Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, 5: vii.

78 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, 1: 172–4.

79 Said, Orientalism, pp. 160–4.

80 Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, pp. 2, 96. On the critique of ‘visualism’ in anthropology, see also Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), pp. 105–41, and James Clifford, ‘Partial truths’, in Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography, ed. James Clifford and George E. Marcus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), pp. 11–12.

81 Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains, 2: 200.

82 Ahmed, Edward Lane, p. 9; Bendiner, ‘The Middle East in British painting’, pp. 35–48.

83 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, 1: 878–9, 882, 883.

84 Kinglake, Eöthen, p. 280; Théophile Gautier, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 20, L’Orient, 2: 187; Flaubert, Flaubert in Egypt, p. 81.

85 Cited Bendiner, ‘The Middle East in British painting’, p. 6.

86 Gautier, L’Orient, 2: 91–122.

87 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, 1: 862, 867.

88 Said, Orientalism, pp. 176–7.

89 Goodbye to All That (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1960), p. 265.

90 See in this respect James Clifford, ‘Review of Orientalism’, History and Theory 19(1980): 204–23.

91 Herman Melville, Journal of a Visit to the Levant, October 11 1856-May 1857, ed. Howard C. Horsford (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955), pp. 79, 114.

92 See Stefania Pandolfo, ‘The voyeur in the old city: two postcards from French Morocco’, paper presented at the Department of Anthropology, Princeton University, October 1983.

93 Gérard de Nerval, Oeuvres, 1: 1276.

94 Cited Alain Silvera, ‘Edme-François Jomard and the Egyptian reforms of 1839’, Middle East Studies 7 (1971): 314; on Lambert see Carré, Voyageurs et écrivains, 1: 264–73.

95 ‘J.B. au Pacha’, 16th April 1828. Bentham archives, University College, London.

2 Enframing

1 Bayle St John, Village Life in Egypt, 2 vols. (London, 1852), 1: 35; Helen Rivlin, The Agricultural Policy of Muhammad Ali in Egypt, pp. 89–101; on Egyptian politics in general in this period, see Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali, pp. 100–61.

2 Jean Deny, Sommaire des archives turques du Caire (Cairo, 1930), pp. 126–9; Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, pp. 79, 89–101.

3 See Daniel Crecelius, The Roots of Modern Egypt: A Study of the Regimes of `Ali Bey al-Kahir and Muhammad Bey Abu al-Dhahab, 1760–1775; on intellectual changes in this earlier period, see Peter Gran, Islamic Roots of Capitalism, 1769–1840. I am grateful to Peter Gran for his comments on an earlier version of some of the chapters of this book.

4 Albert Hourani analyses the nature of these households and their power, and their nineteenth-century transformation, in ‘Ottoman reform and the politics of notables’, in Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: the Nineteenth Century, ed. William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, pp. 41–68.

5 Michel Foucault, ‘Two lectures’, in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972–1977, pp. 78–108, and Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. The following pages owe much of their analysis to the paths of enquiry opened up by Foucault. The phrase ‘productive powers’ is found in ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’ by John Bowring, the friend of Jeremy Bentham, who served as an advisor to the Egyptian government.

6 Jeremy Bentham’s panoptic principle was devised in factories run by his brother Samuel on the Potemkin estates, land colonised by Russia after the defeat of the Ottomans in 1768–74. See Mathew S. Anderson, ‘Samuel Bentham in Russia’, The American Slavic and East European Review 15 (1956): 157–72.

7 On the formation of this landowning class see F. Robert Hunter, Egypt Under the Khedives, 1805–1874: From Household Government to Modern Bureaucracy, pp. 109–21.

8 See D. Farhi, ‘Nizam-i cedid: military reform in Egypt under Mehmed `Ali’, Asian and African Studies 8 (1972): 153.

9 André Raymond, Grandes villes arabes à l’époque ottomane, pp. 69–78; Crecelius, Roots of Modem Egypt, pp. 15–24.

10 Justin McCarthy, ‘Nineteenth-century Egyptian population’, Middle Eastern Studies 12 (October 1978): 37, n. 77; if the National Guard of the early 1840s is included, the Egyptian military may have been much larger still. Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, p. 351, n. 28.

11 Amin Sami, al-Ta`lim fi Misr fi sanatay 1914–1915, wa-bayan tafsili li-nashr al-ta`lim al-awwali wa-l-ibtida’ bi-anha’ al-diyar al-misriyya, p. 8.

12 Judith E. Tucker, Women in Nineteenth-Century Egypt, pp. 135–7.

13 See Stanford J. Shaw, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire Under Selim III, 1789–1807 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), pp. 86–179.

14 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 57.

15 Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, p. 251. The introduction of the nizam jadid in Tunisia began a decade later: see L. Carl Brown, The Tunisia of Ahmed Bey, 1837–55 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 261–321. In Morocco, men began to write about the innovation of nizam in the 1830s: see Abdallah Laroui, Les origines sociales et culturelles du nationalisme marocain (1830–1912) (Paris: Maspero, 1977), pp. 272–84.

16 Amin Sami, al-Ta`lim, p. 8.

17 Mustafa Reshid Celebi Effendi, ‘An explanation of the nizam-y-gedid’, in William Wilkinson, An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia Including Various Political Observations Relating to Them (London: Longman et al., 1820), appendix 5, p. 234. A baccal is a greengrocer.

18 Mustafa Reshid, ‘Nizam-y-gedid’, pp. 236–7.

19 Compare with the Mamluk furusiyya exercises described by Ayalon, where military training was a parade, a game, a public entertainment, and a mark of individual honour, in which the cavalryman displayed and developed his bodily prowess, his agility, his skill with horse and lance, his chivalry: David Ayalon, ‘Notes on the furusiyya exercises and games in the Mamluk Sultanate’, in The Mamluk Military Society: Collected Studies (London: Variorum Reprints, 1979), ch. 2. Although European artillery experts were employed in Egypt in the 1770s, they made little impact on the tactics of the army, which continued to rely on the charge of the individual cavalier as the preferred form of attack. See Crecelius, Roots of Modern Egypt, pp. 77–8, 175.

20 Military Instructions of the Late King of Prussia, etc., fifth English edition, 1818, p. 5, cited in J. F. C. Fuller, The Decisive Battles of the Western World and Their Influence Upon History, 3 vols. (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1955), vol. 2: From the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo, p. 196.

21 Fuller, Decisive Battles, 2: 192–215. V. J. Parry, on the other hand, describes this change in European practice, which the nizam jadid was an attempt to adopt, as ‘not so much a new departure as an elaboration of accepted, indeed of “traditional” practice’: ‘La manière de combattre’, in War, Technology and Society in the Middle East, ed. by V. J. Parry and M. E. Yapp (London: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 240. It is true that drill had been systematised and routinely practised by European armies for over two hundred years, since the innovations of Maurice of Nassau. Only in the later eighteenth century, however, were simultaneous breakthroughs made in drill, signalling and command, embodying the new thought about what an army was and how it could be created, that resulted in armies doubling their speed of manoeuvre, tripling their firing rate, and quadrupling their manageable size.

22 Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, Ta’rikh muddat al-faransis bi-Misr, edited by S. Moreh and published with a translation as Al-Jabarti’s Chronicle of the First Seven Months of the French Occupation of Egypt, Muharram-Rajab 1213 (15 June-December 1798), p. 21.

23 Mustafa Reshid, ‘Nizam-y-gedid’, pp. 268–9. The elaboration and significance of these techniques in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe are discussed by Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp. 135–69.

24 Fuller, Decisive Battles, 2: 192–215; Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp. 162–3.

25 Mustafa Reshid, ‘Nizam-y-gedid’, p. 268. The British military advisor attached to the Turkish forces that fought the French considered the Ottomans excellently armed and supplied, lacking only the new system of discipline. ‘They have fine men,’ he wrote, ‘excellent horses, good guns, plenty of ammunition and provisions and forage, and in short great abundance of all the materials required to constitute a formidable army, but they want order and system.’ (General Koehler, British military advisor to the regular Ottoman army during the Egyptian campaign, in despatch to London, 29th January 1800. FO 78/28, cited in Shaw, Between Old and New, p. 136.)

26 Mustafa Reshid, ‘Nizam-y-gedid’, p. 269; cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p. 163.

27 Mustafa Reshid, ‘Nizam-y-gedid’, p. 242.

28 ibid. pp. 166–7.

