Chapter 7
Hindu Gods and Goddesses
In This Chapter
Understanding that everything evolves from Brahman
Identifying the major Hindu gods and goddesses
Reviewing the Hindu firmament and Vedic gods
Recognizing beliefs about where Hindu gods reside
Hindus on their way to worship a deity call the event a darshan, meaning an auspicious visit to “see” God. And they do visualize and “see” many gods.
The word Hindu and the idea of multiple gods and goddesses are synonymous. When people of other faiths think about Hinduism, the images that come to mind must be the variety of idols and pictures depicting deities. As I explain in Chapter 6, it is a rare Hindu household that has only one picture or one statue of the god the family worships. Most families — from the poorest to the most affluent — have multiple representations of gods in their homes, including on calendars; in pictures of temples; or as icons made of metal, wood, plaster of Paris, paper mache, and even plastic.
This chapter introduces you to Hinduism’s key gods and goddesses, from Brahman, the One Supreme Soul, to the gods that comprise the Hindu Trinity (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva), and many others besides. I also explain how you can identify the gods and goddesses you see in pictures and statues, and I describe where Hindus believe their gods reside.
Starting with the One Supreme Soul
Early Hindus had a clear focus on the One Supreme Soul, identified as Brahman, referred to in the Chandogya Upanishad as the “One without a second.” Brahman is the sole, self-existing, Supreme Universal Soul. It manifests itself without limit, creating, destroying, and re-creating forever and ever. In other words, Brahman is the universe and all the forces in it.
Unlike the conceptualization of God in monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Brahman does not interact in human lives. The Brahman is simply there, forever, the pure spirit of the universe, and the goal of Hinduism is to reach back to that Brahman.
The root word for Brahman in Sanskrit is brih, meaning “to grow” or “to burst forth.” This fact is the basis for the saying that Brahman is expansive. (“All indeed is this Brahman,” says the Mandukya Upanishad, a sacred Hindu scripture.) The word brih is gender-neutral, meaning it is not a masculine or feminine word. That is why I refer to Brahman as “It” instead of “He” or “She.”
Out of this entity issues every visible and conceivable object, from the lowest level of a cell, to all that we see in nature, to demigods and spirits and a variety of gods. At the apex of all these aspects of Brahman are three principal gods and their consorts. These gods are defined as Trimurti and sometimes referred to as the Hindu Trinity:
Brahma, the creator. (Note that Brahma is not the same as Brahman.)
Vishnu, the preserver or pervader.
Shiva, who is in charge of the process of destroying all creation before another time cycle begins.
While these gods and their functions appear distinct, Hindus believe that they constantly exchange these roles as situations demand. In addition, any interaction between humans (or other creatures) and the divine starts at the Trimurti level and below, meaning visualization of physical representations of these gods and other demigods in worship. I discuss these three gods in more detail later in this chapter.
The Trimurtis share in the tasks of creating, caring for, and completing the lifecycle of a timespan of four yugas. A yuga is an era. As I explain in Chapter 1, there are four yugas:
Krita Yuga, which lasts 432,000 × 4 years
Treta Yuga, which lasts 432,000 × 3 years
Dwapara Yuga, which lasts 432,000 × 2 years
Kali Yuga, which lasts 432,000 years
A complete cycle from one creation to another therefore lasts about 4.32 million years. Hindus believe that our present age is Kali Yuga.
Identifying Gods by Their Portrayals
The first time you look at a picture of a Hindu deity in a book or on an Indian calendar, or the first time you see the sculpture of a deity, your reaction may be “Wow!” That’s because such representations often feature the following:
A multitude of colors.
More than a single pair of arms. Hindu gods typically have four arms, but the goddess Durga (shown in Figure 7-1) may be portrayed with eight or ten or eighteen!
A variety of weapons and/or other paraphernalia in the hands.
Specific gestures (called mudras) represented by the hand and arm positions.
A variety of animals serving as conveyance vehicles or symbols.
A variety of markings on the face.
Elaborate decorations.
Other deities that appear in the same setting. Some gods have one or more associated deities (a consort or two, a sibling, or a companion animal, for example) and a group of worshippers standing nearby.
All these elements may seem confusing to a non-Hindu, but for a Hindu, they make the god instantly recognizable. Figure 7-1, for example, shows a representation of the goddess Durga, whom you can read about in the later section “The Feminine Divine.”
As you try to comprehend this busy and complex portrayal, keep in mind the Hindu’s desire to see divinity in superhuman form. The goal is to feel the presence of a higher power that invokes a certain level of reverence. To the Hindu, these complex portrayals most certainly accomplish that function.
