1. Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/about.aspx (accessed April 29, 2017).
1. Later, after the DNA from the crime scene matched Earl Mann, the judge exonerated Clarence Elkins. It may have occurred to her at that point that her initial decision in the case was erroneous and could have caused an innocent man to spend the rest of his life in prison, if not for new evidence connecting Earl Mann to the crime scene. To her great credit, in her next Ohio Innocence Project case, she issued a well-reasoned opinion exonerating our client Douglas Prade, over the objection of the prosecution. See, “Former Police Captain Freed after Murder Conviction Overturned,” Cleveland News 19, www.cleveland19.com/story/20761689/judge-overturns-douglas-prades-murder-conviction (accessed Nov 19, 2016); State v. Prade, 2013 WL 658266 (Ohio Com.Pl.). This decision was overturned on appeal, and the Ohio Innocence Project is continuing to litigate the case to seek Prade’s release.
2. Elizabeth Mendes, “Americans Down on Congress, OK with Own Representative,” Gallup, May 9, 2013, www.gallup.com/poll/162362/americans-down-congress-own-representative.aspx.
3. Daniel S. Medwed, Prosecution Complex: America’s Race to Convict and Its Impact on the Innocent (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 163; see also, Dahlia Lithwick, “When Prosecutors Believe the Unbelievable,” Slate, Jul 16, 2015, www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/jurisprudence/2015/07/mark_weiner_conviction_vacated_chelsea_steiniger_text_case_finally_overturned.html.
4. Oren Yaniv, “Brooklyn Jury Acquits Man of Murder 24 Years after He Was Jailed for the Crime,” New York Daily News, Nov 18, 2013, www.nydailynews.com/new-york/nyc-crime/brooklyn-jury-acquits-man-murder-24-years-jail-article-1.1521151.
5. Ibid.
6. Medwed, Prosecution Complex, 119–21.
7. See “Innocence Lost: The Plea,” Frontline, PBS and WGBH/Frontline, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/innocence/etc/other.html (accessed Apr 4, 2017); “Outcomes of High Profile Daycare Sexual Abuse Cases of the 1980s,” Frontline, PBS and WGBH/Frontline, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/fuster/lessons/outcomes.html (accessed Apr 4, 2017). See also, Mark Pendergrast, Victims of Memory: Sex Abuse Accusations and Shattered Lives (Hinesburg, Vt.: Upper Access Books, 1996).
8. “Haunted Memories, Part 1,” Dateline, NBC News, Apr 9, 2012, www.nbcnews.com/video/dateline/46994994/#46994994.
9. See, for reference, Eddie Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills, “Introduction to Cognitive Dissonance Theory and an Overview of Current Perspectives on the Theory,” in Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology, ed. Eddie Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills (Washington D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1999); see also Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957).
10. Harmon-Jones and Mills, “Introduction to Cognitive Dissonance,” 6–7.
11. Carol Tarvis and Elliot Aronson, Mistakes Were Made but Not by Me (San Diego: Harcourt, 2007), 12–13.
12. Ibid., 22.
13. See Steve Orr and Gary Craig “Ruling Alters Legal Landscape in NY Shaken-Baby Cases,” Democrat and Chronicle, Nov 16, 2016, www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/2016/11/16/ruling-alters-legal-landscape-ny-shaken-baby-cases/93952304.
14. “Doctor Who Denies Shaken Baby Syndrome Struck Off,” The Guardian, Mar 21, 2016, www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/mar/21/doctor-waney-squier-denies-shaken-baby-syndrome-struck-off-misleading-courts.
15. Michael Mansfield et al., “General Medical Council Behaving Like a Modern Inquisition,” The Guardian, March 21, 2016, www.theguardian.com/society/2016/mar/21/gmc-behaving-like-a-modern-inquisition-by-striking-off-dr-waney-squier.
16. Brandi Grissom, “Texas Science Commission Is First in the U.S. to Recommend Moratorium on Bite Mark Evidence,” Trail Blazer’s Blog, Dallas Daily News, Feb 12, 2016, http://trailblazersblog.dallasnews.com/2016/02/texas-science-commission-is-first-in-the-u-s-to-recommend-moratorium-on-bite-mark-evidence.html.
17. Radley Balko, “A Bite Mark Matching Advocacy Group Just Conducted a Study That Discredits Bite Mark Evidence,” The Watch, Washington Post, Apr 8, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-watch/wp/2015/04/08/a-bite-mark-matching-advocacy-group-just-conducted-a-study-that-discredits-bite-mark-evidence.
18. Radley Balko, “Attack of the Bite Mark Matchers,” The Watch, Washington Post, Feb 18, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-watch/wp/2015/02/18/attack-of-the-bite-mark-matchers-2/?tid=a_inl.
19. Balko, “Bite Mark Matching Advocacy Group.”
20. Balko, “Attack of the Bite Mark Matchers.”
21. Andrew Wolfson, “Louisville to Pay Whistleblower Cop $450,000,” The Courier-Journal, Apr 16, 2014, www.courier-journal.com/story/news/crime/2014/04/16/louisville-pay-whistleblower-cop/7771933/; “Detective Demoted after He Helps Kentucky Innocence Project,” Wrongful Convictions Blog, Oct 17, 2012, http://wrongfulconvictionsblog.org/2012/10/17/detective-demoted-after-he-helps-kentucky-innocence-project.
22. Paige Lavender, “Sharon Snyder, Court Clerk Fired for Helping Free Wrongly Convicted Man: ‘I Would Do It Again,’” Huffington Post, Aug 15, 2013, www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/15/sharon-snyder-robert-nelson_n_3759185.html.
23. Guy B. Adams, “The Problem of Administrative Evil in a Culture of Technical Rationality” (abstract), Public Integrity 13 (Sum 2011): 275–85, doi: 10.2753/PIN1099–9922130307.
24. Guy B. Adams and Danny L. Balfour, Unmasking Administrative Evil, 4th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2014), 152.
25. Ibid., 277.
26. Michelle Maiese, “Dehumanization,” Beyond Intractability, Jul 2003, www.beyondintractability.org/essay/dehumanization.
27. “‘Less Than Human’: The Psychology Of Cruelty,” Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio, Mar 29, 2011, www.npr.org/2011/03/29/134956180/criminals-see-their-victims-as-less-than-human.
28. Ibid.
29. Medwed, Prosecution Complex, 79–80.
30. “Lead Prosecutor Apologizes for Role in Sending Man to Death Row,” Shreveport Times, Mar 20, 2015, www.shreveporttimes.com/story/opinion/readers/2015/03/20/lead-prosecutor-offers-apology-in-the-case-of-exonerated-death-row-inmate-glenn-ford/25049063.
31. Raeford Davis, “Why I Hated Being a Cop,” Life Inside, Marshall Project, Apr 21, 2016, www.themarshallproject.org/2016/04/21/why-i-hated-being-a-cop#.cN1tPIBto.
32. Upton Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked (Oakland: University of California Press, 1994), 109.
1. Hilary Hylton, “The Tale of the Texting Judge,” Time, Nov 1, 2013, http://nation.time.com/2013/11/01/the-tale-of-the-texting-judge.
2. “Fact Sheet on Judicial Selection Methods in the States,” American Bar Association, www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/migrated/leadership/fact_sheet.authcheckdam.pdf (accessed Apr 27, 2016).
3. Madeline Meth, “New Report Finds Explosive Campaign Spending and ‘Soft-on-Crime’ Attack Ads Impact State Supreme Court Rulings in Criminal Cases,” Center for American Progress, Oct 28, 2013, www.americanprogress.org/press/release/2013/10/28/78184/release-new-report-finds-explosive-campaign-spending-and-soft-on-crime-attack-ads-impact-state-supreme-court-rulings-in-criminal-cases.
4. Woodward v. Alabama, 134 S. Ct. 405 (Sotomayor, J., dissenting).
5. Ibid., 409.
6. Christie Thompson, “Trial by Cash,” Marshall Project, Dec 11, 2014, www.themarshallproject.org/2014/12/11/trial-by-cash#.bzdp2LFiT. See also, “State Supreme Court Judges Are on the Ballots, and Outside Groups Have Broken the Record on TV Ad Spending,” USA Today, Oct 26, 2016, www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2016/10/26/judicial-elections-2016-editorials-debates/92788886.
7. Thompson, “Trial by Cash.”
8. Elected Judges, YouTube video, 13:26, from Last Week Tonight with John Oliver, posted by “LastWeekTonight,” Feb 23, 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=poL7l-Uk3I8 (accessed Apr 28, 2017).
9. Quoted in Thompson, “Trial by Cash.”
10. Ibid.
11. Billy Corriher, “Criminals and Campaign Cash,” Center for American Progress, Oct 2013, www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/CampaignCriminalCash-6.pdf.