29 Ahmad Izzat Abd al-Karim, Ta’rikh al-ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali (Cairo, 1938), pp. 82–92; James Heyworth-Dunne, An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt, pp. 115–80.

30 A.-B. Clot Bey, Mémoires, ed. Jacques Tagher (Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1949), p. 325.

31 Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modem Egypt, pp. 185, 195. The kurbaj is a leather whip.

32 ibid. p. 197.

33 John Bowring, ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’, p. 49.

34 As reported by the British Consul-General, Colonel Patrick Campbell: FO 78/4086, cited Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, p. 211.

35 Deny, Sommaire des archives turques du Caire, pp. 150–3.

36 Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, pp. 89, 102–3.

37 These paragraphs were republished one month after the issuing of the booklet under the title ‘Qanun al-filaha’ (The Agricultural Code). Hiroshi Kato, ‘Egyptian village community under Muhammad `Ali’s rule: an annotation of Qanun al-filaha’, Orient 16 (1980): 183.

38 Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, pp. 78, 89–98.

39 ibid. pp. 105–36, 200–12.

40 Bowring, ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’, p. 49; Afaf Lutfi Al-Sayyid Marsot, Muhammad Ali, pp. 132–6; on the political nature of such revolt see Fred Lawson, ‘Rural revolt and provincial society in Egypt, 1820–24’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 13 (1981): 131–53.

41 Bowring, ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’, pp. 5–6.

42 Tucker, Women in Nineteenth-Century Egypt, p. 135; on the British intervention, and its effect on Egypt’s nascent, military-based industrialisation, see Marsot, Muhammad Ali, pp. 232–57.

43 Original translation from the British Foreign Office records: FO 78/502, 24th May 1844, in Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, appendix 3, p. 271.

44 Original translation from the British Foreign Office records: FO 78/231, 16th March 1833, cited in Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, pp. 276–7.

45 On the comparison with contemporary European methods, see Marsot, Muhammad Ali, p. 129.

46 Cited Moustafa Fahmy, La révolution de l’industrie en Egypte et ses conséquences sociales au 19e siècle (1800–1850) (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1954), p. 19.

47 Rivlin, Agricultural Policy, pp. 65–70; Marsot, Muhammad Ali, pp. 157–60, 250–1.

48 Kenneth Cuno traces the origin of this system and its antecedents in ‘The origins of private ownership of land in Egypt: a reappraisal’, International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 12 (1980): 245–75.

49 D’Arnaud, ‘Reconstruction des villages de l’Egypte’, p. 280; see also Ali Mubarak, al-Khitat al-jadida li-Misr al-qahira wa-muduniha wa-biladiha al-qadimawa-l-shahira, 15: 7.

50 St John, Village Life, 1: 104.

51 On space as a system of magnitudes, and the ‘neutrality of order’, see Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilization, pp. 20, 326. The term ‘enframing’ is borrowed from Martin Heidegger, The Question Concerning Technology, pp. 20–1.

52 See Pierre Bourdieu and Abdelmalek Sayed, Le déracinement: la crise de l’agriculture traditionnelle en Algérie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1964). For a further discussion of the ‘discipline of space’ see Michael Gilsenan, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab World.

53 Bowring, ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’, p. 3.

54 P. S. Girard, ‘Mémoire sur l’agriculture, l’industrie, et le commerce de l’Egypte’, Description de l’Egypte, état moderne, 2 vols. (Paris, 1809–22), vol. 1, part 1, p. 688, cited Charles Issawi, ed., The Economic History of the Middle East 1800–1914: A Book of Readings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), p. 376.

55 Bowring, ‘Report on Egypt and Candia’, pp. 3–4.

56 D’Arnaud, ‘Reconstruction des villages’, p. 279.

57 Although Bourdieu’s essay ‘The Kabyle house or the world reversed’ is a structuralist interpretation, his later Outline of a Theory of Practice offers what might be called a post-structuralist reading of the same material. For an attempt to describe the life of the pre-colonial village in Egypt, see Jacques Berque, Histoire sociale d’un village égyptien au XXe siècle (Paris: Mouton, 1957), and Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, pp. 45–59, 65–9.

58 Michael T. Taussig, The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), p. 7.

59 Bourdieu, Outline, p. 90; ‘Kabyle house’, pp. 135–6.

60 Bourdieu, Outline, pp. 90–1.

61 Bourdieu, ‘Kabyle house’, p. 138; Outline, p. 116.

62 Bourdieu, ‘Kabyle house’, p. 139.

63 Brinkley Messick, ‘Subordinate discourse: women, weaving and gender relations in North Africa’, American Ethnologist 14/2 (1987): 20–35.

64 Cf. Mushin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957; Phoenix ed., 1964), pp. 184–7.

65 This is not to deny, of course, that there were regular, carefully ordered constructions in pre-nineteenth-century Arab cities (often laid out as the core of newly founded dynastic capitals) – just as the Kabyle house can be understood as a carefully ordered construction. The point is not the regularity of the building in modern cities, which in itself is nothing new, but the new distinction between the materiality of the city and its non-material structure. It is interesting to note the remark of al-Jahiz on the circular palace-complex (misleadingly referred to as the ‘round city’) constructed in the year 762 by the Caliph al-Mansur: ‘It is as though it were poured into a mould and cast’. The regularity of the building is evoked by referring to the process of construction, and not in terms of any distinction between the materiality of the city and its ‘structure’. Cited J. Lassner, ‘The Caliph’s personal domain: the city plan of Baghdad re-examined’, in Albert Hourani and S. M. Stern, eds., The Islamic City, p. 103.

66 Bourdieu, ‘Kabyle house’, p. 145; Outline, pp. 111, 126.

67 S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, 4 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967–85), 4: 64–74; David King, ‘Architecture and astronomy: the ventilators of Cairo and their secrets’, Journal of the American Oriental Society 104 (1984): 97–133.

68 King, ‘Architecture and astronomy’.

69 Raymond, Grandes villes arabes, p. 186.

70 Roberto Berardi, ‘Espace et ville en pays d’Islam’, in D. Chevallier, ed., L’Espace sociale de la ville arabe, p. 106.

71 ‘The whole shows very clearly the appearance of their private life. The architecture portrays their necessities and customs, which do not result only from the heat of the climate. It portrays extremely well the political and social state of the Muslim and Oriental nations: polygamy, the seclusion of women, the absence of all political life, and a tyrannical and suspicious government which forces people to live hidden lives and seek all spiritual satisfaction within the private life of the family.’ Alexis de Tocqueville, ‘Notes du voyage en Algérie de 1841’, Oeuvres complètes, gen. ed. J. P. Mayer, vol. 5, Voyages en Angleterre, Irlande, Suisse et Algérie, ed. J. P. Mayer and André Jardin (Paris: Gallimard, 1958), part 2, p. 192.

72 Melvin Richter, ‘Tocqueville on Algeria’, Review of Politics 25 (1963): 369–98; on the floating hotel, see Charles-Henri Favrod, La révolution algérienne, cited William B. Quandt, Revolution and Political Leadership: Algeria 1954–68 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1969), p. 3.

73 P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, eds., The Cambridge History of Islam, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 2:256–7.

74 ‘It is not with the material, topographical aspects of the Islamic city that I wish to deal, but with its inner structure. I should like to suggest that one of the most essential characteristics of the Islamic city is the looseness of its structure, the absence of corporate municipal institutions.’ S. M. Stern, ‘The constitution of the Islamic city’, in Hourani and Stern, eds., The Islamic City, p. 26.

75 Oleg Grabar, ‘The illustrated maqamat of the thirteenth century: the bourgeoisie and the arts’, in Hourani and Stern, eds., The Islamic City, p. 213; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, 4: 34.

76 Muhammad al-Sanusi al-Tunisi, Istitla`at al-barisiyya fi ma`rad sanat 1889 (Tunis, 1309h), p. 242.

77 Cf. Jacques Derrida, ‘The double session’, in Dissemination, p. 191.

78 Bourdieu, Outline, pp. 109–58; cf. Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, pp. 17–30; Jean Baudrillard, The Mirror of Production, pp. 53–67. Similarly, with the jars of grain used for cooking: to tell the quantity of grain they held, these jars have holes down the side, so that the grain itself can indicate its level. The quantity is not measured by some measuring device, or represented on an abstract scale whose arbitrary divisions would ‘stand for’ a certain amount. Nothing is arbitrary in that sense. The grain indicates its own level by a direct reference or repetition.