The very first thing to note when you look at a picture or sculpture of a male deity is the type of mark that has been applied to the forehead. It’s your first clue in classifying its sectarian identity. (As I explain in Chapter 4, Hinduism has four major denominations and myriad sects and subsects.)
The mark of Vishnu: Male gods that are forms or incarnations of Vishnu (such as Rama, Krishna, and Venkateshwara) typically carry three nearly parallel vertical lines known as Nama drawn on the forehead; the two outer ones in white, about two to three inches apart, and the center one in red. With minor variations, this symbol is typical of the Vaishnava denomination; the attending priest normally has the same pattern applied to his forehead. See Chapter 4 for more details about this marking, as well as a photograph of it.
The mark of Shiva: The mark worn by a male deity who is a form or incarnation or son of Shiva (such as Murugan or Ganapati) consists of three horizontal white/gray lines (made with ash) that span the entire width of the forehead. The mark is known as Vibhooti, and you can see a photo of it in Chapter 4. The priest at a sanctum (holy space) of the Shaivite denomination will draw the same three horizontal lines on his forehead, and sometimes on his arms and upper body. The three lines are believed to represent the three qualities inherent in humans: Sattva (noble), Rajas (vibrant), and Tamas (inert).
Figure 7-1: Portrayals of Hindu deities are complex — and beautiful.
Brahma, the Creator
Brahma, shown in Figure 7-2a, is the first member of the Hindu Trinity. He is often shown emerging from a lotus flower growing out of god Vishnu in his form as Narayana, floating on the vast causal cosmic ocean.
Hindus consider Brahma to be the Golden Embryo from which all the forms in the universe developed. He was, according to Hindu mythology, the first ever person, and all beings are considered his progeny; he is therefore referred to as Lord of Progeny (Prajapati).
Figure 7-2: (a) The four-headed Brahma; (b) Saraswati, the goddess of learning.
Attributes of Brahma
Brahma has the following attributes in visual representations:
He has four heads. The heads face each of the four directions, and they are believed to represent the four Vedas (Hindus’ most sacred texts), the four yugas (which I explain earlier in this chapter), and the four divisions in the Hindu societal structure (see Chapter 5).
He has four arms. He may be shown holding a rosary (representing the counting of time) or a sheaf of grass, ladle, or water pot, all of which are used in Vedic sacrifices. He also holds a book, which represents knowledge.
The palm of one hand faces forward in a gesture called abhaya mudra, which means “fear not.”
He is sometimes portrayed as seated on a swan.
His consort is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. The next section has more information about goddess Saraswati.
There are very few temples for Brahma; you learn the reason in Chapter 18. Those that do exist include a temple in Pushkar in the state of Rajasthan, India, and one in Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Based on the vastu shastra (a Hindu architectural manual), a space for Brahma is reserved at the center of the base of the main sanctum in every Hindu temple. In addition, an outline of Brahma is included at the center of the shrine in every sanctified Hindu temple. This image helps locate all sanctums in the temple with reference to Brahma’s location. However, while other sanctums are built and the specified deities are installed (see Chapter 15), Brahma is there only in spirit.
Brahma’s consort: Saraswati, the goddess of learning
The goddess Saraswati is the consort of Brahma the creator and is worshipped as the goddess of learning, wisdom, speech, and music. Hindus offer prayers to Saraswati before beginning any intellectual pursuit, and Hindu students are encouraged to offer prayers to her during the school/college term and especially before and during examinations!
Saraswati is portrayed as a beautiful, white-clad goddess, exemplifying serenity and wisdom. She has four arms and holds a veena (lute), a pearl rosary, and a manuscript. She is sometimes seated or riding on a swan or peacock (see Figure 7-2b).
Annual festivals to celebrate Saraswati emphasize Hindus’ recognition of the need to acquire jnana (wisdom) as an indispensable tool of life. The very first stanza in the great Hindu epic called the Mahabharata (see Chapter 12) is an invocation to Saraswati:
Upon saluting Narayana and Goddess Saraswati,
as well as the noblest of men, Arjuna, shall one undertake the study.
Vishnu, the Preserver
Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Trinity; he maintains the order and harmony of the universe periodically created by Brahma and periodically destroyed by Shiva (to prepare for the next cycle of creation). Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in his several avatars (incarnations, which you can read about in Chapter 8).
In the Vedas (one of Hindus’ most sacred texts), Vishnu is an important, somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than many of the nature gods that preside over elements, such as fire, rain, and storms, Vishnu is the pervader — the divine essence that pervades the universe.
