1. Hao Wang, Reflections on Kurt Gödel (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 112.
1. Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell (London: Routledge, 1998), 466.
2. Ronald Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: HarperCollins, 1984), 642.
3. Autobiography, 155.
4. See Satoshi Kanazawa, “Why Productivity Fades with Age: The Crime-Genius Connection,” Journal of Research in Personality (2003), 37: 257–72. See also Dean Keith Simonton, Scientific Genius: A Psychology of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
5. Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein: A Biography, trans. Ewald Osers (New York: Viking, 1997), 694.
6. S. Chandrasekhar, Truth and Beauty: Aesthetics and Motivations in Science (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 48.
7. In The Structures of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), Kuhn argues against a conventional notion of progress in science as if each successive scientific theory were simply “a better representation of what nature is really like” (206). He takes a more relativistic stance, and his “paradigm shifts” are more complexly layered. Thus, he “do[es] not doubt, for example, that Newton's mechanics improves on Aristotle's and that Einstein's improves upon Newton's as instruments for puzzle-solving. But I can see in their succession no coherent direction of ontological development. On the contrary, in some important aspects, but by no means in all, Einstein's general theory of relativity is closer to Aristotle's than either of them is to Newton's” (206–7). Yet each developed his theory within the historical context of a collectively “created” paradigm.
8. Quoted in Banesh Hoffmann, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel (New York: Penguin, 1972), 257.
9. Bertrand Russell, My Philosophical Development (London and NY: Allen and Unwin, 1959), 57.
10. Quoted in Charles P. Enz, No Time to Be Brief: A Scientific Biography of Wolfgang Pauli (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 355.
11. Ibid., 392.
12. Folsing, 679. Translation revised by Burton Feldman.
13. Ibid., 648.
14. Ibid., 688.
15. Ibid., 690.
1. Denis Brian, Einstein: A Life (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 276.
2. Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein, trans. Ewald Osers (New York: Penguin, 1997), 651, 330.
3. Albert Einstein and Michele Besso, Correspondence, 1903–1955 (Paris: Hermann, 1972), 538. Translation by Burton Feldman.
4. Niccolo Tucci, “The Great Foreigner,” in The New Yorker, November 22, 1947.
5. Maja Einstein, “Albert Einstein: A Biographical Sketch (Excerpt),” Resonance, April 2000, 113.
6. Ibid., 115.
7. Fölsing, 23.
8. Ibid., 17.
9. Ibid., 56.
10. Thomas Levenson, Einstein in Berlin (New York: Bantam, 2003), 12.
11. Albert Einstein, The Human Side, ed. Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoff-mann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 54.
12. Fölsing, 33.
13. Fölsing, 114–115.
14. Gerald Holton, Einstein, History, and Other Passions (Woodbury, NY: AIP Press, 1995), 62.
15. Fölsing, 334.
16. Max Brod, The Redemption of Tycho Brahe, trans. Felix Warren Crosse (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928), 89–90.
17. Ibid., 154.
18. Fölsing, 283.
19. Dear Professor Einstein: Albert Einstein's Letters to and from Children, ed. Alice Calaprice (Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 2002), 140.
20. Albert Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, trans. Sonja Bargmann (New York: Modern Library, 1994), 108.
21. Fölsing, 349.
22. Abraham Pais, Subtle Is the Lord, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 308.
23. Albert Einstein, Collected Papers: The Berlin Years, Correspondence, vol. 8, part A, ed. R. Schulmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), xxxvii.
24. Philipp Frank, Einstein: His Life and Times (New York: A.A. Knopf, 1947), 106.
25. Fölsing, 343.
26. Ibid., 344–45. Fulda was a Jew who committed suicide in 1939. He wrote several plays that were adapted to the screen, including Two-Faced Woman, a poorly received comedy that was to be Greta Garbo's last film.
27. Fölsing, 345.
28. Einstein on Peace, ed. Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960), 12.
29. The Collected Papers, vol. 8, part A, 188.
30. Pais, 313, notes that sometime during the war the Berlin military chief of staff sent a list of pacifists, including Einstein, to the police.
31. Einstein, Collected Papers, vol. 8, 210.
32. Ibid., 342.
33. Otto Nathan and Heinz Norden, Einstein on Peace (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1960), 8.
34. For a frank discussion of Einstein's wartime activities, see Fölsing, 398ff.
35. Ibid., 398–99.
36. Pais, Subtle, 307.
37. Fölsing, 458.
38. The Born-Einstein Letters, trans. Irene Born (New York: Macmillan, 2005; first published 1971), 12.
39. The Born-Einstein Letters, 4.
40. “Our Debt to Zionism,” in Out of My Later Years, 262.
41. Fölsing, 494.
42. Ibid., 495.
43. Ibid., 497.
44. Ibid., 515.
45. Ibid., 519.
46. Ibid., 464, 520.
47. The world could seem very small in those days: Samuel was the Home Secretary—head of police and security—who had hounded Russell for his peace work and declared that “There is no question, of course, that he is an enemy agent” during World War I. See Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1921 (New York: Free Press, 1996), 474. Samuel had Russell fined and later imprisoned. Russell's older brother Frank was then the second Earl Russell; Samuel had been Frank Russell's “fag”—student servant—when both attended Winchester.
48. Fölsing, 594–95.
49. Gerald Holton and Yehuda Elkana, eds., Albert Einstein: Historical and Cultural Perspectives, The Centennial Symposium in Jerusalem (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 294.