12. Kate Berry, “How Judicial Elections Impact Criminal Cases,” Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law (2015), www.brennancenter.org/sites/default/files/publications/How_Judicial_Elections_Impact_Criminal_Cases.pdf.
13. For an additional discussion of the role that corporations and super PACS play in judicial elections, particularly focusing on criminal issues, see Thompson, “Trial by Cash.”
14. Adam Liptak and Janet Roberts, “Campaign Cash Mirrors a High Court’s Rulings,” New York Times, Oct 1, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/us/01judges.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.
15. Andrew Cohen, “‘A Broken System’: Texas’s Former Chief Justice Condemns Judicial Elections,” The Atlantic, Oct 18, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/10/a-broken-system-texass-former-chief-justice-condemns-judicial-elections/280654.
16. See also Joanna M. Shepherd, “Money, Politics, and Impartial Justice,” Duke Law Journal 58 (Jan 2009): 623.
17. For state judge statistics, see David A. Harris, Failed Evidence: Why Law Enforcement Resists Science (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 110; for federal judge statistics, see “The Homogeneous Federal Bench,” New York Times, Feb 6, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/02/07/opinion/the-homogeneous-federal-bench.html?_r=0.
18. See, Ronald F. Wright, “How Prosecutor Elections Fail Us,” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6 (2009): 581–610; Bryan C. McCannon, “Prosecutor Elections, Mistakes, and Appeals,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 10 (Oct 2013): 696–714, doi: 10.1111/jels.12024; Siddartha Bandyopadhyay and Bryan C. McCannon, “The Effect of the Election of Prosecutors on Criminal Trials,” working paper, forthcoming in Public Choice, http://ideas.repec.org/p/bir/birmec/11–08.html.
19. Daniel S. Medwed, Prosecution Complex: America’s Race to Convict and Its Impact on the Innocent (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 78.
20. Ibid., 78–79.
21. Ibid., 77.
22. Ibid.
23. Saki Knafo, “How Aggressive Policing Affects Police Officers Themselves,” The Atlantic, Jul 13, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/07/aggressive-policing-quotas/398165.
24. Jim Hoffer, “NYPD Officer Claims Pressure to Make Arrests,” ABC, WABC-TV New York, Mar 2, 2010, http://abc7ny.com/archive/7305356.
25. Joel Rose, “Despite Laws and Lawsuits, Quota-Based Policing Lingers,” Weekend Edition Saturday, National Public Radio, Apr 4, 2015, www.npr.org/2015/04/04/395061810/despite-laws-and-lawsuits-quota-based-policing-lingers.
26. Mensah M. Dean, “Retired Philly Cop Recalls the Blue Wall of Silence,” The Inquirer, Oct 26, 2016, www.philly.com/philly/news/20161026_Retired_Philly_cop_recalls_the_Blue_Wall_of_Silence.html. See also, Stephanie Clifford, “An Ex-Cop’s Remorse,” New Yorker, Oct 24, 2016, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/10/24/an-ex-cops-remorse.
27. See “ISU Team Calculates Societal Costs of Five Major Crimes; Finds Murder at $17.25 Million,” Iowa State University News Service, Sept 27, 2010, www.news.iastate.edu/news/2010/sep/costofcrime#sthash.7Znl39yJ.dpuf. See also, “Trial Proceedings: Length and Cost,” Washington Courts, www.courts.wa.gov/newsinfo/index.cfm?fa=newsinfo.displayContent&theFile=content/deathPenalty/trial.
28. Lincoln Caplan, “The Right to Counsel: Badly Battered at 50,” New York Times, Mar 9, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/03/10/opinion/sunday/the-right-to-counsel-badly-battered-at-50.html?_r=1.
29. See, for example, Julia O’Donoghue, “Plaquemines Parish Public Defenders Office to Close after State Cuts,” Times-Picayune, Feb 16, 2016, www.nola.com/politics/index.ssf/2016/02/louisiana_public_defenders.html; Oliver Laughland, “When the Money Runs Out for Public Defense, What Happens Next?” Marshall Project, Sept 7, 2016, www.themarshallproject.org/2016/09/07/when-the-money-runs-out-for-public-defense-what-happens-next#.nQIRnitGk.
30. Brentin Mock, “Why the ACLU Is Suing the New Orleans Public Defenders Office,” The Atlantic City Lab, Jan 20, 2016, www.citylab.com/crime/2016/01/why-the-aclu-is-suing-new-orleans-public-defenders-office/424689; Ailsa Chang, “Not Enough Money or Time to Defend Detroit’s Poor,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, Aug 17, 2009, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=111811319.
31. Matt Ford, “A Governor Ordered to Serve as a Public Defender,” The Atlantic, Aug 5, 2016, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/08/when-the-governor-is-your-lawyer/494453.
32. Tina Peng, “I’m a Public Defender: It’s Impossible for Me to Do a Good Job Representing My Clients,” Washington Post, Sept 3, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/our-public-defender-system-isnt-just-broken—its-unconstitutional/2015/09/03/aadf2b6c-519b-11e5–9812–92d5948a40f8_story.html.
33. “Minor Crimes, Massive Waste: The Terrible Toll of America’s Broken Misdemeanor Courts,” National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, Apr 2009, https://www.nacdl.org/reports/misdemeanor.
34. Ben Myers, “Orleans Public Defender’s Office to Begin Refusing Serious Felony Cases Tuesday,” Times-Picayune, Jan 11, 2016, www.nola.com/crime/index.ssf/2016/01/orleans_public_defenders_to_be.html. See also, James Fuller, “Kane County Public Defender: We Can’t Always Provide Rigorous Defense,” Daily Herald, May 13, 2016, www.dailyherald.com/article/20160513/news/160519415.
35. “Innocents Have Gone to Jail, Say Nola Public Defenders,” CBS News, Apr 13, 2017, www.cbsnews.com/news/innocents-have-gone-to-jail-say-nola-public-defenders (accessed May 8, 2017).
36. Alexa Van Brunt, “Poor People Rely on Public Defenders Who Are Too Overworked to Defend Them,” The Guardian, Jun 17, 2015, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/jun/17/poor-rely-public-defenders-too-overworked; Andrew Cohen, “How Much Does a Public Defender Need to Know about a Client?” The Atlantic, Oct 23, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/10/how-much-does-a-public-defender-need-to-know-about-a-client/280761. See also, Justin A. Hinkley and Matt Mencarini, “Court-Appointed Attorneys Paid Little, Do Little, Records Show,” Lansing State Journal, Nov 4, 2016, www.lansingstatejournal.com/story/news/local/watchdog/2016/11/03/court-appointed-attorneys-paid-little-do-little-records-show/91846874.
37. Chang, “Not Enough Money or Time to Defend Detroit’s Poor.”
38. Ibid.
39. Daniel S. Medwed, “Anatomy of a Wrongful Conviction: Theoretical Implications and Practical Solutions,” Villanova Law Review 51, no. 2 (2006): 370, http://digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu/vlr/vol51/iss2/3; Allen St. John, “The $40/Hr Defense Lawyer: ‘Making a Murderer’ Attorney Dean Strang Discusses the Economics of Innocence,” Forbes, Jan 24, 2016, www.forbes.com/sites/allenstjohn/2016/01/24/the-40hr-defense-lawyer-making-a-murder-attorney-dean-strang-discusses-the-economics-of-innocence/#11064a0dca18.
40. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/our-public-defender-system-isnt-just-broken—its-unconstitutional/2015/09/03/aadf2b6c-519b-11e5-9812-92d5948a40f8_story.html?utm_term=.e36a74de8ee9
41. Keith Findley, “The Presumption of Innocence Exists in Theory, Not Reality,” Washington Post, Jan 19, 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-theory/wp/2016/01/19/the-presumption-of-innocence-exists-in-theory-not-reality.
42. Hon. Alex Kozinski, “Preface: Criminal Law 2.0,” Georgetown Law Journal Annual Review of Criminal Procedure 44 (2015): iii–xliv, https://georgetownlawjournal.org/assets/kozinski-arcp-preface-9a990f08f3f006558eaa03ccc440d3078f5899b3426ec47aaedb89c606caeae7.pdf.
1. Raymond S. Nickerson, “Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises,” Review of General Psychology 2, no. 2 (1998): 175–220.
2. J.M. Darley and P.H. Gross, “A Hypothesis Confirming Bias in Labelling Effects,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (1983): 20–33.
3. E.J. Langer and R.P. Abelson, “A Patient by Any Other Name—Clinician Group Difference in Labeling Bias,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42 (Feb 1974): 4–9.
4. Brendan Nyhan and Jason Reifler “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions,” Political Behavior 32 (Jun 2010): 303–30, doi:10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2.