Vishnu and his forms are worshipped primarily (but not exclusively) by Vaishnavites and Smartas. (See Chapter 4 for details about these Hindu denominations.)
Attributes of Vishnu
Through the ages, whole treatises, stories, and poems have been written on Vishnu’s attributes. Here are just the highlights:
He has an erect, forward-looking stance and wears a benevolent expression on his face.
He is dark blue in color. On his chest is a jewel, and a five-row garland of flowers or jewels hangs around his neck.
He has four arms. He holds his lower right hand in an abhaya mudra (gesture), meaning “fear not.” In his upper right hand, he holds the discus, a circular, saw-toothed weapon useful in battles fought to preserve dharma. The upper left hand holds the conch, which symbolizes victory and the five elements (air, ether, water, fire, and earth). His lower left hand holds a mace, which represents the power of knowledge and protection. Sometimes the lower right hand simply points to his feet, suggesting surrender by the devotee.
His vehicle is the eagle Garuda.
Divinities related to Vishnu
Vishnu is more often recognized and worshipped by other names (Venkateshwara, Balaji, Srinivasa, Satyanarayana or Narayana, and Jagannath) and through his ten avatars, which I discuss in detail in Chapter 8. Here, I explain the divine forms Vishnu takes and two of the avatars, Rama and Krishna, which have developed large followings over the centuries.
Vishnu as Venkateshwara, lord of the seven hills
Venkateshwara is worshipped by all devout Hindus irrespective of their special and regional affiliations. The very name (which is a combination of Venkata and Ishwara) may also imply a unification of Vaishnavite and Shaivite beliefs. (See Chapter 4 for details about these beliefs.)
The most famous shrine to Venkateshwara is at Tirupati on the crest of the Seshadri Hills in the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Here he gives darshan (blessed sight) to millions of devotees from all parts of India and the world. Venkateshwara’s blessings and his worshippers’ generosity have been so abundant that a university, a hospital, and a host of other institutions are all funded by the temple and managed under its direction.
Vishnu as Narayana
Narayana is another name for Vishnu, identified as one whose abode is the primeval waters. As Narayana, floating in the primeval ocean, Vishnu has two forms:
An infant lying on a lotus leaf, foot held in mouth, signifying time with no end and no beginning.
Vishnu reclining, dreaming, on the serpent Ananta (whose name literally means “endless”) while Lakshmi, his wife, holds his feet.
Vishnu as Jagannath, lord of the universe
In Chapter 16, I describe a chariot festival in the Indian state of Orissa that is centered around this form of Vishnu (and his avatar Krishna). Jagannath’s brother Balabhadra and sister Subhadra also feature in this event.
Vishnu as the avatar Rama
Rama is the prince of Ayodhya whose story is told in the Sanskrit epic called the Ramayana (“The Story of Rama”). Hindus have moved this hero up to the status of a major deity because they revere the qualities he represents: the ideal qualities of a king, spousal love, fraternal devotion, and the proper relationship between subjects and their king.
The historical dating of the reign of an actual prince of Ayodhya by the name of Rama is uncertain, although recent excavations claim to have found the structure raised over his birthplace.
In pictures and statues, Rama is represented as a young warrior holding a bow who is flanked on the right by his brother Lakshmana (who also holds a bow) and on the left by his wife Sita, a beautiful woman with a mild expression. Also in the grouping is his faithful servant, the monkey god Hanuman, who kneels at Rama’s feet. Figure 7-3a shows the Ram Parivar. the iconic grouping of Rama’s attributes that is immediately recognizable to Hindus.
Figure 7-3: (a) The Ram Parivar; (b) Krishna, the cowherd.
Vishnu as the avatar Krishna
If the name of one Hindu god is known and recognized throughout the world, it is Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. The form of Krishna most familiar to Hindus is that of Gopala or Govinda, a handsome young cowherd with a cow close behind and a flute held at his lips (see Figure 7-3b). His head gear is crested with a peacock feather, he is a cloud blue color, and his clothing is saffron. Another popular depiction shows him embracing his lover, Radha, in a circle of adoring dancing milkmaids (gopis).
Students of the Bhagavad Gita (see Chapter 13) know Krishna as the charioteer friend, cousin, and mentor of Arjuna. Students of the epic Mahabharata (see Chapter 12) know him as the pivot around which hundreds of ugly events occurred — events that were resolved through his intervention and guidance. But most of all, Lord Krishna’s promise to humanity that he will return to save the world whenever dharma declines has sustained Hindu belief in the Supreme Being over thousands of years.