79 Derrida, ‘The double session’, p. 191.

80 Max Weber, ‘ “Objectivity” in social science and social policy’, in The Methodology of the Social Sciences, p. 81, emphasis in original, translation modified.

81 Max Weber, ‘Science as a vocation’, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, trans. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 139.

3 An appearance of order

1 Ali Mubarak, al-Khitat al-jadida li-Misr al-qahira wa-muduniha wa-biladiha al-qadima wa-l-shahira, 9: 49–50.

2 Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 446–7.

3 ibid. pp. 816–18, 962–3, 447.

4 The government’s acquisition of this property marked at the same moment Egypt’s successful break with the authority of Istanbul. The palace had been the Egyptian residence of the Khedive’s half-brother Mustafa Fadil, who had served as finance minister to the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul and schemed to become Isma`il’s successor. The schemes had failed, Mustafa Fadil had fled to Paris, and Isma`il and his direct descendents had been recognised as the future rulers of Egypt. Şerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 42–8, 276.

5 Mubarak, al-Khitat, 9: 50.

6 See Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious, pp. 98–113; Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, pp. 91–2, 94.

7 Abbate-Bey, ‘Questions hygiéniques sur la ville du Caire’, Bulletin de l’Institut égyptien, 2nd series, 1 (1880): 69.

8 Abu-Lughod, Cairo, p. 113.

9 Edwin De Leon, The Khedive’s Egypt (London: Sampson Low & Co., 1877), p. 139.

10 William H. McNeill, Plaques and Peoples (New York: Doubleday, 1976), pp. 266–78.

11 Abbate-Bey, ‘Questions hygiéniques’, pp. 59, 61, 64.

12 Muhammad Amin Fikri, Jughrafiyyat Misr (Cairo: Matba`at Wadi al-Nil, 1879), p. 53.

13 The only government schools in existence were a military school, set up in 1862 and closed again in 1864, a naval school, and a much-neglected medical school at Qasr al-Aini. One other group of new schools that existed were those established by the communities of resident foreigners in Egypt and by European and American missionaries, mostly in the period of Sa`id Pasha (1854–63). James Heyworth-Dunne, An Introduction to the History of Education in Modern Egypt, pp. 323, 340.

14 Amin Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, wa-asma’ man tawallaw amr Misr ma`a muddat hukmihim alayha wa mulahazat ta’rikhiyya an ahwal al-khilafa al-amma wa shu’un Misr al-khassa, 3: 16–17; Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, pp. 185, 225, 347.

15 Khedival Order of 13 Jumadi II, 1284 h., in Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 3: 722.

16 Ahmad Izzat Abd al-Karim, Ta’rikh al-ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali, pp. 200–5.

17 Joseph Lancaster, ‘The Lancasterian system of education’ (1821), in Carl F. Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster and the Monitorial School Movement: A Documentary History, pp. 92–3.

18 Joseph Lancaster, ‘Improvements in education as it respects the industrious classes of the community . . .’ (1805), in Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster, p. 66.

19 R. R. Tronchot, ‘L’enseignement mutuel en France’, cited Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, p. 315, n. 5, translation modified. The mutual improvement school was introduced from England into France in 1814. By the 1820s, when Egyptians went there are observed methods of schooling, there were 1200 such schools (Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster, pp. 30–1).

20 Lancaster, ‘The Lancasterian system of education’, p. 91.

21 ibid. pp. 94, 95–6.

22 Abd al-Karim, al-Ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali, pp. 201–3.

23 Kaestle, ed., Joseph Lancaster, pp. 29–34. Lancaster model schools were introduced in the same period in Istanbul. See Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964), pp. 102–6.

24 Abd al-Karim, al-Ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali, p. 209.

25 Sixty-six students were sent to study at the school. Besides Isma`il Pasha and Ali Mubarak, they included: Ali Ibrahim, later Director of the Government Primary School under Isma`il, and Minister of Education and Minister of Justice under Tawfiq; Muhammad Sharif, later Minister of Foreign Affairs under Sa`id, President of the Legislative Assembly and Minister of Education under Isma`il, and Prime Minister several times under Tawfiq; Sulayman Najjati, Director of the Military School under Sa`id, an administrator of the military schools under Isma`il, and later a judge of the Mixed Courts; Uthman Sabri, Director of the School for Princes established by Tawfiq, and later a judge of the Mixed Courts and President of the Mixed Court of Appeal; Shahata Isa, Director of the Military Staff College under Isma`il; Muhammad Arif, holder of several government posts and founder of the Society of Knowledge for the Diffusion of Useful Books (Jam`iyyat al-Ma`arif li-Nashr al-Kutub al-Nafi`a), and its press Matba`at al-Ma`arif (see below); Nubar the Armenian, later Minister of Public Works and of Foreign Affairs under Isma`il, and three times Prime Minister under Tawfiq; Sa id Nasr, holder of numerous administrative posts in education under Isma`il, and appointed Judge of the Mixed Courts in 1881 and Honorary President of the Mixed Courts in 1903; Mustafa Mukhtar, appointed Inspector of Upper Egypt, and later of Lower Egypt; Sadiq Salim Shanan, later Director of the Government Primary School, of the Government Preparatory School, and finally of the School of Engineering – and many others. Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, pp. 253–9; Umar Tusun, al-Bi`that al-ilmiyya fi ahd Muhammad Ali thumma fi ahday Abbas al-awwal wa-Sa`id, pp. 226–366.

26 Umar Tusun, al-Bi`that al-ilmiyya, pp. 176–9.

27 Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, p. 246.

28 Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, p. 246.

29 Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp. 135–228.

30 Abd al-Karim, al-Ta`lim fi asr Muhammad Ali, p. 210.

31 Ahmad Izzat Abd al-Karim, Ta’rikh al-ta`lim fi Misr min nihayat hukm Muhammad Ali ila awa’il hukm Tawfiq, 1848–1882, 1: 177–81, 3: 1–14; Fritz Steppat, ‘National education projects in Egypt before the British occupation’, in William R. Polk and Richard L. Chambers, eds., Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 1968), p. 282; Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l’Egypte du XIXe siècle (1798–1882), pp. 405–8.

32 Mubarak, Khitat, 9: 48.

33 Nubar Pasha, letter of 8th October 1866, cited in Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l’Egypte moderne depuis Mohammad Ali jusqu’à l’occupation britannique (1801–1882) vol. 3: Le règne du khédive Ismaïl de 1863 à 1875, p. 137.

34 François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, Les aventures de Télémaque, cited in Israel Altman, ‘The political thought of Rifa`ah Raf` al-Tahtawi’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1976), p. 152.

35 Mawaqi` al-aflak fi waqa’i` Tilimak (Beirut: al-Matba`a al-Suriyya, 1867). Tahtawi’s other writings of the period were clearly influenced by this work (cf. Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques, 2: 405).

36 F. Robert Hunter, Egypt Under the Khedives, p. 53.

37 Nubar Pasha, letter of 8th October 1866, cited Sammarco, Histoire de l’Egypte moderne, 3: 137.

38 Abd al-Rahman al-Rafi`i, Asr Isma`il, 2 vols, 2: 93.

39 Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 2: 732–3; al-Ta`lim fi Misr fi sanatay 1914–15, p. 21.

40 Sami, Ta`lim, pp. 21–2; Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, pp. 362–69.

41 Sami, Ta`lim, p. 40.

42 V. Edouard Dor, L’Instruction publique en Egypt, p. 216.

43 Rifa`a Raf`al-Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 387–8.

44 Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-amin li-l-banat wa-l-banin, p. 45.

45 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 388–9.

46 Dor, Instruction publique, pp. 245, 359, 368.

47 ibid. p. 235.

48 ibid. pp. 231–2, 268.

49 Sami, Ta`lim, pp. 23–32, and appendix 4.

50 Dor, Instruction publique, pp. 231–2.

51 Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp. 141–9.

52 Dor, Instruction Publique, p. 235.

53 ibid. p. 240.

54 ibid. pp. 166, 170.

55 Ahmad al-Zawahiri, al-Ilm wa-l-ulama wa-nizam al-ta`lim, pp. 90–3.

56 Pierre Arminjon, L’Enseignement, la doctrine et la vie dans les universités musulmanes d’Egypte, p. 85.

57 Dor, Instruction publique, p. 170; Arminjon, Enseignement, p. 81.

58 Dor, Instruction publique, pp. 166–7.

59 ibid. pp. 77, 83.