5. D. Kuhn, “Children and Adults as Intuitive Scientists,” Psychological Review 96 (Oct 1989): 674–89.
6. N. Pennington and R. Hastie, “The Story Model for Juror Decision Making,” in Inside the Juror: The Psychology of Juror Decision Making, ed. R. Hastie (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 192–221.
7. P.C. Wason, “On the Failure to Eliminate Hypotheses in a Conceptual Task,” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 12, no. 2 (1960): 129–40.
8. Nickerson, “Confirmation Bias,” 175.
9. Ibid., 205.
10. “The Causes of Wrongful Conviction,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction (accessed May 1, 2016).
11. Itiel E. Dror, David Charlton, and Ailsa E. Péron, “Contextual Information Renders Experts Vulnerable to Making Erroneous Identifications,” Forensic Science International 156 (2006): 74–78, doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.10.017.
12. Ibid.
13. Federal Bureau of Investigation and J. Edgar Hoover, The Science of Finger-Prints: Classification and Uses (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 2006), iv, www.gutenberg.org/files/19022/19022-h/19022-h.htm.
14. D.R. Ashbaugh, “The Premise of Friction Ridge Identification, Clarity, and the Identification Process,” Journal of Forensic Identification 44 (1994): 499–516.
15. Sherry Nakhaeizadeha, Itiel E. Dror, and Ruth M. Morgana, “Cognitive Bias in Forensic Anthropology: Visual Assessments of Skeletal Remains Is Susceptible to Confirmation Bias,” Science and Justice 54 (May 2014): 208–14, doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2013.11.003.
16. R.D. Stoel, I.E. Dror and L.S. Miller, “Bias among Forensic Document Examiners: Still a Need for Procedural Changes,” Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences 46, no. 1 (2014): 91–97.
17. Itiel E. Dror and Greg Hampikian, “Subjectivity and Bias in Forensic DNA Mixture Interpretation,” Science and Justice 51 (Dec 2011): 204–8, doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2011.08.004.
18. For a complete review of the Brandon Mayfield case, see “A Review of the FBI’s Handling of the Brandon Mayfield Case,” Office of the Inspector General, Jan 2006, https://oig.justice.gov/special/s0601/exec.pdf.
19. Itiel E. Dror and Simon A. Cole, “The Vision in ‘Blind’ Justice: Expert Perception, Judgment, and Visual Cognition in Forensic Pattern Recognition,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 17, no. 2 (2010): 163, doi:10.3758/PBR.17.2.161.
20. Itiel E. Dror, “Practical Solutions to Cognitive and Human Factor Challenges in Forensic Science,” Forensic Science Policy and Management 4 (2013): 1–9, doi: 10.1080/19409044.2014.901437.
21. Submission form received by author from Dr. Itiel E. Dror, which he obtained from a case file during his research.
22. Sandra Guerra Thompson, Cops in Lab Coats: Curbing Wrongful Convictions through Independent Forensic Laboratories (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2015), 130–31.
23. Linda Geddes, “Forensic Failure: ‘Miscarriages of Justice Will Occur,’” New Scientist, Feb 11, 2012, www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328514-600-forensic-failure-miscarriages-of-justice-will-occur.
24. For further discussion of this issue, see Radley Balko, “New Study Finds That State Crime Labs Are Paid per Conviction,” Huffington Post, Aug 8, 2013, www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/08/29/in-some-states-crime-labs_n_3837471.html. See also, Roger Koppl and Meghan Sacks, “The Criminal Justice System Creates Incentives for False Convictions,” Criminal Justice Ethics 32, no. 2 (2013): 126–62, doi:10.1080/0731129X.2013.817070.
25. Sandra Guerra Thompson, Cops in Lab Coats: Curbing Wrongful Convictions through Independent Forensic Laboratories (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2015), 127.
26. Mike Wagner et al., “Scientist’s Work Records Show Litany of Problems, but Praise from Cops,” Columbus Dispatch, Dec 7, 2016, www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/10/30/records-show-litany-of-problems-but-praise-from-cops.html.
27. Jill Riepenhoff, Lucas Sullivan, and Mike Wagner, “State Crime Lab: Do Thank You Notes Hint at Impropriety?” Columbus Dispatch, Nov 19, 2016, www.dispatch.com/content/stories/local/2016/11/19/domissin-thank-you-notes-hint-at-impropriety.html.
28. Committee on Identifying the Needs of the Forensic Sciences Community, National Research Council, Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path Forward, available at the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/228091.pdf (accessed May 8, 2017).
29. Ibid., 22 and 24.
30. Jordan Smith, “FBI and DOJ Vow to Continue Using Junk Science Rejected by White House Report,” The Intercept, Sept 23, 2016, https://theintercept.com/2016/09/23/fbi-and-doj-vow-to-continue-using-junk-science-rejected-by-white-house-report.
31. Jessica Gabel Cino, “Sessions’s Assault on Forensic Science Will Lead to More Unsafe Convictions,” Newsweek, Apr 20, 2017, www.newsweek.com/sessionss-assault-forensic-science-will-lead-more-unsafe-convictions-585762.
32. For more information about the Ray Krone case, see the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Jan 4, 2015, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3365.
33. Krone spent time on death row before being retried and once again convicted. Upon the second conviction, Krone was sentenced to life in prison.
34. For the complete facts, see the Larry Pat Souter case on the National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3656 (accessed Apr 18, 2016).
35. For the complete facts, see the Robert Lee Stinson case on the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Apr 9, 2014, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3666.
36. “Two Innocent Men Cleared Today in Separate Murder Cases in Mississippi, 15 Years after Wrongful Convictions,” Feb 15, 2008, www.innocenceproject.org/Content/Two_Innocent_Men_Cleared_Today_in_Separate_Murder_Cases_in_Mississippi_15_Years_after_Wrongful_Convictions.php.
37. For the complete facts, see the George Allen case on the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Jan 18, 2013, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=4091.
38. For the complete facts, see the Walter Zimmer case on the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Apr 7, 2014, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=4283.
39. For the complete facts, see the Bob Gondor and Randy Resh case on the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Jan 13, 2016, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3245.
40. Documents relating to the James Parsons case on file with author.
41. Riepenhoff, Sullivan, and Wagner, “State Crime Lab: Do Thank You Notes Hint at Impropriety?”
42. Documents relating to the Ed Emerick case on file with author.
43. Documents relating to the Ryan Widmer case on file with author.
1. Brandon Garrett, Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions Go Wrong (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 66.
2. “John Jerome White,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3735 (accessed Apr 18, 2017).
3. See Germain Lussier, “/Film Interview: Sarah Polley Explains Secrets of Her Brilliant Documentary ‘Stories We Tell,’” /Film, May 17, 2013, www.slashfilm.com/film-interview-sarah-polley-explains-secrets-of-her-brilliant-documentary-stories-we-tell.
4. D.L. Schacter, J.L. Harbluk, and D.R. McLachlan, “Retrieval without Recollection: An Experimental Analysis of Source Amnesia,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 23 (Sept 1984): 593–96.
5. Dan Simon, In Doubt: The Psychology of the Criminal Justice Process (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 100.
6. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson, 1957).
7. Elizabeth F. Loftus and John C. Palmer, “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction between Language and Memory,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 13 (Sept 1974): 585–89, doi: 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3.
8. Ibid., 585.
9. Ibid., 587.
10. Ibid., 588.
11. Elizabeth F. Loftus and Jacqueline E. Pickrell, “The Formation of False Memories,” Psychiatric Annals 25 (Dec 1995): 720–25; 720. Italics added.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid., 721.
14. Ibid., 723.
15. Ibid., 724.
16. Ibid., 724–25.
17. “Elizabeth Loftus: How Reliable Is Your Memory?” TED Conferences, LLC, filmed Jun 2013, www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_memory (accessed Apr 20, 2016).
18. See “The Causes of Wrongful Conviction,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction (accessed May 1, 2016). Chart taken from website.
19. “% Exonerations by Contributing Factor,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/ExonerationsContribFactorsByCrime.aspx (accessed Dec 10, 2016).
20. Ibid. Perjury or false accusation is a contributing factor in 57 percent of the wrongful convictions reported, as of Apr 2016.
21. See, for example, Siegfried L. Sporer, Psychological Issues in Eyewitness Identification (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1996); Brian L. Cutler and Margaret Bull Kovera, Evaluating Eyewitness Identification (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Committee on Scientific Approaches to Understanding and Maximizing the Validity and Reliability of Eyewitness Identification et al., Identifying the Culprit:: Assessing Eyewitness Identification (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2015).
22. Affidavit of Dr. Charles Goodsell from author’s case of Douglas Prade, on file with the author.
23. See Morgan et al., “Misinformation Can Influence Memory for Recently Experienced, Highly Stressful Events,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 36 (2013): 11–17; see also, Jon B. Gould and Richard A. Leo, “One Hundred Years Later: Wrongful Convictions after a Century of Research,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 100 (Summer 2010): 841.