Krishna is also the divine child as described in the story of his birth (which you can read about in Chapter 8). For his devotees, Krishna is a delight because of his playful, childish pranks. Hindus enjoy recalling how, when baby Krishna ate mud and his mother asked him to open his mouth, she saw the three worlds (earth, ether, and heavens) revealed.
Vishnu’s consorts
Vishnu has two consorts: the goddesses Lakshmi and Bhu Devi. Bhu Devi is the earth goddess, who was rescued from the primeval ocean by Varaha, Vishnu’s third incarnation — an avatar in the shape of a boar (see Chapter 8).
Lakshmi (also known as Mahalakshmi, meaning “great goddess Lakshmi”) is the goddess of good fortune, wealth, and wellbeing. She is depicted as a beautiful female form with four arms, standing or seated on a lotus and holding lotuses or showering gold pieces; see Figure 7-4. She is sometimes flanked by two elephants. She is also referred to as Sri (pronounced shree) and Kamala, among many other names.
Figure 7-4: Lakshmi.
The goddess Lakshmi bestows both wealth and wellbeing on her devotees. She is the consort of Vishnu, a role she plays in every incarnation. For example, she is Sita, wife of Rama; Rukmini, wife of Krishna; and Dharani, wife of Parashu Rama, another avatar of Vishnu. As I explain in Chapter 12, she was one of the 14 precious items recovered during the Amritamanthana, the famous churning of the milky ocean, and she emerged with a lotus in her hand.
A wide variety of prayers describing her various attributes are found in the Sri Sukta, a series of hymns in praise of Lakshmi. The practice of worshipping Lakshmi is a testimony to the importance ancient Hindus placed on the practical aspects of life. For example:
Hindu practice includes meditating first on Lakshmi upon waking up in the morning. Hindus open and hold their palms up together and recite the following:
At the top of the hands resides LakshmiAnd at the center SaraswatiAnd at the base resides Govinda.Thus we should look at our palms in the morning.
Among the days of the week, Fridays are most auspicious for the worship of Lakshmi. Hindus light lamps or turn on lights at dusk on Fridays to welcome Lakshmi.
At temples where an image of Lakshmi has been installed, an elaborate ceremony of worship to Lakshmi takes place on Friday evenings.
In traditional South Indian weddings, musicians perform a special song in praise of Lakshmi as the bride enters the wedding hall with her entourage because, on her wedding day, the bride is considered to be the embodiment of the goddess herself.
In addition, as goddess of wealth, Lakshmi holds a special role for merchants and businesses, especially at Diwali. This annual festival of lights coincides with New Year in many parts of India (see Chapter 16). Merchants and businesses use this special day of celebration to offer worship to Lakshmi, to close the books for the year, and to make preparations for the new fiscal year.
Shiva, the Destroyer
Shiva, whose name means “auspicious,” is the third member of the Hindu Trinity. He is tasked with the unmaking of the universe in order to prepare for its renewal at the end of each cycle of time (at the end of the fourth yuga). A key point to remember about Shiva is that his destructive power is regenerative: It’s the necessary step that makes renewal possible.
The power of Lord Shiva’s eternal penance (he is depicted as always in deep meditation, the disturbing of which causes major havoc) is such that Hindus customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any religious or spiritual endeavor. Hindus believe that any and all bad vibrations in the immediate vicinity of the worship venue or practice are eliminated by the mere utterance of Shiva’s praise or name. Shiva and his forms are worshipped primarily (and mostly) by Shaivites and Smartas (see Chapter 4).
Shiva is represented as Rudra, the howler among the Vedic gods (whom I introduce in the later section “Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu Firmament). He is red with a blue throat and four arms. In his hands he holds a trident. Above his brow is a crescent moon, in his hair is the River Ganges, and around his neck is a snake and a necklace of rudraksha beads (prayer beads) or pearls. He owns a spear called Pasupata (the herdsman’s staff). Shiva’s vehicle is a bull named Nandi. The most identifiable of his features, however, is his third eye, which he almost always keeps closed. When it does open, it is a disaster to anyone within its gaze; they simply burn away instantly. See Figure 7-5 for a representation of Shiva.
Figure 7-5: Shiva.
Forms of Shiva
Millions of devotees around the world worship Shiva. Each year, a certain night in February is devoted to celebrating Shivaratri, the “great night of Shiva” (see Chapter 16). Shiva has many forms, from a simple stone representation (called a lingam) to an ash-covered mendicant (beggar) deeply absorbed in meditation. Here are four forms of Shiva to remember:
As Kaala or time, the destroyer of worlds: At the end of Kali Yuga, the fourth age of the world (which Hindus believe we are in right now), evil threatens to overtake all of creation. Shiva, as Nataraja (Lord of Dance), performs the dance that undoes all forms and ends the yuga. This iconic image of Shiva shows him within a circle of fire with one leg raised and one resting on a recumbent body; Shiva holds a drum in one hand and a flame in the other. (See Chapter 4 for a picture of Shiva as Nataraja.)