60 Cf. Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p. 147.

61 See Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, for a discussion of learning in the mosque as the practice of a sina`a (2: 426–35) and for the textual sequence discussed below (2: 436–3: 103). On the teaching mosque as a centre of law, see Richard W. Bulliet, The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 47–60; and George Makdisi, The Rise of the Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1981), where it is shown that general references in the medieval sources to studying and teaching in the mosque (terms such as madrasa, dars, darras, tadris and mudarris) always referred to fiqh, the law (p. 113).

62 Arminjon, Enseignement, pp. 253–4.

63 See Mustafa Bayram, Ta’rikh al-Azhar (Cairo, n.d., c. 1902), pp. 35–8; and (for a much earlier period) Makdisi, Rise of the Colleges, pp. 13–19.

64 Cf. Michael M. J. Fischer, Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution, Harvard Studies in Cultural Anthropology, no. 3 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 61–76.

65 See Mubarak, Khitat, 9: 37–8, and Alam al-Din, pp. 242ff.; Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, pp. 76–83; Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, ‘The `ulama’ of Cairo in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’, in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Daniel Crecelius, ‘Nonideological responses of the Egyptian ulama to modernization’, in Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints and Sufis; Haim Shaked, ‘The biographies of `ulama’ in Mubarak’s Khitat as a source for the history of the `ulama’ in the nineteenth century’, Asian and African Studies 7 (1971): 59–67. For the life and learning of a Moroccan scholar and the impact of political and social changes in the colonial period, see Dale F. Eickelman, Knowledge and Power in Morocco: The Education of a Twentieth-Century Notable (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985).

66 For an analysis of the idiom of exposure, its relation to notions of honour and modesty, and the way these conceptions invest social practice and relations of power, see Lila Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in a Bedouin Society. The work’s analysis is drawn from the life of an Egyptian Bedouin community, but its theoretical insights have wide relevance for Egypt and the Mediterranean world.

67 Michael Gilsenan, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab World, p. 16.

68 Ahmad Amin, Qamus al-adat wa-l-taqalid wa-l-ta`abir al-misriyya (Cairo, 1953), p. 308; Heyworth-Dunne, History of Education, pp. 5–6.

69 Cf. Winifred S. Blackman, The Fellahin of Upper Egypt (London: Frank Cass, 1968), pp. 109–17, 256, 259.

70 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 387.

71 ibid. 1: 298.

72 Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 3: 779.

73 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 169. Tahtawi published at the same time a translation of a work by Georg Depping, in which he had met the following sentence: ‘[For the inhabitant of ancient Greece] les exercices du corps . . . faisaient partie chez lui de l’éducation nationale.’ The word ‘nation’ he could handle, but ‘education’ required a circumlocution: ‘Riyadat al-budun . . . hiya maslaha qad ya`udu naf aha ala sa’ir al-watan’ (The exercise of the body . . . is a good whose benefit may redound generally upon the nation). Rifa`a al-Tahtawi, Qala’id al-mafakhir fi gharib awa’id al-awa’il wa-l-awakhir (Bulaq, 1833), p. 52; a translation of Georg Bernhard Depping, Aperçu historique sur les moeurs et coutumes des nations, p. 107.

74 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 2: 18.

75 ibid. 2: 159, 770.

76 In his lexicographical work, published in 1881, Dozy gave the meaning of tarbiya as ‘to bring up’ or ‘to breed’, but added the following gloss on the word, citing sources most of which had been written or published in Cairo in the previous fifty years: ‘On emploie ce mot dans le sens d’ordre, arrangement, disposition, et dans les phrases où l’on s’attendrait plutôt à trouver le mot tartib’. R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1881), 1: 506.

77 Tahtawi, al-Murshid al-amin, p. 33.

78 ibid. pp. 28–9.

79 Abd al-Aziz Jawish, Ghunyat al-mu’addibin fi turuq al-hadith li-l-tarbiya wa-l-ta`lim, p. 4; Anwar al-Jindi, Abd al-Aziz Jawish (Cairo: al-Dar al-Misriyya li-l-Ta’lif wa-l-Tarjama, 1965), pp. 43–165.

80 Husayn al-Marsafi, Risalat al-kalim al-thaman, pp. 30–1.

81 Similar ideas were central to the thought of Abduh’s mentor, al-Afghani, and Abduh’s disciple, Rashid Rida. Cf. Rashid Rida, ‘al-Jara’id: waza’if ashabiha’, al-Manar 1 (1898): 755.

82 Abd al-Rahman al-Rafi`i, Asr Isma`il, 1: 242–4.

83 Ibrahim Abduh, Ta’rikh al-Waqa’i` al-Misriyya, 1828–1942 (Cairo: al-Matba`a al-Amiriyya, 1942), p. 29.

84 Cited Sami, Taqwim al-Nil, 3: 454.

85 Heyworth-Dunne, Education in Modern Egypt, p. 345

86 See Henry Habib Ayrout, The Egyptian Peasant, rev. ed., trans. John Alden Williams (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), pp. 114–15.

87 Bourdieu discusses at length how this kind of polarisation renders every action within the house and every movement in relation to it a re-enactment, and thereby an implicit inculcation, of the practical principles in terms of which everyday life is improvised. Outline of a Theory of Practice, pp. 87–95.

88 Ayrout, The Egyptian Peasant, p. 130.

4 After we have captured their bodies

1 Charles Richard, Etude sur l’insurrection du Dahra (1845–1846), in Michael Gilsenan, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab World, p. 142, cited from Pierre Bourdieu and Abdelmalek Sayad, Le déracinement: la crise de l’agriculture traditionelle en Algérie (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1964), p. 15.

2 Great Britain, Foreign Office, Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Egypt, no. 34, July–September 1890 (London: Foreign Office, 1890), pp. 19–20.

3 Baron de Kusel, An Englishman’s Recollections of Egypt, 1863 to 1887 (London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1915), pp. 19–20.

4 Great Britain, Further Correspondence, no. 38, January–June 1892 (1893), p. 72.

5 The Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 311, 313; Charles Issawi, An Economic History of the Middle East and North Africa, pp. 54–5; Zachary Lockman, ‘Class and nation: the emergence of the Egyptian workers’ movement’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1983), p. 41.

6 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 482.

7 Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, pp. 127–35; Great Britain, Further Correspondence, no. 31, October–December 1889 (1890), p. 42; and no. 32, January–March 1890 (1890), p. 19.

8 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 87; cf. M. E. Howard, ‘The armed forces’, The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 11: Material Progress and World-wide Problems, 1879–1898, ed. F. H. Hinsley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 225.

9 Great Britain, Further Correspondence, no. 37, July–December 1891 (1892), pp. 7–8; no. 38, January–June 1892 (1893), p. 72; and no. 42, January–June 1894 (1895); Robert Tignor, Modernization and British Colonial Rule in Egypt, 1882–1914 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), pp. 184–5, 207; Berque, Egypt, p. 135.

10 Cf. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, pp. 135–228.

11 Gabriel Baer, Studies in the Social History of Modern Egypt, p. 138.

12 Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 160–2.

13 Baer, Social History of Modern Egypt, p. 138.

14 As early as the 1830s Rifa`a al-Tahtawi, who was working as a translator at the government’s military hospital, produced books in Arabic on European medicine. The first work of general interest to be printed on the new Arabic printing presses was Tahtawi’s translation of a French book written for children on the ‘manners and customs’ of different nations, which included sections on ‘False beliefs, heresies and superstitions’, stressing that ‘such errors are greater in the village than in the city’. Tahtawi, Qala’id al-mafakhir fi gharib awa’id al-awa’il wa-l-awakhir, p. 85; cf. Salih Majdi, Hilyat al-zaman bi-manaqib khadim al-watan: sirat Rifa`a al-Tahtawi (Cairo, n.d., c. 1874), pp. 33, 35.

15 Abd al-Rahman Isma`il, Tibb al-rukka (Cairo: 2 vols., 1892–94; serialised earlier in al-Adab), partial translation by John Walker, Folk Medicine in Modern Egypt, Being the Relevant Parts of the Tibb al-Rukka or Old Wives’ Medicine of `Abd al-Rahman Isma`il (London: Luzac and Co., 1934), pp. 7, 9. The second volume was printed in the name of the Tenth International Congress of Orientalists, held in Geneva in September 1894.