24. N.M. Steblay, “A Meta-Analytic Review of the Weapon Focus Effect,” Law and Human Behavior 16, no. 4 (1992): 413–24; K.L. Pickel, “Unusualness and Threat as Possible Causes of ‘Weapon Focus,’” Memory 6, no. 3 (1998): 277–95.
25. Radley Balko, “NYPD Shooting Demonstrates Flaws in Eyewitness Identification,” Washington Post, May 15, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-watch/wp/2015/05/15/nypd-shooting-demonstrates-the-flaws-in-eyewitness-memory.
26. Affidavit of Charles A. Goodsell, Ph.D., at 4, Ohio v. Prade, Court of Common Pleas Summit County Ohio (Case No. CR 1998-02-0463); E.F. Loftus, “Creating false memories,” Scientific American 277 (1997): 70–75; E.F. Loftus and K. Ketcham, The Myth of Repressed Memory (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1994); E.F. Loftus and J.C. Palmer, “Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction between Language and Memory,” Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13 (1974): 585–89; J.T. Wixted and E.B. Ebbesen, “On the Form of Forgetting,” Psychological Science 2 (1991): 409–15; J.T. Wixted and E.B. Ebbesen, “Genuine Power Curves in Forgetting: A Quantitative Analysis of Individual Subject Forgetting Functions,” Memory and Cognition 25 (1997): 731–39; A.D. Yarmey, M.J. Yarmey, and A.L. Yarmey, “Accuracy of Eyewitness Identification in Showups and Lineups,” Law and Human Behavior 20 (1996): 459–77.
27. J.W. Shepherd, H.D. Ellis, and G.M. Davies, Identification Evidence: A Psychological Evaluation (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1982).
28. Affidavit of Dr. Charles Goodsell and other documents relating to the Douglas Prade case on file with the author.
29. Daniel L. Schacter, “The Seven Sins of Memory: Insights from Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience,” American Psychologist 54, no. 3 (1999): 182–203, http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/schacterlab/files/schacter_american_psychologist_1999.pdf.
30. For a discussion of similar studies, see Jeffrey S. Neuschatz et al., “The Effects of Post-Identification Feedback and Age on Retrospective Eyewitness Memory,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (Mar 2005): 435–53, doi: 10.1002/acp.1084. See also, Amy Bradfield, Gary Wells, and Elizabeth Olson, “The Damaging Effect of Confirming Feedback on the Relation between Eyewitness Certainty and Identification Accuracy,” Journal of Applied Psychology 87 (Feb 2002): 112–20.
31. “The State of Wisconsin vs. Steven A. Avery,” Dateline, NBC News, Jan 29, 2016, www.nbcnews.com/dateline/video/full-episode-the-state-of-wisconsin-vs-steven-a-avery-618615875727.
32. Laura Ricciardi and Moira Demos, “Eighteen Years Lost,” Making a Murderer, Netflix Streaming, Dec 18, 2015. Documentary web series, episode 1, sixty minutes.
33. See the Justice Project, “John Willis’ Story,” in Eyewitness Identification: A Policy Review, 12–14, https://public.psych.iastate.edu/glwells/The_Justice%20Project_Eyewitness_Identification_%20A_Policy_Review.pdf (accessed May 8, 2017); “25 Years after Wrongful Conviction, Steven Phillips Set to Be Exonerated in Dallas Based on DNA and Other Evidence,” Innocence Project, Aug 4, 2008, www.innocenceproject.org/25-years-after-wrongful-conviction-steven-phillips-set-to-be-exonerated-in-dallas-based-on-dna-and-other-evidence.
34. For examples of suggestive lineup procedures, Brandon Garrett, Convicting the Innocent: Where Criminal Prosecutions Go Wrong (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 61.
35. Laura A. Bischoff, “Sometimes I Wonder If Death Ain’t Better,” Dayton Daily News, Jun 3, 2007.
36. Elizabeth F. Loftus, “Juries Don’t Understand Eyewitness Testimony,” New York Times, Sept 1, 2011, www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/08/31/can-we-trust-eyewitness-identifications/juries-dont-understand-eyewitness-testimony.
37. Christie Thompson, “Penny Beerntsen, the Rape Victim in ‘Making A Murderer,’ Speaks Out,” Marshall Project, Jan 5, 2016, www.themarshallproject.org/2016/01/05/penny-beernsten-the-rape-victim-in-making-a-murderer-speaks-out?ref=hp-3–121#.fJu9vltXt.
38. Jennifer Thompson-Cannino, Ronald Cotton, and Erin Torneo, Picking Cotton: Our Memoir of Injustice and Redemption (New York : St. Martin’s Press, 2009); “Eyewitness, Part 1,” 60 Minutes, CBS News, Jul 12, 2009; “Eyewitness, Part 2,” 60 Minutes, CBS News, Jul 12, 2009.
39. Lesley Stahl, “”Eyewitness: How Accurate Is Visual Memory?” CBS News, Mar 6, 2009, www.cbsnews.com/news/eyewitness-how-accurate-is-visual-memory/2.
40. “Eyewitness, Part 2.”
41. “The Words ‘Guilty Your Honor’ May Hold Far Less Authority Now That the 300th Person Has Been Exonerated by DNA Evidence,” Sky Valley Chronicle, Oct 1, 2012, www.skyvalleychronicle.com/FEATURE-NEWS/THE-WORDS-GUILTY-YOUR-HONOR-FROM-A-JURY-MAY-HOLD-LESS-AUTHORITY-BR-Now-that-the-300th-person-has-been-exonerated-by-DNA-evidence-1132961.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Douglas A. Blackmon, “Louisiana Death-Row Inmate Damon Thibodeaux Exonerated with DNA Evidence,” Washington Post, Sept 18, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/national/louisiana-death-row-inmate-damon-thibodeaux-is-exonerated-with-dna-evidence/2012/09/28/26e30012-0997-11e2-afff-d6c7f20a83bf_print.html.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. “Words ‘Guilty Your Honor’ May Hold Far Less Authority.”
50. Blackmon, “Louisiana Death-Row Inmate Damon Thibodeaux Exonerated.”
51. Ibid.
52. “Words ‘Guilty Your Honor’ May Hold Far Less Authority.”
53. Ibid.
54. Ibid.
55. “The Causes of Wrongful Conviction,” Innocence Project, 2016, www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction (accessed May 1, 2016).
56. “% Exonerations by Contributing Factor,” National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Dec 10, 2016, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/ExonerationsContribFactorsByCrime.aspx.
57. Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157.
58. See “John Mark Karr and the False Confession: Why?” WebMD, www.webmd.com/mental-health/features/john-mark-karr-false-confession-why (accessed Apr 20, 2016).
59. Richard A. Leo, Police Interrogation and American Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009): 201–10; Tom Wells and Richard A. Leo, The Wrong Guys: Murder, False Confessions, and the Norfolk Four (New York: New Press, 2008); John Grisham, The Innocent Man: Murder and Injustice in a Small Town (New York: Doubleday, 2006).
60. Ken Burns, David Mcmahon, and Sarah Burns, The Central Park Five (PBS, Florentine Films, WETA-TV, 2012), 120 minutes. Documentary film.
61. See Leo, Police Interrogation and American Justice, 210–25; Saul M. Kassin, “Internalized False Confessions,” Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology 1 (2007), http://web.williams.edu/Psychology/Faculty/Kassin/files/Kassin_07_internalized%20confessions%20ch.pdf.
62. Kassin, “Internalized False Confessions,” 171.
63. Julie Shaw and Stephen Porter, “Constructing Rich False Memories of Committing Crime,” Psychological Science (Jan 2015).
64. Ibid., 298.
65. Kassin, “Internalized False Confessions,” 176.
66. Ibid., 177.
67. For the complete facts of the Peter Reilly case, see Donald S. Connery, in True Stories of False Confessions, ed. Rob Warden and Steven A. Drizin (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 2006), 47–70; Kassin, “Internalized False Confessions,” 175–94; D.S. Connery, Guilty until Proven Innocent (New York: Putnam, 1977), 173.
68. Douglas T. Kenrick, Steven L. Neuberg, and Robert B. Cialdini, Social Psychology: Unraveling the Mystery, 3rd ed. (Boston: Pearson, 2005), 173.
69. John Wilkens and Mark Sauer, “Haunting Questions: The Stephanie Crowe Murder Case,” parts 1 and 2, SignOnSanDiego.com, Union-Tribune Publishing, May 11–12, 1999, http://legacy.utsandiego.com/news/reports/crowe/crowe2.html.