As ascetic: In this form, Shiva spends eons in deep meditation, in his abode called Mount Kailas (or Kailasa) in the Himalayas. He is clothed in animal skins, his body is covered in ash, his hair is bound up on top of his head, and he sits with legs folded in the well-known yoga stance. His eyes are closed, shielding the unwary from his terrible third eye.
Several stories and dramas portray attempts to distract Shiva from his meditative trance. Most such stories end in disaster. An example is the tale of how the gods attempted to help Parvati, daughter of the mountains (Himalayas), tempt Shiva. Cupid (Kama), the lord of desire, was sent on this errand with his bow made of five flowers, but he was burnt to a cinder when Shiva opened his third eye. In time, Parvati was able to overcome Shiva by her power of true devotion.
As Pashupati, the herdsman (or lord of beasts): Shiva has an ancient task in which he roams the wild jungles using his healing powers for animals.
Shiva the Terrible (Bhairava): Shiva’s task as destroyer of a universe that has reeled beyond help at the end of the fourth era (the Kali Yuga) is helped by his role as midnight haunter of graveyards, a fearful being, controlling the forms of death and decadence.
The consorts of Shiva: Parvati and Sati
Both Parvati and Sati are Shiva’s consorts. Parvati (whose name literally mean “the daughter of the mountain,” referring to the Himalayas) is a peaceful, domestic form of the goddess known as Devi. (Devi’s other forms are described in the upcoming section “The Feminine Divine.”) Parvati created Shiva’s son Ganapati (or Ganesha) — the elephant-headed god — from her bath lotions, turmeric paste, and skin rubbings because she needed a guard for her chamber door.
Sati, worshipped as a paragon of virtues idealized by Hindu women, was a daughter of King Daksha. According to legend, when Daksha organized a great ceremony of sacrificial rituals, he did not invite his illustrious but questionable son-in-law because he had heard about Shiva’s occasional association with strange, dark spirits that tended to disrupt such rituals. In anger and shame over such disrespect for her husband, Sati threw herself into the ritual fire. Enraged and grief-stricken, Shiva disrupted Daksha’s sacrifice and then took up Sati’s body over his shoulder and moved north. As he traveled, Sati’s body fell to pieces in places that are now associated with Sati or with pilgrimage. Shiva sank into deep meditation in the mountains until he was finally revived by Parvati’s devotion. This story is considered the origin for the practice of suttee, or the voluntary burning of widows on their husband’s funeral pyre. The practice was never sanctioned by the Vedas or basic Hindu scriptures and is now outlawed.
Shiva’s sons
Shiva has two sons: Ganapati and Murugan. Ganapati is worshipped as the lord of obstacles. He is invoked by most Hindus before starting any auspicious undertaking; they pray for a smooth and flawless performance of the task at hand. Murugan is worshipped mostly by Tamilians (people who speak the language Tamil). I relate stories of these two sons of Shiva in this section.
Ganapati: The remover of obstacles
Ganapati is referred to reverentially as Maha Ganapati (“great Ganapati)” but is equally well-known as Ganesha and also known as Vighnaraja (“lord of obstacles”). Lord Ganapati occupies a very special place in the hearts of Hindus. Most Hindu households have a picture or statue of this godhead, and it’s not uncommon to see small replicas of Ganapati hanging from rearview mirrors of cars and trucks! The elephant head is the obvious clue to identifying this godhead.
The form of Ganapati with his elephant head and portly belly invokes enormous reverence (bhakti) among Hindus. Consider these examples:
Most Hindus, except for the Vaishnava denomination (generally speaking), believe that worshipping Ganapati first before any worthwhile undertaking is a must so that their task is blessed to proceed toward a successful conclusion. Most concerts of Indian classical music, for example, begin with a composition in praise of Ganapati.
Every September, a special festival is held throughout the Hindu world to make images of Ganapati in clay; color them in gold, yellow, pink, and red; worship the same image for ten days; and at the end perform what’s called a visarjan by immersing the image in a body of water. The festival is especially popular in the Indian state of Maharashtra. To this day, the festival takes place in grand style attracting millions to Maharashtra’s capital Mumbai. This religious fervor unites Hindus everywhere as no other festival has. Read more about it in Chapter 16.
Murugan
Shiva’s second son, Murugan (or Muruga) is a popular deity worshipped by Hindus, especially Tamilians, around the world. He is known by several names: Skanda, Kumara, Kartikeya, and Subrahmanya.