16 Abd al-Rahman Isma`il, al-Taqwimat al-sihhiyya an al-awa’id al-misriyya (Cairo: n.p., 1895); and al-Tarbiya wa-l-adab al-shar`iyya li-l-makatib al-misriyya (Cairo, 1896). On the Ministry of Education’s sponsorship, see al-Muqtataf 20 (April 1896): 269; on the author, see Isma`il, Folk Medicine, p. 32.

17 Isma`il, Folk Medicine, p. 16.

18 ibid. pp. 79, 112.

19 Cited Angelo Sammarco, Histoire de l’Egypte moderne depuis Mohammed Ali jusqu’à l’occupation britannique (1801–1882), 3: 256.

20 Amin Sami, al-Ta`lim fi Misr fi sanatay 1914–1915, pp. 47–8.

21 Abd al-Aziz Jawish, Ghunyat al-mu’addibin fi turuq al-hadith li-l-tarbiya wa-l-ta`lim, pp. 17–19, 42; cf. Anwar al-Jindi, Abd al-Aziz Jawish (Cairo: al-Mu’assasa al-misriyya al-amma li-l-ta’lif wa-l-anba’ wa-l-nashr, 1965).

22 Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 517.

23 ibid.

24 Ellious Bochthor, Dictionnaire française-arabe, 3rd ed. (Paris, 1864).

25 Butrus al-Bustani, Muhit al-muhit (Beirut, 1870).

26 Tahtawi, al-A`malal-kamila, 1: 5.

27 ibid. 1: 511.

28 ibid. 1: 512.

29 Cromer, Modern Egypt, pp. 569–70.

30 V. Edouard Dor, L’Instruction publique en Egypte, p. 36.

31 ibid. pp. 5, 10–11, 16, 22. The same concern with the ‘oriental character’ is found in a report on Egyptian education presented to the French Minister of Public Instruction in 1868: Octave Sachot, ‘Mission en Egypte: Rapport addressé à Victor Duruy, ministre de l’Instruction Publique, sur l’état des sciences en Egypte dans la population indigène et dans la population européenne’ (Paris, June 1868) cited in Gilbert Delanoue, ‘Réflexions et questions sur la politique scolaire des vice-rois réformateurs’, in L’Egypte au XIXe siècle (Paris: CNRS, 1982), p. 326.

32 Dor, Instruction publique, p. 36.

33 Edward Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, pp. 302–3, 338–9.

34 Georg Bernhard Depping, Evening Entertainments (London, 1812; Philadelphia: David Hogan, 1817), pp. vi, 303, 331–5.

35 Georg Bernhard Depping, Aperçu historique sur les moeurs et coutumes des nations: Contenant le tableau comparé chez les divers peuples anciens et modernes, des usages et des cérémonies concernant l’habitation, la nourriture, l’habillement, les marriages, les funérailles, les jeux, les fêtes, les guerres, les superstitions, les castes, etc., etc. (Paris: L’Encyclopedie Portative, 1826).

36 Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi, Qala’id al-mafakhir fi gharib awa’id al-awa’il wa-l-awakhir (Bulaq: Dar al-Taba`a, 1833). Among Tahtawi’s other translations from Paris were parts of a similar work by Conrad Malte-Brun (1775–1826), Précis de la géographie universelle, 8 vols. (Paris: F. Buisson, 1810–29), which were also later published in Cairo. In contrast, two manuscripts of translations from works on Natural Law by Jean Jacques Burlamaqui (1694–1748), Principes du droit naturel et politique (Geneva, 1747), and Principes ou éléments du droit politique (Lausanne, 1784), were never published. Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 72–4; see also Alain Silvera, ‘The first Egyptian student mission to France under Muhammad Ali’, in Modern Egypt: Studies in Politics and Society, ed. Elie Kedourie and Sylvia Haim (London: Frank Cass, 1980), pp. 1–22.

37 Israel Altman, ‘The political thought of Rifa`a Rafi` al-Tahtawi’ (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1976), p. 24.

38 François de Salignac de la Mothe-Fénelon, Les Aventures de Télémaque, pp. 45, 69; Arabie translation pp. 26, 63.

39 Tahtawi, Manahij al-albab al-misriyya, fi mabahij al-adab al-asriyya, p. 120.

40 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 518.

41 Self-Help, with Illustrations of Conduct and Perseverence, introduction by Asa Briggs, 72nd impression (London: John Murray, 1958), translated into Arabic by Ya`qub Sarruf as Sirr al-Najah (Beirut, 1880).

42 Smiles, Self-Help, p. 36, Arabic translation p. 4.

43 ibid. p. 36, Arabic translation p. 5.

44 ibid. pp. 35, 315–16.

45 Nadia Farag, ‘al-Muqtataf 1876–1900: a study of the influence of Victorian thought on modern Arabic thought’, p. 169.

46 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 1: 4–8; cf. Ronald Robinson and John Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians: The Official Mind of Imperialism (London: Macmillan, 1961), pp. 274–5; Roger Owen, ‘The influence of Lord Cromer’s Indian experience on British policy in Egypt, 1883–1907’ in Albert Hourani, ed., Middle Eastern Affairs No. 4 (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 109–39; Tignor, Modernization and British Colonial Rule, pp. 48–93. A century later, in 1986, a new edition of Self-Help was published in Britain, with an introduction by the government’s Minister of Education.

47 Farag, ‘al-Muqtataf’, p. 169.

48 Speech at the school prize-giving, cited in Majallat al-Liwa’, 15 November 1900.

49 Ali Fahmi Kamil, Mustafa Kamil fi arba`a wa-thalathin rabi`an: siratuhu wa-a`maluhu min khutab wa-ahadith wa-rasa’il, 11 vols. (Cairo: Matba`at al-Liwa’, 1908), pp. 108–9.

50 Asa Briggs, ‘Introduction’ to Smiles, Self-Help, p. 7.

51 al-Liwa’, 25th January 1900.

52 ibid. 4th January 1900.

53 Mahmud Salama, al-Liwa’, 11th February 1900. Besides those I will discuss later, other books discussing the problem of mentality included: the influential work by Ahmad Hafiz Awad, Min walid ila waladihi (Cairo: Matba`at al-Bashlawi, 1923), consisting of letters written before the First World War; Ali Efendi Fikri, Adab al-fatah (Cairo, 1898); Abd al-Rahman Isma`il, al-Tarbiya wa-adab al-shaf`iyya (Cairo, 1896); Salih Hamdi Hammad, Tarbiyat al-banat, a translation of Fénelon’s L’Education des filles (Cairo: Matba`at Madrasat Walidat Abbas al-Awwal, 1909); Rafiq al-Azm, Tanbih al-afham ila matalib al-haya al-jadida wa-l-islam (Cairo: Matba`at al-Mawsu`at, 1900); Muhammad al-Saba`i, al-Tarbiya, a translation of Herbert Spencer’s essay on Education (Cairo: Matba`at al-Jarida, 1908).

54 Mustafa Kamil, al-Shams al-mushriqa (Cairo: Matba`at al-Liwa’, 1904), pp. 11, 176–8.

55 Mahmud Salama, al-Liwa’, 11th February 1900.

56 Farag, ‘al-Muqtataf’, p. 309.

57 Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, Sirr taqaddum al-inkliz al-saksuniyyin (Cairo: Matba`at al-Ma`arif, 1899), a translation of Edmond Demolins, A quoi tient la supériorité des Anglo-Saxons (Paris: Libraire de Paris, 1897).

58 Demolins, Anglo-Saxons, p. iv.

59 ibid. p. 92, Arabic translation, p. 75.

60 ibid. p. 93; Arabic translation, p. 76.

61 ibid. p. 98.

62 ibid. p. 410; Arabic translation, p. 333.

63 Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, Sirr taqaddum, p. 20.

64 ibid. pp. 24–30.

65 See Hasan Tawfiq al-Dijwi’s introduction to al-Tarbiya al-haditha (Cairo: Matba`at al-Taraqqi, 1901), p. 7.

66 Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid, cited Husayn Fawzi Najjar, Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid: ustadh al-jil (Cairo: al-Mu’assasa al-Misriyya al-Amma, 1965), p. 86.

67 Albert Metin, La transformation de l’Egypte, cited in Henri Pérès, ‘Les origines d’un roman célèbre de la littérature arabe moderne: “Hadith `Isa ibn Hisham” de Muhammad al-Muwailihi’, Bulletin des études orientales 10 (1944): 101–18.

68 Hasan Tawfiq al-Dijwi, al-Tarbiya al-haditha.

69 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 538–9.