70. Frances E. Chapman, “Coerced Internalized False Confessions and Police Interrogations: The Power of Coercion,” Law and Psychology Review 37 (2013): 159–92, http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/lpsyr37&div=8&g_sent=1&collection=journals.
71. Ibid., 185.
72. “Rock Hill Man Convicted of 2001 Rape, Murder of Daughter Seeks New Trial,” The Herald, Jul 20, 2015, www.heraldonline.com/news/local/crime/article27957517.html.
73. Simon, In Doubt, 146.
74. Barry Berke and Eric Tirschwell, “New Rule Proposed on Note Taking in Criminal Cases,” New York Law Journal 238, no. 47 (2007): 4.
75. Dan Simon, “The Limited Diagnosticity of Criminal Trials,” Vanderbilt Law Review 64, no. 143 (2011): 150–51.
76. Danielle M. Loney and Brian L. Cutler, “Coercive Interrogation of Eyewitnesses Can Produce False Accusations,” Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 31, no. 1 (Mar 2016): 29–36, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-015-9165-6.
77. Wendy Gillis, “Aggressive Police Questioning May Boost False Accusations, Study Finds,” Toronto Star, Feb 2, 2015, www.thestar.com/news/crime/2015/02/15/aggressive-police-questioning-may-boost-false-accusations-study-finds.html.
78. Stéphanie B. Marion et al., “Lost Proof of Innocence: The Impact of Confessions on Alibi Witnesses,” Law and Human Behavior (Aug 24, 2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000156.
79. Simon, In Doubt, 95.
80. Ibid.
81. Marisol Bello, “Brian Williams Not Alone in Having False Memories,” USA Today, Feb 6, 2015, www.usatoday.com/story/news/2015/02/05/brian-williams-helicopter-memory/22928349; see also, Brittny Mejia, “Scientists Explain How Brian Williams’ Memory May Have Failed Him,” Los Angeles Times, Feb 6, 2015, www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-memory-blame-brian-williams-20150206-story.html.
82. Luke Johnson and Sam Stein, “Mitt Romney Recalls Parade That Occurred Before He Was Born,” Huffington Post, Feb 27, 2012, www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/27/mitt-romney-remembers-golden-jubilee_n_1305110.html.
83. Nicholas Thompson, “Lie or Mistake, Paul Ryan’s Marathoning Past,” New Yorker, Sept 1, 2012, www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/lie-or-mistake-paul-ryans-marathoning-past.
84. Daniel Greenberg, “President Bush’s False Flashbulb Memory of 9/11/01,” Applied Cognitive Psychology 18 (2004): 363–70, doi: 10.1002/acp.1016.
1. U.S. v. Scheffer, 523 U.S. 303.
2. See, for example, 4-76 Modern Federal Jury Instructions—Civil P 76.01 (“How did the witness appear; what was his or her demeanor—that is, his or her carriage, behavior, bearing, manner, and appearance while testifying? Often it is not what a person says but how he or she says it that moves us”); 3-3-43 Instructions for Virginia and West Virginia § 114–115; 1-II Criminal Jury Instructions for DC Final Instructions Instruction 2.200.
3. Steve Drizin, “Dancing Eyebrows, Amanda Knox, and Jerry Hobbs: Assessing Guilt Based on Body Language Is a Dangerous Game,” Huffington Post Crime Blog, Jul 14, 2014, www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-drizin/dancing-eyebrows-amanda-k_b_5291451.html.
4. John Ferak, “Politician: Steven Avery’s Eyes Prove He’s Guilty,” USA Today Network, Apr 6, 2016, www.postcrescent.com/story/news/local/steven-avery/2016/04/06/politician-averys-eyes-prove-hes-guilty/82586402.
5. Documents relating to the David Ayers case on file with the author.
6. Laura Ricciardi and Moira Demos, “Eighteen Years Lost,” Making a Murderer, Netflix Streaming, Dec 18, 2015. Documentary web series, episode 1, sixty minutes.
7. Dave D’Marko, “Kansas Man Who Maintained His Innocence in Murder Case Released from Prison,” WDAF-TV, Dec 8, 2015, http://fox4kc.com/2015/12/08/kansas-man-who-maintained-his-innocence-in-murder-case-released-from-prison. For more, see Maurice Possley, “Floyd Bledsoe,” National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Dec 14, 2015, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=4809.
8. For the complete facts, see the Walter Zimmer case on the National Registry of Exonerations, last updated Apr 7, 2014, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=4283.
9. Paul Ekman, Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics, and Marriage (New York: W.W. Norton, 2001).
10. Samantha Mann, Aldert Vrij, and Ray Bull, “Detecting True Lies: Police Officers’ Ability to Detect Suspects’ Lies,” Journal of Applied Psychology 89, no. 1 (2004): 137–49, University of Portsmouth, http://eprints.port.ac.uk/id/eprint/23; R.E Kraut, “Humans as Lie Detectors: Some Second Thoughts,” Journal of Communication 30 (1980): 209–16.
11. Charles F. Bond, Jr., and Bella M. DePaulo, “Accuracy of Deception Judgments,” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10, no. 3 (2006): 214–34, www.communicationcache.com/uploads/1/0/8/8/10887248/accuracy_of_deception_judgments.pdf.
12. Mann, Vrij, and Bull, “Detecting True Lies,” 137–49.
13. F.E. Inbau et al., Criminal Interrogation and Confessions, 4th ed. (Gaithersburg, Md.: Aspen, 2001).
14. Joel Seidman, “GAO: $1 Billion TSA Behavioral Screening Program ‘Slightly Better than Chance,’” NBC News, Nov 13, 2013, www.nbcnews.com/news/other/gao-1-billion-tsa-behavioral-screening-program-slightly-better-chance-f2D11588343.
15. “Aviation Security TSA Should Limit Future Funding for Behavior Detection Activities,” United States Government Accountability Office, Nov 2013, http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/GAO-TSA_SPOT_Report.pdf. Italics added.
16. Seidman, “GAO: $1 Billion.”
17. For the complete facts of the Willingham case see David Grann, “Trial by Fire: Did Texas Execute an Innocent Man?” New Yorker, Sept 7, 2009, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2009/09/07/trial-by-fire.
18. “Cameron Todd Willingham: Wrongfully Convicted and Executed in Texas,” Innocence Project, Sept 13, 2010, www.innocenceproject.org/news-events-exonerations/cameron-todd-willingham-wrongfully-convicted-and-executed-in-texas.
19. Douglas J. Carpenter et al., “Report on the Peer Review of the Expert Testimony in the Cases of State of Texas v. Cameron Todd Willingham and State of Texas v. Ernest Ray Willis,” Arson Review Committee: A Peer Review Panel Commissioned by the Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/file.pdf (accessed May 1, 2016); Craig L. Beyler, “Analysis of the Fire Investigation Methods and Procedures Used in the Criminal Arson Cases against Ernest Ray Willis and Cameron Todd Willingham,” Hughes Associates, Aug. 17, 2009, www.scribd.com/doc/20603037/Analysis-of-the-Methods-and-Procedures-Used-in-the-Cameron-Todd-Willingham-Arson-Case; see also Grann, “Trial by Fire.”
20. Beyler, “Analysis of the Fire Investigation.”
21. Sarah Koenig, Serial, episode 9, “To Be Suspected,” podcast audio, Nov 20, 2014, https://serialpodcast.org/season-one/9/to-be-suspected.
22. Pamela Colloff, “The Innocent Man, Part One,” Texas Monthly (Nov 2012), www.texasmonthly.com/politics/the-innocent-man-part-one/#sthash.2HNay7ea.dpuf.
23. “Michael Morton,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3834 (accessed Apr 21, 2016).
24. Maurice Possley, “Russell Faria,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=4792 (accessed Nov 16, 2015).
25. Unless otherwise indicated, facts derived from: Lee v. Tennis, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 110736, 2014 WL 3894306 (M.D. Pa. Jun 13, 2014); Transcript of Record, Commonwealth v. Lee, 433 Pa. Super. (No. CP-45-CR-0000577–1989).
26. Transcript of Record at 162, 621, Commonwealth v. Lee, 433 Pa. Super. (No. CP-45-CR-0000577-1989).
27. Ibid., 156.
28. Ibid., 257.
29. Appellant’s Brief at 33, Lee v. Cameron, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 117115 (2015) (No. 14-3876) Doc. 003111853826.
30. Unless otherwise indicated, facts derived from: Transcript of Record, Georgia v. Debelbot, Superior Court of Muscogee County (Indictment No. SU-09-CR-1843).
31. Ibid., 251.
32. Ibid., 250–52.
33. Ibid., 288–89.
34. Defendant’s Brief in Support of Amended Motion for New Trial, Georgia v. Debelbot, Superior Court of Muscogee County (Indictment No. SU-09-CR-1843).