He was created when Shiva, disturbed by Kama Deva (Cupid) at the bequest of Parvati, opened his third eye and reduced Kama instantly to ashes. The ball of fire emanating from Shiva’s fury fell into a pool in Saravana, a forest of arrow-like grass in the Himalayas. Six sparks of fire turned into six babies, who were nursed by six mothers. When Parvati gathered the six babies and made them into one, the child was known as Shanmukha (“six faces”).
As interesting as Shanmukha/Murugan’s birth is, his story really begins with the havoc caused by an asura known as Taraka. Hindus believe that asuras, which are like demons, are power-seeking deities that acquire enormous strength through their devotees’ austerities and prayers. They generally long for supremacy over the devas (gods), tormenting humans and creating havoc during sacred ceremonies. They also are not easy to defeat. Taraka set out to conquer the entire universe and nothing, it appeared, could stop him. But Murugan became a general of Shiva’s army, and his mother Parvati gifted him with a powerful lance called Vel. He and his army destroyed Taraka in a six-day battle (which is now celebrated on the sixth day in October–November), and the devas were liberated.
The Feminine Divine
A unique feature of Hinduism is the worship of goddesses as well as gods. Lakshmi, Saraswati, Sita, Radha, and a host of other goddesses are worshipped by millions of Hindus around the world. Earth is worshipped as Bhumi Mata, Mother Earth. The aspect of mother and the associated reverence, love, compassion, and respect are clearly implied in these rituals.
The female form, especially in the case of the deities I list in the previous paragraph, is generally accepted as representing a role supportive of a male deity, be it Brahma, Vishnu, or Shiva. In temples throughout India and abroad, sanctums of female consorts usually flank those of the major male deities, even if the goddesses have a substantial personal following themselves.
At the same time, the female form is associated with shakti, awesome creative strength and power — a resource that the gods recognize and depend on. This is particularly true of regional forms of Parvati, the wife and consort of Shiva. These forms include Durga Devi and Kali, which I discuss in detail next.
Durga Devi
Durga Devi is the goddess who signifies the shakti aspect in all its implied creative and destructive power. The mission of Durga is primary, not supportive, and therefore her actions are not typical of a female consort. Because of this independence, she is powerful, even frightening at times, with an unusual spirit to fight fiercely in order to restore dharma (moral order). Yet, while Durga is at once a terrifying Shakti Mata (“powerful mother”) to her adversaries, she is full of compassion and love for her devotees.
The story of Durga’s birth
The manner in which the manifestation of Durga came about is unlike that of other goddesses. When the demon Mahisha Asura conquered the heavens and drove Indra (lord of gods) out of his kingdom, the gods began to descend to earth. Brahma and Shiva knew they could not bear this assault on dharma anymore. All the gods and demigods visited Vishnu to discuss the news of Mahisha’s onslaught and the resulting lack of balance between forces of good and evil. The recounting of events angered the assembled gods so much that bolts of light began to issue from their bodies. The fusion of these lights gave birth to a feminine form known as Durga, who was gifted with immense power. Each part of the goddess was formed from bolts of light emanating from individual gods. For example, her face came into being by Shiva’s light, her hair from Yama’s light, her arms from Vishnu’s light, her feet from Brahma’s light, and so on! In addition, the gods offered her a variety of weaponry: a trident from Shiva, a discus from Vishnu, a conch from Varuna, a spear from Agni, a bow and quiver full of arrows from Vayu, a thunderbolt from Indra, a noose from Yama, and more.
Fully armed, Durga roared with anger and the three worlds (the earth, ether, and heavens) shook. There ensued a fierce battle between her and the asura forces of Mahisha. Thousands of asuras were slain in the gruesome battle, and the enormous loss of his army brought forth Mahisha himself to the battlefield. He had supreme confidence that he could never die in battle because he had, through his own penance, received a boon (gift) from the gods that no man could kill him ever. He was immensely satisfied with that boon because he had never thought to include freedom from death at the hands of a woman! Mahisha assumed several animal forms in an attempt to overcome her, but finally Durga slew Mahisha by stomping on him and driving a trident through his heart. Thus ended the saga of Mahisha, which restored dharma, returned the three worlds to order, and restored the balance of good against evil.
Durga’s attributes and festivals
Durga is visualized as a beautiful, powerful female divinity riding a lion and fully armed in all her hands (refer to Figure 7-1). Festivals to celebrate Durga each year emphasize Hindus’ recognition of the need for strength to protect dharma. In worshipping Durga, Hindus celebrate the feminine principle for its strength and fortitude as well as compassion, and they seek her grace and blessings.