70 On the transformation of women’s lives in nineteenth-century Egypt, see Judith Tucker, Women in Nineteenth-Century Egypt. On the writings on this subject at the turn of the century, see Juan Ricardo Cole, ‘Feminism, class and Islam in turn-of-the-century Egypt’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 13 (1981): 387–407.

71 Harry Boyle, ‘Memorandum on the British Occupation of Egypt’ (1905), in Clara Boyle, Boyle of Cairo: A Diplomatist’s Adventures in the Middle East (Kendal: Titus Wilson and Son, 1965), p. 56.

72 Qasim Amin, al-Mar’a al-jadida, p. 11.

73 Qasim Amin, Les égyptiens (Cairo: Jules Barbier, 1894); Duc d’Harcourt, L’Egypte et les égyptiens (Paris: Plon, 1893).

74 Harcourt, L’Egypte, pp. 1, 3–6, 218, 247–8, 262.

75 Qasim Amin, Les égyptiens, pp. 45–7, 243.

76 ibid. pp. 100–10.

77 Cited Walter Benjamin, ‘On some motifs in Baudelaire’, Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1968), p. 167.

78 ibid.

79 Muhammad al-Muwailihi, Hadith Isa ibn Hisham, aw fatra min al-zaman, 2nd ed. (Cairo: al-Maktaba al-Azhariyya, 1911), pp. 15–20.

80 ibid. p. 314.

81 ibid. pp. 389, 434–5.

82 For example by the novelist Mahmud Taymur. See Henri Pérès, ‘Les origines d’un roman célèbre de la littérature arabe moderne: “Hadith `Isa ibn Hisham” de Muhammad al-Muwailihi’, Bulleitin des études orientales 10 (1944): 101.

83 For the book’s publishing history and the expurgated parts, see Roger Allen, ‘Hadith `Isa ibn Hisham: the excluded passages’, Die Welt des Islams 12 (1969): 74–89, 163–81.

84 Roger Allen, A Study of ‘Hadith `Isa ibn Hisham’: Muhammad al-Muwaylihi’s View of Egyptian Society During the British Occupation (New York: State University of New York Press, 1974), p. 165.

85 Alexander Schölche, Egypt for the Egyptians: The Socio-Political Crisis in Egypt, 1878–1882, p. 327, n. 53. Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot, Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali, pp. 45, 60; Berque, Egypt, pp. 116–17.

86 Qasim Amin, Les égyptiens, p. 45; Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, Sirr taqaddum al-inkliz al-saksuniyyin, p. 75.

87 Roger Allen, ‘Writings of members of the Nazli circle’, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 8 (1969–70): 79–84.

88 Henri Pérès, ‘Les origins d’un roman célèbre’, p. 105; for the preceding decade Mubarak gives the figures of 1,067 cafés and 467 bars, a total of 1,543 establishments (Ali Mubarak, al-Khitat al-jadida li-Misr al-qahira wa-muduniha wa-biladiha al-qadima wa-l-shahira, 1: 238).

89 Ali Mubarak, Alam al-Din, pp. 453–4.

90 Muhammad Umar, Hadir al-misriyyin aw sirr ta’akhkhurihim (Cairo: Matba`at al-Muqtataf, 1902). English translation of the title given on the Arabic title page.

91 ibid. p. 230.

92 ibid. pp. 267–9.

93 ibid. pp. 235, 114–15.

94 Abd al-Hamid al-Zahrawi, al-Jarida, 2nd July 1907; for his biography see Umar Rida Kahhala, Mu`jam al-mu’allifin: tarajim musannifi al-kutub al-arabiyya, 15 vols. (Damascus: Matba`at al-Taraqqi, 1957–61), 5: 104, and George Antonius, The Arab Awakening: the Story of the Arab National Movement (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1939), pp. 117, 189. Why wealthy urban-based landowners in the Ottoman-ruled parts of the Arab world turned from Ottomanism to Arab nationalism in this period is explored in Philip S. Khoury, Urban Notables and Arab Nationalism: the Politics of Damascus, 1860–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).

95 Umar, Hadir al-misriyyin, pp. 117–24.

96 ibid. pp. 43–4.

97 ibid. pp. 166–7.

98 Cf. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), for a critical exploration of the themes discussed in this section.

99 On the intellectual formation of Egyptian nationalism, including the central theme of ‘political education’, see Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939, pp. 103–221.

100 Tahtawi, Manahij al-albab, p. 6.

101 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 516.

102 ibid. 1: 519.

103 al-Muwailihi, Hadith Isa ibn Hisham, p. 29.

104 ibid. p. 30.

105 Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, p. 5.

106 For this critique of liberalism, see Uday Mehta, ‘The anxiety of freedom: John Locke and the emergence of political subjectivity’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1984).

107 Emile Durkheim, Education and Sociology, trans. S. D. Fox, with an Introduction by Talcott Parsons (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1956), p. 123.

108 Cited Steven Lukes, Emile Durkheim, His Life and Work: A Historical and Critical Study (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973), pp. 112, 117, 123.

109 al-Mu’ayyad, 18th December 1910, by the anonymous author of the paper’s ‘Yawmiyyat al-ahad’ column. Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, Ruh al-ijtima` (Cairo: Matba`at al-Sha`b, 1909), a translation of Gustave Le Bon, Psychologie des foules (Paris: Felix Alean, 1895); translated into English as The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (New York: Macmillan, 1896).

110 On the Dinshawai incident see Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt and Cromer: A Study in Anglo-Egyptian Relations (London: John Murray, 1968), pp. 169–73.

111 Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid, al-Jarida, 13th April 1913, reprinted in his Ta’ammulat fi al-falsafa wa-al-adab wa-al-siyasa wa-al-ijtima`, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Ma`arif, 1965), pp. 84–5. According to Lutfi al-Sayyid, Fathi Zaghlul’s translations of Le Bon, and also of Demolins, Bentham, Spencer and Rousseau, ‘were the start of Egypt’s intellectual renaissance along political lines’ (Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt and Cromer, p. 152).

112 Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul, Sirr tatawwur al-umam (Cairo: Matba`at al-Ma`arif, 1913), a translation of Le Bon’s Lois psychologiques de l’évolution des peuples, 12th ed. (Paris: Alcan, 1916), translated into English as The Psychology of Peoples (New York: Macmillan, 1898); Taha Husayn, Ruh al-tarbiya (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1922), a translation of Le Bon’s Psychologie de l’éducation (Paris: Flammarion, 1904; nouvelle edition, 1912, ‘augmenté de plusieurs chapitres sur les méthodes d’éducation en Amérique et sur l’enseignement donné aux indigènes des colonies’); Ahmad Fathi Zaghlul also translated Le Bon’s Aphorisms du temps présent (Paris: Flammarion, 1913), published posthumously as Jawami` al-kalim (Cairo: al-Matba`a al-Rahmaniyya, 1922). Cf. Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Literatur, supplement 3: 287, 326.

113 Gustave Le Bon, La civilisation des Arabes (Paris: Firmin-Didot, 1884), translated in installments in al-Mufid (see Rashid Khalidi, ‘`Abd al-Ghani al-Uraisi and al-Mufid; the press and Arab nationalism before 1914’, in Martin R. Buheiry, ed., Intellectual Life in the Arab East, 1890–1939 (Beirut: American University of Beirut Press, 1981), p. 41); and Les premières civilisations (Paris: Marpon et Flammarion, 1889), trans. Muhammad Sadiq Rustum, al-Hadara al-misriyya (Cairo: al-Matba`a al-Asriyya, n.d.).

114 Gordon Allport, The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson, 2nd ed. (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1968), 1: 41; for Freud’s use of ‘Le Bon’s deservedly famous work’ see Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (New York: Norton, 1959), ch. 2; see also George Rudé, The Crowd in History (New York: Wiley, 1964) and Georges Lefebvre, La Grande peur de 1789 (Paris: Colin, 1932). On the work of Le Bon in general see Susanna Barrows, Distorting Mirrors: Visions of the Crowd in Late Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).

115 Barrows, Distorting Mirrors. See also Alice Widener, Gustave Le Bon: The Man and His Works (Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1979), pp. 23, 40.

116 Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, trans. W. D. Halls, Contemporary Social Theory series (London: Macmillan, 1984), pp. 18, 19, 89.

117 Barrows, Distorting Mirrors, p. 164.

118 Le Bon, The Psychology of Peoples, pp. 4–5, 13.

119 On Le Bon’s influence on Durkheim, see Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 20.

120 Le Bon, The Psychology of Peoples, pp. xix, 6, 37.

121 ibid. pp. 199–200, 231.