35. Tim Chitwood, “Whether Parents Crushed Infant’s Skull Subject of New Trial Hearing,” Ledger Enquirer, Jan 12, 2015, www.ledger-enquirer.com/news/local/crime/article29383837.html#storylink=cpy.
36. Unless otherwise indicated, facts derived from: Judge (ret.) Leslie Crocker Synder et al., Report on the Conviction of Jeffrey Deskovic: Prepared at the Request of Janet DiFiore, Westchester County District Attorney (Jun 2007), www.westchesterda.net/Jeffrey%20Deskovic%20Comm%20Rpt.pdf.
37. “Jeff Deskovic,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/cases-false-imprisonment/jeff-deskovic#sthash.UnH4jzsp.dpuf (accessed Apr 22, 2016).
38. Synder et al., Report on the Conviction, 16.
1. Keith Findley and Michael S. Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision in Criminal Cases,” Wisconsin Law Review 2 (Jun 2006): 307, http://ssrn.com/abstract=911240.
2. Ibid., 309.
3. Ibid., 317.
4. Tunnel vision in this context is generally understood to mean that “compendium of common heuristics and logical fallacies,” to which we are all susceptible, that lead actors in the criminal justice system to “focus on a suspect, select and filter the evidence that will ‘build a case’ for conviction, while ignoring or suppressing evidence that points away from guilt.” This process leads investigators, prosecutors, judges, and defense lawyers alike to focus on a particular conclusion and then filter all evidence in a case through the lens provided by that conclusion. Through that filter, all information supporting the adopted conclusion is elevated in significance, viewed as consistent with the other evidence, and deemed relevant and probative. Evidence inconsistent with the chosen theory is easily overlooked or dismissed as irrelevant, incredible, or unreliable. Properly understood, tunnel vision is more often the product of the human condition as well as institutional and cultural pressures, than of maliciousness or indifference. See Keith Findley, “Tunnel Vision,” in Conviction of the Innocent: Lessons from Psychological Research, ed. Brian Culter (Washington, D.C.: APA Press, 2010), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1604658.
5. For more on heuristics and decision making, see Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Judgments under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science 185 (Sept 1974): 1124–31, doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124; Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability,” Cognitive Psychology 5 (Sept 1973): 207–33, doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9; Daniel Kahneman and Gary Klein, “Conditions for Intuitive Expertise: A Failure to Disagree,” American Psychologist 64 (Sept 2009): 515–26, doi:10.1037/a0016755.
6. MatthewAid.com, “Analyst Liabilities and the Iraqi WMD Intelligence Failure,” blog entry by Matthew Aid, Sept 7, 2013, www.matthewaid.com/post/31058119160/analyst-liabilities-and-the-iraqi-wmd-intelligence.
7. The Commission on the Intelligence Capabilities of the United States Regarding Weapons of Mass Destruction, Rep. to the President (Mar 31, 2005), at 162, https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/wmd_report.pdf.
8. Ibid., 3.
9. Carol Tavris and Elliot Aronson, Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing, 2015), 3–7.
10. Ibid., 7.
11. MatthewAid.com, “Analyst Liabilities and the Iraqi WMD Intelligence Failure.”
12. Tavris and Aronson, Mistakes Were Made, 175.
13. Ibid.
14. Findley and Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision,” 325.
15. Unless otherwise indicated, facts derived from: Pamela Colloff, “The Innocent Man, Part One,” Texas Monthly (Nov 2012), www.texasmonthly.com/politics/the-innocent-man-part-one/#sthash.2HNay7ea.dpuf; and, Colloff, “The Innocent Man, Part Two,” Texas Monthly (Dec 2012), www.texasmonthly.com/articles/the-innocent-man-part-two.
16. “Michael Morton,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/pages/casedetail.aspx?caseid=3834 (accessed Apr 28, 2016).
17. Facts derived from Findley, “Tunnel Vision.”
18. Facts derived from Tom Wells and Richard A. Leo, The Wrong Guys: Murder, False Confessions, and the Norfolk Four (New York: New Press, 2008).
19. “Convictions Vacated for Two Cases of the So-Called ‘Norfolk Four,’” Associated Press/WAVY, Oct 31, 2016, http://wavy.com/2016/10/31/judge-to-hold-hearing-in-norfolk-four-cases; Priyanka Boghani, “Norfolk Four Pardoned 20 Years after False Confessions,” Frontline, PBS/WGBH, Mar 22, 2017, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/norfolk-four-pardoned-20-years-after-false-confessions.
20. Findley and Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision,” 305–7.
21. Syndney H. Schangberg, “A Journey through the Tangled Case of the Central Park Jogger,” Village Voice, Nov 19, 2002, www.villagevoice.com/news/a-journey-through-the-tangled-case-of-the-central-park-jogger-6436053.
22. Findley and Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision,” 305–7.
23. Schangberg, “Journey through the Tangled Case of the Central Park Jogger.”
24. Ibid.
25. Findley and Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision,” 305–7.
26. Ibid., 335. See also, Adam Benforado, Unfair: The New Science of Criminal Injustice (New York: Penguin Random House, 2015), 31.
27. Carrie Sperling, “Defense Lawyer Tunnel Vision: The Oft-Ignored Role Defense Counsel Plays in Wrongful Convictions,” The Defender (Fall 2010): 19, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1802654.
28. Wendy J. Coen, “The Unparalleled Power of Expert Testimony,” in Forensic Science Testimony: Science, Law, and Expert Evidence, ed. C. Michael Bowers (Oxford: Academic Press, 2014), 221.
29. Michael Martinez, “South Carolina Cop Shoots Unarmed Man: A Timeline,” CNN, Apr 9, 2015, www.cnn.com/2015/04/08/us/south-carolina-cop-shoots-black-man-timeline.
30. Matt Gelb, “Former Philly Narcotics Cop Jeffrey Walker Sentenced to 3 1/2 Years in Prison,” Philadelphia Media Network, Jul 31, 2015, www.philly.com/philly/news/20150730_Former_Philly_narcotics_cop_Jeffrey_Walker_sentenced_to_31_2_years_in_prison.html; Michael E. Miller, “Cop Accused of Brutally Torturing Black Suspects Costs Chicago $5.5 Million,” Washington Post, Apr 15, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/04/15/closing-the-book-on-jon-burge-chicago-cop-accused-of-brutally-torturing-african-american-suspects.
31. Dahlia Lithwick, “Crime Lab Scandals Just Keep Getting Worse,” Slate Magazine, Oct 19, 2015, www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/crime/2015/10/massachusetts_crime_lab_scandal_worsens_dookhan_and_farak.html.
32. Katie Mulvaney, “R.I. Criminal Defense Lawyer Sentenced to 6 Years in Prison for Bribery Scheme,” Providence Journal, Sept 11, 2013, www.providencejournal.com/article/20130911/News/309119971; Debra Cassens Weiss, “California Criminal Defense Lawyer Convicted of Laundering Money for Client,” ABA Journal, Jul 21, 2010, www.abajournal.com/news/article/california_defense_lawyer_convicted_of_laundering_money_for_client; Martha Neil, “Attorney Is Convicted of Conspiring to Bilk Criminal Defense Clients Out of Big Bucks,” ABA Journal, May 29, 2015, www.abajournal.com/news/article/defense_attorney_is_convicted_of_conspiring_to_dupe_criminal_clients_into_p.
33. Eyder Peralta, “Pa. Judge Sentenced to 28 Years in Massive Juvenile Justice Bribery Scandal,” The Two-Way, National Public Radio, Aug 11, 2011, www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2011/08/11/139536686/pa-judge-sentenced-to-28-years-in-massive-juvenile-justice-bribery-scandal.
34. Bruce A. MacFarlane, “Wrongful Convictions: The Effect of Tunnel Vision and Predisposing Circumstances in the Criminal Justice System,” Prepared for the Inquiry into Pediatric Forensic Pathology in Ontario, the Honourable Stephen T. Goudge, Commissioner (2008), 20, www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/inquiries/goudge/policy_research/pdf/Macfarlane_Wrongful-Convictions.pdf.
35. Ibid.
36. Brigit Katz, “Making a Murderer Lawyer Says Humility Is Needed to Change a Flawed Legal System,” New York Times, Jan 29, 2016, http://nytlive.nytimes.com/womenintheworld/2016/01/29/making-a-murderer-lawyer-says-humility-is-the-answer-to-flawed-legal-system.
37. Matt Ford, “The Ethics of Killing Baby Hitler,” The Atlantic, Oct 24, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2015/10/killing-baby-hitler-ethics/412273.
38. Tim Lynch, “An ‘Epidemic’ of Prosecutorial Misconduct,” Cato Institute, Dec 12, 2013, www.policemisconduct.net/epidemic-prosecutorial-misconduct.