Kali, the destructive power of time
Kali is the terrifying aspect of Durga. While Durga is strong and even violent in action, a militant power against evil, she is beautiful in form. Kali, while basically attractive, has some ugly attributes in her battle against evil and against illusion.
Kali’s appearance is fearsome: She is dark in color to represent that, at the end of the fourth yuga, all forms dissolve into a dark night and all colors disappear until the next creation. Her tongue hangs from her mouth to indicate a loud laugh. She stands on a corpse that represents what is left of the nonexistent or destroyed universe. Although she is clad in space (that is, naked), she wears a necklace of skulls and a belt of arms. She has four arms, two of which hold a head and a sword; the other two are positioned in the “fear not” and the “giving of boons” gestures (mudras).
The boon that Kali offers is that knowledge and perspective pertaining to the passage of time, with no illusions, remove fear. This understanding allows bliss to be granted by Kali’s giving hand. She is frightful because of the illusion that must be abandoned and the fear that such a loss entails, but Kali destroys despair.
Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu Firmament
The gods named and described in this section, and many others connected with households and communities, are found in the Rig Veda, the earliest book of Hindu sacred scripture (see Chapter 10). Known and revered as the Vedic gods, they are invoked and worshipped daily in all household and many temple rituals. As such they are basic to the living, ritual culture of Hinduism. Except for Surya the sun, these gods have no temples built to them or personal following, although Hindus revere them deeply.
The Vedic gods fall into these general categories:
Nature gods, especially gods connected with weather and climate
Planetary gods who feature in destiny and the composition of horoscopes
Gods who rule over household health and wealth and community values
Although separated and categorized here for convenience, all these areas of human concern are considered to influence each other in the Hindu universe.
Indra and the Vedic storm gods
Indra, the king of heaven and lord of the gods, wields a thunderbolt and brings rain. He is a hero and a warrior mounted on a white horse or immense white elephant. His bow is the rainbow, and he resides in Amaravati (“immortal city”) near the mythical Mount Meru. His wife is Indrani (also called Sachi). More hymns are addressed to Indra than to any other god in the Rig Veda because he is the chief of gods and provider of rain.
Legend has it that with all this adoration and his position as the head of all gods, he became arrogant. Thus, when the folks in Lord Krishna’s kingdom offered worship to a local hill known as Mount Govardhan instead (on Krishna’s advice, no doubt ) because they recognized the true source of rains, Indra became furious and sent continuous rain, thunder, and lightning to scare the populace. Krishna came to their rescue and held up the entire mountain to shelter them from Indra’s onslaught. It was then that Indra understood the source of the problem — his own arrogance and Krishna’s plan to teach him a lesson. He begged Krishna to forgive him. Lord Krishna forgave Indra and allowed the worship of Indra on that particular day in winter at a festival known as Bhogi.
Indra is not the only Hindu god associated with weather. The weather above the earth is controlled by Vayu (wind lord), the Maruts (storm gods), and the fearful deity called Rudra, the howler, who was later associated with Shiva.
Varuna, who is lord of the waters that circle the earth and rivers, is also seen as affecting the waters of heaven.
The sun and planets as rulers of destiny
The planetary gods are the navagrahas (literally, the “nine planets”):
Surya, the sun, is a golden warrior arriving on a chariot pulled by seven white horses; his color is gold or copper; his favored grain for offering is wheat.
Chandra, the moon, is a gentle sage dressed in white, riding a deer or a three-wheeled chariot; his color is pearl white; his favored grain is rice. The moon, also called Soma, is the timekeeper who counts out the years; he is also the cup of immortal ambrosia from which the gods drink periodically and which then fills up again.
Angaraka, or Mangala, the planet Mars, is a young warrior armed with a spear; his color is red; his favored grain is red or toor lentil.
Budha, the planet Mercury, is a gentle sage; his color is green; his favored grain is moong lentil.
Brihaspati, the planet Jupiter, is the guru of the gods; his color is saffron yellow; his favored grain is peanuts or chic peas.
Shukra, the planet Venus, is the guru of the asuras; his color is diamond white; his favored grain is a small bean.
Shani, the planet Saturn, is the son of Surya and brother of Yama, judge of the dead; his color is dark blue; his favored grain is sesame.
Rahu, the eclipse, is represented as a mouth that threatens to swallow the sun and moon. His image in temples, a head with no tail, never faces that of the sun or the moon. His color is smoke grey; his favored grain is urad lentil.
Ketu, the comet, is the unlucky trailing tail with no head attached; his color is khaki green; his favored grain is horsegram.