122 ibid. pp. 211–12.

123 The translation was published in instalments in al-Mufid, one of the most influential daily newspapers in the entire Arab east in this period. See Khalidi, ‘`Abd al-Ghani al-Uraisi’, p. 41.

124 Le Bon was away, so Abduh left his card and a small, amicable correspondence ensued (Anouar Louca, Voyageurs et écrivains égyptiens en France au XIXe siècle, p. 142). On Abduh, the influence of French social science, and his influence in turn on Arab political thought, see Albert Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1789–1939, especially pp. 139–40.

125 Cf. Barrows, Distorting Mirrors, p. 72.

126 Le Bon, The Crowd, p. 36; Freud, Group Psychology, ch. 2.

127 Durkheim, Rules, pp. 8, 30.

5 The machinery of truth

1 Baron de Kusel, An Englishman’s Recollections of Egypt, 1863 to 1887 (London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1915), p. 199.

2 The Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, 1: 296–8.

3 Col. J. F. Maurice, Military History of the Campaign of 1882 in Egypt, prepared in the intelligence branch of the War Office (London: HMSO, 1887), p. 96.

4 Maurice, Military History, p. 105.

5 ibid. p. 6.

6 Husayn al-Marsafi, Risalat al-kalim al-thaman (1881). The eight Arabic terms are: umma, watan, hukuma, adi, zulm, siyasa, hurriyya, tarbiya. There is only a passing reference to the book in the major work of the Urabi Revolution: Alexander Schölch, Agypten der Agyptern! Die politische und gesellschaftliche Krise der Jahre 1878–1882 in Agypten (Freiburg: Atlantis, 1972), p. 361; the reference is omitted from the English translation. On Marsafi and his relationship with the nationalists see Muhammad Abd al-Jawad, Al-Shaykh al-Husayn ibn Ahmad al-Marsafi: al-ustadh al-awwal li-l-ulum al-adabiyya bi-Dar al-Ulum (Cario: al-Ma`arif, 1952), pp. 40–2, and Ahmad Zakariya al-Shilq, Ru’ya fi tahdith al-fikr al-misri: al-shaykh Husayn al-Marsafi wa-kitabuhu ‘Risalat al-kalim al-thaman’ (Cairo: al-Hay’a al-Misriyya al-Amma li-l-Kutub, 1984), p. 25.

7 ‘Arabi’s account of his life and of the events of 1881–1882’ in Wilfred Scawen Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt, Being a personal narrative of events, 2nd ed. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1907), appendix 1, p. 482; ‘Programme of the National Party’, in Blunt, Secret History, appendix 5, p. 558.

8 Alexander Schölch, Egypt for the Egyptians: The Socio-Political Crisis in Egypt 1878–1882, pp. 181–2.

9 Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, Ta’rikh muddat al-faransis bi-Misr, pp. 7–17.

10 Abu al-Futuh Radwan, Ta’rikh Matba`at Bulaq (Cairo: al-Matba`a al-Amiriyya, 1953), pp. 446–79.

11 Radwan, Ta’rikh, pp. 56–74.

12 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, pp. 31–2.

13 Tahtawi, Manahij al-albab al-misriyya, fi mabahij al-adab al-asriyya, p. 231. For the same theme in Ottoman political writing, see Şerif Mardin, The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1962), pp. 95–102.

14 Abd al-Rahman Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, ed. E. Quatremère, 1: 65; cf. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, trans. Franz Rosenthal, 1: 81–2.

15 Ibn Khaldun, Kitab al-ibar wa-diwan al-mubtada’ wa-l-khabar etc., ed. Nasr al-Hurini, 7 vols. (Bulaq, 1867). Volume 1 (‘The Muqaddima’) and volumes 6 and 7 (dealing with the history of North Africa) had appeared in print slightly earlier, in editions published by French scholars in the 1850s. Volume 1 is translated into English in three volumes by Franz Rosenthal as The Muqqadimah: An Introduction to History.

16 Ahmad Taymur, Tarajim a`yan al-qarn al-thalith ashar wa-awa’il al-rabi` ashar (Cairo: Matba`at Abd al-Hamid Ahmad Hanafi, 1940), p. 148; Anouar Abdel-Malek, Idéologie et renaissance nationale: l’Egypte moderne, p. 388.

17 Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, ed. E. Quatremère, p. 65.

18 His students wrote the textbooks of Arabic literature and grammar that were to be used in government schools for more than a generation; his lectures were compiled into two multi-volume works, al-Wasila al-adabiyya ila al-ulum al-arabiyya, 2 vols. (Cairo: vol. 1, Matba`at al-Madaris al-Malikiyya, 1872–75; vol. 2, Matba`at Wadi al-Nil, 1875–79), and ‘Dalil al-mustarshid fi fann al-insha’ ’ (Cairo, 1890), the manuscript of which was completed just before the author’s death but never published; and he was an important influence on the writer Abdullah Fikri (who was later Minister of Education and delegate to the Stockholm Orientalist Congress) and on a number of major Egyptian poets, including al-Barudi, Ahmad Shawqi and Hafiz Ibrahim (Abd al-Jawad, Marsafi, pp. 82–91, 117–19; Carl Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Literatur (Leiden, 1943–49), supplement 2: 727).

19 See Charles Pellat, ‘Variations sur le thème de l’adab’, in his Etudes sur l’histoire socio-culturelle de l’Islam (London: Variorum Reprints, 1976).

20 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, p. 140.

21 ibid. p. 3.

22 ibid. pp. 85–6, 131, for references to French authors.

23 ibid. pp. 75–9.

24 ibid. pp. 16, 112, 116, 126, 140.

25 ibid. pp. 112–13, 142, 122–3.

26 ibid. pp. 125–8.

27 Salim Khalil al-Naqqash, Misr li-l-misriyyin, 9 vols. (vols. 1 to 3 never published) (Alexandria: Matba`at Jaridat al-Mahrusa, 1884), 7: 444–5.

28 Encyclopaedia of Islam, new edition, 5 vols., prepared by a number of leading Orientalists (Leiden: E. J. Brill, London: Luzac and Co., 1960- ), 3: 514.

29 Michel Foucault, The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences, pp. 217–343.

30 Friedrich Max Müller, Lectures on the Science of Language (London: Longman, 1861), pp. 25–6.

31 Ernest Renan, ‘De l’origine du langage’ (1848), Oeuvres complètes, 8:11.

32 William Dwight Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies, 2 vols. (New York: Scribner, Armstrong and Co., 1873), 2: 347.

33 International Congress of Orientalists, Transactions of the Ninth Congress, London, 5–12 September 1892, ed. E. Delmar Morgan, 1: 9.

34 Renan, Oeuvres complètes, 8: 37–8.

35 Michel Bréal, Essai de sémantique; Science des significations (Paris: Hachette, 1899; 1st ed. 1897) p. 279; cf. Hans Aarsleff, ‘Bréal vs. Schleicher: Reorientations in linguistics in the latter half of the nineteenth century’ in From Locke to Saussure: Essays on the Study of Language and Intellectual History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1982), p. 296.

36 Michel Bréal, ‘Les idées latentes du langage’ (1868), in Mélanges de mythologie et de linguistique (Paris: Hachette, 1877), p. 321; cf. Aarsleff, ‘Bréal vs. Schleicher’, pp. 306–7.

37 Michel Bréal, ‘De la forme et fonction des mots’, in Mélanges, p. 249, cited Aarsleff, ‘Bréal vs. Schleicher’, p. 297.

38 Cf. Aarsleff, ‘Bréal vs. Schleicher’.

39 Michel Bréal, ‘La langage et les nationalités’, Revue des deux mondes 108 (1st December 1891): 619, cited Aarsleff, ‘Bréal vs. Schleicher’, p. 384.

40 Bréal, ‘Les idées latentes’, in Mélanges, p. 322.

41 Gilbert Delanoue, Moralistes et politiques musulmans dans l’Egypte du XIXe siècle (1798–1882), 2: 371.

42 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, p. 4. For the following discussion, see Monçef Chelli, La parole arabe: une théorie de la relativité des cultures, pp. 46–67.

43 Geoffrey Hartman, Saving the Text: Literature/Derrida/Philosophy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. xxi.

44 Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, trans. Wade Baskin (New York: Philosophical Librıary, 1959), pp. 66–7.

45 Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974).