39. Diana M. Wright and Michael A. Trimpe, “Summary of the FBI Laboratory’s Gunshot Residue Symposium,” Forensic Science Communications 8, no. 3 (2005), www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/july2006/research/2006_07_research01.htm. See also, R.E. Berk et al., “Gunshot Residue in Chicago Police Vehicles and Facilities: An Empirical Study,” Journal of Forensic Science 52 (July 2004): 838–41; B. Cardinetti et al., “X-ray Mapping Technique: A Preliminary Study in Discriminating Gunshot Residue Particles from Aggregates of Environmental Occupational Origin,” Forensic Science International 143 (Jun 2004): 1–14.
40. Dennis L. McGuire, “The Controversy Concerning Gunshot Residues Examinations,” Forensic Magazine, Aug 1, 2008, www.forensicmag.com/articles/2008/08/controversy-concerning-gunshot-residues-examinations.
41. Wright and Trimpe, “Summary of the FBI Laboratory’s Gunshot Residue Symposium.”
42. John Ferak, “Legal Experts Blast Avery Prosecutor’s Conduct,” USA Today Network—Wisconsin, Jan 24, 2016, www.postcrescent.com/story/news/local/steven-avery/2016/01/15/kratzs-pretrial-behavior-called-unethical/78630248.
43. Vidar Halvorsen, “Is It Better That Ten Guilty Persons Go Free than That One Innocent Person Be Convicted?” Criminal Justice Ethics 23, no. 2 (2004): 3–13.
44. See, e.g., Amy Klobuchar, Nancy K. Steblay, and Hilary Lindell Caligiuri, “Improving Eyewitness Identifications: Hennepin County’s Blind Sequential Lineup Pilot Project,” Cardozo Public Law, Policy, and Ethics Journal 4 (2006): 381–413; Gary L. Wells et al., “Eyewitness Identification Procedures: Recommendations for Lineups and Photospreads,” Law and Human Behavior 22 (Dec 1998): 603–47, www.psychology.iastate.edu/FACULTY/gwells/Wells_articles_pdf/whitepaperpdf.pdf.
45. The poker analogy was taken from Justin Brooks, “The Role of the Innocence Project in the United States and the Current Situation,” keynote speech, Ritsumeikan University, Osaka Japan, Mar 20, 2016.
46. Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary, s.v. “double-blind study,” http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/double-blind+study (retrieved May 9, 2016).
47. See for reference, R.C. Lindsay and Gary L. Wells, “Improving Eyewitness Identifications from Lineups: Simultaneous versus Sequential Lineup Presentation,” Journal of Applied Psychology 70 (Aug 1985): 556–64, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021–9010.70.3.556; R.C. Lindsay et al., “Biased Lineups: Sequential Presentation Reduces the Problem,” Journal of Applied Psychology 76 (Dec 1991): 796–802, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.6.796. However, according to a report published by the National Academy of Sciences, more research is needed before the superiority of this method over others can be resolved. Thomas D. Albright et al., Identifying the Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification, National Academy of Sciences (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2014), 3.
48. “Report Urges Caution in Handling and Relying upon Eyewitness Identifications in Criminal Cases, Recommends Best Practices for Law Enforcement and Courts,” National Academies, Oct 2, 2014, www.8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=18891.
49. Ibid.
50. As of early 2017, prosecution has appealed this ruling and the case is currently pending in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. See Steve Almasy, “Making a Murderer: Brendan Dassey Conviction Overturned,” CNN, Aug 12, 2016, www.cnn.com/2016/08/12/us/making-a-murderer-brendan-dassey-conviction-overturned.
51. For information on the HIG and PEACE interrogation techniques, see James L. Trainum, How the Police Generate False Confessions: An Inside Look at the Interrogation Room (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016); Kelly McEvers, “In New Age of Interrogations, Police Focus on Building Rapport,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, May 23, 2016, www.npr.org/2016/05/23/479207853/in-new-age-of-interrogations-police-focus-on-building-rapport; “Symposium Facilitates Exchange of Research on Lawful Interrogations,” FBI, Oct 27, 2015, www.fbi.gov/news/stories/symposium-facilitates-exchange-of-research-on-lawful-interrogations; Robert Kolker, “Nothing but the Truth,” Marshall Project, May 24, 2016, www.themarshallproject.org/2016/05/24/nothing-but-the-truth#.IkBS3CvTk.
52. Robert Kolker, “A Severed Head, Two Cops, and the Radical Future of Interrogation,” Wired, May 24, 2016, www.wired.com/2016/05/how-to-interrogate-suspects.
53. “Contributing Causes of Wrongful Convictions (First 325 DNA Exonerations),” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction (accessed May 5, 2015).
54. “% Exonerations by Contributing Factor,” National Registry of Exonerations, www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/ExonerationsContribFactorsByCrime.aspx (accessed Dec 10, 2016).
55. Hon. Alex Kozinski, “Preface: Criminal Law 2.0,” Georgetown Law Journal Annual Review of Criminal Procedure 44 (2015): iii–xliv, http://georgetownlawjournal.org/files/2015/06/Kozinski_Preface.pdf.
56. Ibid. See also, Henry Weinstein, “Use of Jailhouse Testimony Is Uneven in State,” Los Angeles Times, Sept 21, 2006, http://articles.latimes.com/2006/sep/21/local/me-jailhouse21.
57. Ibid. See also, Russell D. Covey, “Abolishing Jailhouse Snitch Testimony,” Wake Forest Law Review 49 (Jan 2014): 1375.
58. See David A. Harris, Failed Evidence: Why Law Enforcement Resists Science (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Kevin J. Strom and Matthew J. Hickman, Forensic Science and the Administration of Justice: Critical Issues and Directions (New York: Sage Publications, 2014). See also, Sandra Guerra Thompson, Cops in Lab Coats: Curbing Wrongful Convictions through Independent Forensic Laboratories (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2015).
59. Stephen A. Cooper, “D.C. Judge Rejects Junk Science but the Law Is Slow to Follow,” Huffington Post, Jan 25, 2016, www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-a-cooper/dc-judge-rejects-junk-sci_b_9063476.html.
60. Quoted in Laura Ricciardi and Moira Demos, “The Last Person to See Teresa Alive,” Making a Murderer, Netflix Streaming, Dec 18, 2015. Documentary web series, episode 5, sixty minutes.
61. Mark A. Godsey and Marie Alou, “She Blinded Me with Science: Wrongful Convictions and the ‘Reverse CSI-Effect,’” Texas Wesleyan Law Review 17 (2011): 481.
62. This “cascading effect” is most frequently found in cases involving false confession. Saul M. Kassin, Daniel Bogart, and Jacqueline Kerner, “Confessions That Corrupt: Evidence from the DNA Exoneration Case Files,” Psychological Science 23 (Jan 2012): 41–45, doi: 10.1177/0956797611422918.
63. Findley, “Tunnel Vision.”
1. Brigit Katz, “Making a Murderer Lawyer Says Humility Is Needed to Change a Flawed Legal System,” New York Times, Jan 29, 2016, http://nytlive.nytimes.com/womenintheworld/2016/01/29/making-a-murderer-lawyer-says-humility-is-the-answer-to-flawed-legal-system.
2. See, for reference, Siegfried L. Sporer, Psychological Issues in Eyewitness Identification (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1996); Brian L. Cutler and Margaret Bull Kovera, Evaluating Eyewitness Identification (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010); Committee on Scientific Approaches to Understanding and Maximizing the Validity and Reliability of Eyewitness Identification et al., Identifying the Culprit: Assessing Eyewitness Identification (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2015); Ethan Brown, Snitch: Informants, Cooperators, and the Corruption of Justice (New York: Public Affairs, 2007); David A. Harris, Failed Evidence: Why Law Enforcement Resists Science (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Sandra Guerra Thompson, Cops in Lab Coats: Curbing Wrongful Convictions through Independent Forensic Laboratories (Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2015); Richard A. Leo, Police Interrogation and American Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009); Tom Wells and Richard A. Leo, The Wrong Guys: Murder, False Confessions, and the Norfolk Four (New York: New Press, 2008).
3. Committee on Scientific Approaches to Understanding and Maximizing the Validity and Reliability of Eyewitness Identification et al., Identifying the Culprit; Itiel E. Dror and Simon A. Cole, “The Vision in ‘Blind’ Justice: Expert Perception, Judgment, and Visual Cognition in Forensic Pattern Recognition,” Psychonomic Bulletin and Review 17 (2010): 163, doi:10.3758; Itiel E. Dror, “Practical Solutions to Cognitive and Human Factor Challenges in Forensic Science,” Forensic Science Policy and Management 4 (2013), doi: 10.1080/19409044.2014.901437; Itiel E. Dror, “Cognitive Neuroscience in Forensic Science: Understanding and Utilizing the Human Element,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B (Mar 2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0255; Kevin J. Strom and Matthew J. Hickman, Forensic Science and the Administration of Justice: Critical Issues and Directions (New York: Sage Publications, 2014); Harris, Failed Evidence; Thompson, Cops in Lab Coats.