These deities are invoked in rituals and are also studied avidly by astrologers who provide horoscopes at the birth of a child. (Ancient Hindus believed that the position of planets at the precise moment of birth launched a life into a dynamic system and that the subsequent fortune of that person depended upon the initial conditions of the total system.) Many Hindus today continue this custom, seeking astrological advice before undertaking a task or a journey or any important step in life, or exchanging and studying horoscopes in the proposal stage of an arranged marriage.
Worship of nature has always been an important aspect of Hindu prayer. During sacred ceremonies, Hindus invoke sacred rivers and fire, and they refer to the year, month, day, season, position, and phase of the moon and integrate all these to specify time and space. This procedure is called sankalpam. (See Chapter 17 for more information on worship rituals.)
Agni and the Vedic gods of home and community
Agni, the fire god, holds a special place in Hindu ritual to this day as
The sacrificer: The priest who performs the ceremony as specified in the Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn 1, Verse 1)
The sacrifice: The ritual fire and the offerings made into it.
The witness: The one who sees all rites. For example, Hindus consider Agni to be the witness to a wedding.
The Sanskrit word for the fire ritual is homa (related to the word for “home”) or havan (related to the word for “oven”).
Not long ago, the fire initiated for Hindu wedding rites was kindled from the bride’s parents’ home fire and carried carefully with her to her husband’s home. A beautiful hymn from the Rig Veda tells how the daughter of the sun went to marry Soma, the moon god. The description of her escort is a catalogue of the household virtues and guardian deities of the early Vedic world:
The Ashwins, twin heavenly horsemen who heal horses and cattle
Mitra, god of friendship and god of contracts
Varuna, here referring to divine law
Aryaman, the personification of family honor
Bhaga, the personification of ancestral share of property
Pusan, the guardian of the roads and nourisher
Purandhi, abundance
Matarisvan, spark of conception
Dhatar, sustainer
Destri, a form of Saraswati (goddess of learning) associated with easy birth
Many of these household deities, some better known than others, are still invoked during Vedic wedding fire rituals today.
Discovering Where the Gods Reside
Where can all these Hindu gods be found? The heavens? Special worlds? Mountaintops? Yes! Hindus sum it all up by saying that God is everywhere. Still, Hindus recognize special abodes for gods. The belief is to allow for a gradation of higher worlds to accommodate both the divinities and humans (including insects, animals, and so on) and lower worlds for subhuman and demonic types.
Thus, Hindus speak of a total of 14 worlds called lokas with the earth situated in the middle. In a simpler version, there are three worlds. I explain both mythologies here, starting with the simpler version.
Introducing the three worlds
Hindus define three worlds inhabited by people and gods:
The physical world of the universe (known as bhur in Sanskrit).
The world of atmosphere (bhuvas).
The realm of the gods (svar). The Sanskrit word swarga, for heaven, comes from this root word.
Humans live in the physical world, performing actions and enjoying the world within the framework of acceptable codes of conduct. Gods descend to this world in some form whenever there is an unacceptable imbalance between good and evil.
The world of atmosphere exists above the physical world. Here live the demigods and spirits, such as Indra (god of thunder, lightning, and rain), Rudra (destroying and dissolving power), and Vayu (the wind god).
The realm of the gods is above the world of atmosphere. In this topmost world resides Vishnu, along with other major gods such as Rita (the god of righteousness), Dyaus (the god of the sky ), Varuna (the god of the waters), and Mitra (the god of day). This location up above is popularly referred to as Vaikunta, to which a departed soul can enter if conditions are right.
Magnificent mountains are also identified as abodes of gods. For example, Mount Meru is considered to be the abode of Brahma and Indra. Shiva is believed to reside in Mount Kailash in Tibet.
Looking at all 14 worlds
In another version, Hindu mythology recognizes worlds above and below the earth. Specifically, the six worlds above the earth are the preferred ones for the soul and the seven below are to be feared.
The lowest of the higher worlds is the earth (bhu). The six worlds above the earth are called bhuva, suva, maha, jana, tapa, and satya. The highest, not surprisingly, is the abode of Brahma and is known as the world of Truth (satya loka) reached after successfully passing through the worlds of a hierarchy of gods as the result of living a purer and purer life on earth.
Below the earth are the seven hells called talas: atala, bitala, sutala, talatala, rasatala, mahatala, and patala. These hells are inhabited by those who need to undergo suffering based on the level of their condemnable actions while on earth. The lowest is considered an abode of demons and serpents and is reached successively through a hierarchy of hells due to worsening lives on earth birth after birth.