46 Jacques Derrida, Speech and Phenomena, and other essays of Husserl’s Theory of Signs; Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983), pp. 127–8.

47 Derrida, Speech and Phenomena, p. 50; and ‘Differance’, in Margins of Philosophy, pp. 1–27.

48 Derrida, Speech and Phenomena, p. 52.

49 Chelli, La parole arabe, pp. 35–45.

50 Cf. Jacques Derrida, ‘Signature event context’, in Margins of Philosophy, pp. 307–30.

51 Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, trans. Rosenthal, 2: 356.

52 Cf. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, ed. Quatremère, 3: 242 line 5,243 lines 3–4.

53 Cf. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, trans. Rosenthal, 3: 55–75.

54 ibid. 3: 316.

55 ibid. 3: 316.

56 ibid. 3: 292.

57 cf. Richard W. Bulliet, The Patricians of Nishapur: A Study in Medieval Islamic Social History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), pp. 49, 57.

58 Muhsin Mahdi, Ibn Khaldun’s Philosophy of History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957; Phoenix ed., 1964).

59 Schölch, Egypt for the Egyptians, pp. 181, 348.

60 The Earl of Cromer, in Great Britain, Foreign Office, Further Correspondence Respecting the Affairs of Egypt no. 35, October-December 1890 (London: Foreign Office, 1891), p. 22.

61 Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 247; see also 1: 520.

62 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, pp. 11, 93, 142.

63 Rashid Rida, Ta’rikh al-ustadh al-imam Muhammad Abduh, 1: 30–1.

64 Homa Pakdaman, Djamal ed-Din Assad Abadi dit Afghani (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1969), pp. 46–7, 49.

65 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, p. 93.

66 See for example al-Afghani, cited in Pakdaman, Djamal ed-Din, p. 47.

67 See for example Tahtawi, al-A`mal al-kamila, 1: 247.

68 Marsafi, al-Kalim al-thaman, p. 93.

69 Muhammad Majdi, Thamaniyata ashar yawman bi-sa`id Misr, sanat 1310 (Cairo: Matba`at al-Mawsu`at, 1319h), p. 42.

70 ibid. p. 50.

71 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 257, 260.

72 ibid. 2: 131.

73 ibid. 2: 321, emphasis added.

6 The philosophy of the thing

1 André Maurois, Lyautey, pp. 319–20.

2 Janet L. Abu-Lughod, Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980), p. 152.

3 Steven T. Rosenthal, ‘Municipal reform in Istanbul 1850–1870: the impact of tanzimat on Ottoman affairs’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University, 1974), pp. 52–66.

4 Muhammad Farid Wajdi, al-Islam wa-l-madaniyya, aw, tatbiq al-diyana al-islamiyya ala nawamis al-madaniyya (Cairo: 2nd ed., n.p., 1904; 1st ed., al-Matba`a al-Uthmaniyya, 1898), p. 4.

5 Maurois, Lyautey, pp. 252–3.

6 ibid. p. 316.

7 Henri Pieron, ‘Le Caire: Son esthétique dans la ville arabe et dans la ville moderne’, L’Egypte Contemporaine 5 (January 1911): 512.

8 See the discussion of this theme in Michael Gilsenan, Recognizing Islam: Religion and Society in the Modern Arab World, pp. 192–214, and in Abu-Lughod, Rabat, pp. 131–95.

9 According to Janet Abu-Lughod, during the first decade of the twentieth century only about thirty per cent of Cairo’s growth was due to natural increase. Of the remainder, more than a third was due to rural in-migration and almost two-thirds to the influx of Europeans (Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious, pp. 111–15); cf. Justin McCarthy, ‘Nineteenth-century Egyptian population’, Middle East Journal 12 (1976): 31.

10 Cited in Bent Hansen, ‘Prices, wages, and land rents: Egypt 1895–1913’, Working Papers in Economics, no. 131, Department of Economics, University of California, Berkeley, October 1979, pp. 34–5.

11 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1979) pp. 29–30.

12 See Edward W. Said, Orientalism.

13 International Congress of Orientalists, Transactions of the Ninth Congress, London, 5–12 September 1892, ed. E. Delmar Morgan, 1: 8.

14 ibid. 2: 805.

15 Muqtataf 17 (1893): 88, cited Nadia Farag, ‘al-Muqtataf 1876–1900: a study of the influence of Victorian thought on modern Arabic thought’, p. 243.

16 International Congress of Orientalists, Transactions of the Ninth Congress, 1: 35.

17 ibid. 1: 36–7.

18 As in chapter 5, these arguments are indebted to the work of Jacques Derrida.

19 al-Muqtataf 12 (1888): 316, cited Farag, ‘al-Muqtataf’, p. 243.

20 al-Muqtataf 17 (1893): 88; cf. Sadik Jalal al-`Azm, ‘Orientalism and Orientalism in reverse’, Khamsin 8 (London: Ithaca Press, 1981), pp. 5–26.

21 Jurji Zaydan, Ta’rikh Misr al-hadith (Cairo: Matba`at al-Muqtataf, 1889); and al-Ta’rikh al-amm (Cairo: Matba`at al-Muqtataf, 1890), of which only the first volume, the ancient and modern history of Asia and Africa (dealing for all except two pages with Egypt) was ever published.

22 Jurji Zaydan, Ta’rikh al-tamaddun al-islami, 5 vols. (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1901–6; reprint ed., 1958), 1: 12, 13–14. See also Lewis Ware, ‘Jurji Zaydan: the role of popular history in the formation of a new Arab world view’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1973), pp. 181–92, 197–204.

23 al-Hilal 6: 109, 15: 18, cited Ware, ‘Jurji Zaydan’, pp. 109, 159.

24 Critical essays were collected and published by Rashid Rida in Intiqad kitab ta’rikh al-tamaddun al-islami (Cairo: Matba`at al-Manar, 1912).

25 See for example the review of his work by de Goeje in Journal asiatique 10: 3 (1904). Among his friends and acquaintances were the Orientalists Noldecke, Wellhausen, Goldzieher, Wright, MacDonald and Margoliouth. See Zaydan, Ta’rikh al-tamuddun, 1: 9, and D. S. Margoliouth, trans., Umayyads and `Abbasids, being the 4th part of Jurji Zaydan’s history of Islamic civilisation (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1907), p. xiv.

26 The only serious general history of Islam written by then in Europe was August Müller’s Der Islam in Morgen- und Abendland (Berlin: Grote, 1885–87); Alfred von Kremer’s Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen (Vienna: W. Braumüller, 1875–77) had been used as a source by Zaydan but was not available in English. Serious works in English on Islamic history dealt only with the lives of Muhammad and the first four caliphs: D. S. Margoliouth, Muhammad and the Rise of Islam (1905); and Sir William Muir, Life of Muhammad (1861) and Annals of the Early Caliphate (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1883).

27 Ta’rikh adab al-lugha al-arabiyya. See Muhammad Abd al-Jawad, Al-Shaykh al-Husayn ibn Ahmad al-Marsafi: al-ustadh al-awwal li-l-ulum al-adabiyya bi-Dar al-Ulum (Cairo: Dar al-Ma`arif, 1952), p. 81.

28 Jurji Zaydan, Ta’rikh adab al-lugha al-arabiyya, 1:8.

29 Thomas Philipp, Gurgi Zaydan: His Life and Work (Beirut: Orient-Institut der Deutshe Morgenländ Gesellschaft, 1979), p. 44.

30 Bernard Cohen discusses a similar process of penetration in colonial India, and relates it in a similar way to the larger process of organising an exhibition of colonial authority: ‘Representing authority in Victorian India’ in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 165–209.

31 On insane asylums see the thesis by Marilyn Mayers, ‘A century of psychiatry: the Egyptian mental hospital’ (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 1982).

32 The Earl of Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 556–7. ‘The schoolmaster is abroad’ was the famous phrase of the Benthamite reformer Lord Brougham, whose projects ‘for the diffusion of useful knowledge’ I have referred to in earlier chapters.

33 Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 280.

34 Michel Foucault, ‘Two Lectures’ in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, pp. 104–5.

35 Maurois, Lyautey, p. 320.

36 For the following discussion, see Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature.

37 Cf. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, ed. E. Quatremère.

38 ‘Discourse on the method’, in Descartes, Philosophical Writings, trans, and ed. Elizabeth Anscombe and Peter Thomas Geach, rev. ed. (London: Thomas Nelson, 1970), pp. 15–16.