4. Ibid., 198–99, 211.
5. See Sophie Stammers and Sarah Bunn, “Unintentional Bias in Forensic Investigation,” Postbrief, Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (Oct 2015), researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POST-PB-0015/POST-PB-0015.pdf; see also, Dror and Cole, “The Vision in ‘Blind’ Justice.”
6. Inadequate defense lawyering is a major contributing factor to wrongful conviction: “The failure of overworked lawyers to investigate, call witnesses or prepare for trial has led to the conviction of innocent people. When a defense lawyer doesn’t do his or her job, the defendant suffers. Shrinking funding and access to resources for public defenders and court-appointed attorneys is only making the problem worse.” “Inadequate Defense,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes/inadequate-defense (accessed May 20, 2016). See also the Innocence Project’s report by Dr. Emily M. West, “Court Findings of Ineffective Assistance of Counsel Claims in Post-Conviction Appeals among the First 255 DNA Exoneration Cases,” Innocence Project, Sept 2016, www.innocenceproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Innocence_Project_IAC_Report.pdf; “Inadequately Funded Public Defender Services Threaten Criminal Justice System, ACLU Testifies,” American Civil Liberties Union, Mar 26, 2009, www.aclu.org/news/inadequately-funded-public-defender-services-threaten-criminal-justice-system-aclu-testifies.
7. This kind of training is already implemented in the business world, where executives often engage in high-stakes decision making. For reference, see Max H. Bazerman and Dolly Chugh, “Decisions without Blinders,” Harvard Business Review, Jan 2006 (discussing the benefits of training individuals to recognize tunnel vision when engaging in the decision-making process), https://hbr.org/2006/01/decisions-without-blinders; Judith Winters Spain et al., “Tunnel Vision: A Multi-Perspective Model and Case Application of Organizational Social Responsibility,” paper distributed by the Department of Management, Marketing, and Administrative Communication at Eastern Kentucky University, (suggesting that executives train employees to recognize their own biases to engage in better decision making), http://people.eku.edu/englea/TunnelVisionconfproceed.htm. See also, Daniel S. Medwed, Prosecution Complex: America’s Race to Convict and Its impact on the Innocent (New York: New York University Press, 2012); Keith Findley, “Tunnel Vision,” in Conviction of the Innocent: Lessons from Psychological Research, ed. Brian Culter (Washington, D.C.: APA Press, 2010), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1604658; Keith Findley and Michael S. Scott, “The Multiple Dimensions of Tunnel Vision in Criminal Cases,” Wisconsin Law Review 2 (Jun 2006), http://ssrn.com/abstract=911240; Laurie L. Levenson, “The Cure for the Cynical Prosecutors’ Syndrome: Rethinking a Prosecutor’s Role in Post-Conviction Cases,” Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law 20 (Aug 2015); Loyola Law School, Los Diegoes Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2015-27, available at SSRN, https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=264829 (accessed May 1, 2017).
8. See “Tunnel Vision,” in FPT Heads of Prosecutions Committee Report of the Working Group on the Prevention of Miscarriages of Justice, Government of Canada Department of Justice, Jan 7, 2015, www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/cj-jp/ccr-rc/pmj-pej/p4.html#s44.
9. “A Messy Supreme Court Case Shows Why Judges Should Be Appointed, Not Elected,” Washington Post, Jan 21, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/a-messy-supreme-court-case-shows-why-judges-should-be-appointed-not-elected/2015/01/21/dab54610-a0f6-11e4-9f89-561284a573f8_story.html; John L. Dodd et al., “The Case for Judicial Appointments,” Federalist Society, Jan 1, 2003, www.fed-soc.org/publications/detail/the-case-for-judicial-appointments. For a general discussion of how the current system to elect prosecutor’s came about in the United States, see Michael J. Ellis, “The Origins of the Elected Prosecutor,” Yale Law Journal 121, no. 6 (Apr 2012): 1528–69.
10. “The Causes of Wrongful Conviction,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes-wrongful-conviction (accessed May 19, 2016).
11. See Phil Locke, “Why a Wrongful Conviction Is Like a Plane Crash—or Should Be,” Wrongful Convictions Blog, Feb 16, 2015, https://wrongfulconvictionsblog.org/2015/02/16/why-a-wrongful-conviction-is-like-a-plane-crash-or-should-be; Sarina Houston, “Inside the Aircraft Accident Investigation Process,” About Money, Dec 19, 2014, http://aviation.about.com/od/Accidents/a/Inside-The-Aircraft-Accident-Investigation-Process.htm.
12. Fred C. Lunenburg, “Devil’s Advocacy and Dialectical Inquiry: Antidotes to Groupthink,” International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity 14 (Nov 2012): 5–6.
13. Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Companies (New York: Harper Business, 2006).
14. See, e.g., Max H. Bazerman and Dolly Chugh, “Decisions without Blinders,” Harvard Business Review, Jan 2006, https://hbr.org/2006/01/decisions-without-blinders.
15. “Eyewitness Misidentification,” Innocence Project, www.innocenceproject.org/causes/eyewitness-misidentification (accessed May 19, 2016).
16. Thomas P. Sullivan, “Compendium: Electronic Recording of Custodial Interrogations,” National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers, Jan 8, 2016, www.nacdl.org/criminaldefense.aspx?id=31573&libID=31542 (pdf available for download).
17. Wicklander-Zulawski and Associates, press release, “WZ Discontinues Reid Method,” Mar 6, 2017, www.w-z.com/portfolio/press-release.
18. See Spencer S. Hsu, “FBI Admits Flaws in Hair Analysis over Decades,” Washington Post, Apr 18, 2015, www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/fbi-overstated-forensic-hair-matches-in-nearly-all-criminal-trials-for-decades/2015/04/18/39c8d8c6-e515-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_story.html.
19. See Spencer S. Hsu, “Santae Tribble Cleared in 1978 Murder Based on DNA Hair Test,” Washington Post, Dec 14, 2012, www.washingtonpost.com/local/crime/dc-judge-exonerates-santae-tribble-of-1978-murder-based-on-dna-hair-test/2012/12/14/da71ce00-d02c-11e1-b630-190a983a2e0d_story.html; “North Carolina Man Convicted Based on Erroneous Microscopic Hair Evidence Exonerated after Wrongly Serving 25 Years,” Innocence Project, Mar 2, 2016, www.innocenceproject.org/north-carolina-man-convicted-based-on-erroneous-microscopic-hair-evidence-exonerated-after-wrongly-serving-25-years; George Graham, “After 30 Years in Jail, George Perrot of Springfield Freed after Rape Conviction Overturned,” Mass Live, Feb 11, 2016, www.masslive.com/news/index.ssf/2016/02/george_perrot_springfield_man.html.
20. “General Information,” National Commission on Forensic Science, www.justice.gov/ncfs (accessed May 19, 2016).
21. Spencer S. Hsu, “Sessions Orders Justice Dept. to End Forensic Science Commission, Suspend Review Policy,” Washington Post, Apr 10, 2017, www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/sessions-orders-justice-dept-to-end-forensic-science-commission-suspend-review-policy/2017/04/10/2dada0ca-1c96-11e7-9887-1a5314b56a08_story.html?utm_term=.346af0d125aa.
22. “Ohio Enacts Historic Reforms,” Innocence Project, Apr 5, 2010, www.innocenceproject.org/ohio-enacts-historic-reforms. See also, Alana Salzberg, “Ohio Passes Major Package of Reforms on Wrongful Convictions; Governor Is Expected to Sign Bill, Making Ohio a National Model,” Innocence Project, Mar 16, 2010, www.innocenceproject.org/ohio-passes-major-package-of-reforms-on-wrongful-convictions-governor-is-expected-to-sign-bill-making-ohio-a-national-model.
23. See, for reference, Michael J. Naples, Effective Frequency: The Relationship between Frequency and Advertising Effectiveness (New York: Association of National Advertisers, 1979).
24. Conviction Review Unit, Brooklyn District Attorney’s Office, http://brooklynda.org/conviction-review-unit (accessed May 19, 2016).
25. Noah Fromson, “Conviction Integrity Units Expand beyond Texas Roots,” Texas Tribune, Mar 12, 2016, www.texastribune.org/2016/03/12/conviction-integrity-units-expand-beyond-texas-roo.
26. “Quattrone Center Issues National Report on Best Practices for Conviction Review Units,” press release, Penn Law, University of Pennsylvania Law School, Apr 28, 2016, www.law.upenn.edu/live/news/6125-quattrone-center-issues-national-report-on-best#.VzEdGGDtye4.