50. Fölsing, 733.
51. See David Cassidy, Einstein and Our World (New York: Humanity Books, 2004), 82–85, for insight into how quantum mechanics blossomed in the ruins of postwar Germany.
52. Ronald William Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: Avon Books, 1984), 494–95.
53. Fölsing, 661.
54. Born-Einstein Letters, 112.
55. Fölsing, 679; Pais, 452.
56. See Sylvia Nasar, A Beautiful Mind (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998), 49ff. for a richly detailed description of Princeton in the late 1940s. The Oral History Project of the Princeton Mathematics Community of the 1930s includes a brief history of Fine Hall (now called Jones Hall) at http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/finding_aids/mathoral/pm06.htm.
57. Sandra Ionno Butcher, “The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto,” Pugwash History Series no. 1, May 2005, 14.
58. Caroline Morehead, Bertrand Russell: A Life (New York: Viking, 1992), 204–6.
59. Russell, Autobiography, 445–47.
60. Ibid., 442.
61. Fölsing, 25; Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude 1872–1921 (New York: Free Press, 1996), 49.
62. Fölsing, 99.
63. Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, 10.
64. Thomas Levenson, Einstein in Berlin (New York: Random House, 2004), 9.
65. Moorehead, 238.
66. Autobiography, 334.
67. Moorehead, 238.
68. Aldous Huxley, Crome Yellow (New York: Bantam, 1968), 14.
69. Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, 82.
70. Ibid., 83.
71. Denis Brian, The Unexpected Einstein: The Real Man Behind the Icon (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005), 24.
72. Russell, Autobiography, 216–17.
73. Ibid., 9.
74. Einstein, Ideas and Opinions, 320.
75. Rupert Crawshay-Williams, Russell Remembered (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 18.
76. Autobiography, 17.
77. Moorehead, 19.
78. Autobiography, 29, 41.
79. Bertrand Russell, “My Mental Development,” in The Philosphy of Bertrand Russell, ed. Paul A. Schilpp, 3rd ed. (New York: Tudor Publishing, 1951), 41.
80. His grandmother urged Russell to try “detaching your mind from the one subject [Alys] and bidding it range over others….” The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: Volume 1, The Private Years, 1884–1914, ed. Nicholas Griffin (London: Penguin, 1992), 528. Lady Russell was exceedingly shrewd and manipulative, though subject to delusions.
81. Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude (New York: Free Press, 1996), 196.
82. Autobiography, 303.
83. Michael Foot, introduction to Autobiography, x.
84. Monk, Spirit, 256.
85. Ibid., 257.
86. Autobiography, 82.
87. Ibid., 256.
88. Ibid.
89. Monk's highly critical two-volume biography of Russell elicited angry retorts. Michael Foot called it an “assault on Bertrand Russell's reputation” full of “malevolence.” (Introduction, Autobiography, ix–x.)
90. Crawshay-Williams, 157.
91. Monk, Spirit, 135.
92. Caroline Moorehead, Bertrand Russell: A Life (New York: Viking, 1992), 172.
93. Monk, Spirit, 297, 300.
94. Ibid., 175.
95. Monk, Spirit, 295.
96. Autobiography, 329.
97. Ibid., 246.
98. Ottoline Morrell, Memoirs: A Study in Friendship 1873–1915, ed. Robert Gathome-Hardy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964), 276.
99. Autobiography, 243, 245.
100. Ibid., 245.
101. Ibid., 244.
102. Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Ghost of Madness, 1921–1970 (New York: The Free Press, 2000), 95.
103. Moorehead, 446.
104. The Selected Letters of Bertrand Russell: The Public Years, 1914–1970, vol. 2, ed. Nicholas Griffin (New York: Routledge, 2001), 353.
105. Monk, Spirit, 142.
106. Ibid., 147.
107. Ibid., 183.
108. Autobiography, 167–68.
109. Ibid., 210.
110. Roger Kimball, “Love, Logic & Unbearable Pity: The Private Bertrand Russell,” New Criterion Online, http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/11/sept92/brussell.htm.
111. Russell included an addendum on Gödel's essay when the collection was reprinted in 1965.
112. Russell, Autobiography, 238.
113. Monk, Spirit, 126.
114. Ibid., 382.
115. Moorehead, 213.
116. Russell, Autobiography, 277.
117. Moorehead, 243.
118. A scheme by which some thirty-four objectors were to be sent to the front, where their refusal to take up arms would be deemed “desertion,” punishable by death, was finally averted through the efforts of Russell and his colleagues. See Alan Ryan, Bertrand Russell: A Political Life (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, Hill and Wang, 1988), 56.
119. Monk, Spirit, 457.
120. Ibid., 459.
121. Ibid., 456.
122. Moorehead, 213.
123. Ibid., 254.
124. Monk, Spirit, 466.
125. Ibid., 474.
126. Ibid., 471.
127. Ibid., 521–23.
128. Autobiography, 258.
129. Monk, Spirit, 532–34.
130. Ibid., 466.
131. Autobiography, 9, 727–28.
132. Frank McLynn, “The Ghost in the Machine: Review of The Spirit of Solitude,” New Statesman & Society, April 19, 1996, 9 (399) 36.
133. Stuart Hampshire, Modern Writers and Other Essays (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Borzoi Books, 1970), 115; Michael Foot's introduction to Russell's Autobiography, ix.
134. Alan Wood, “Russell's Philosophy: A Study of Its Development,” in Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments of Leading Philosophers, vol. 1, ed. Andrew Irvine (London: Routledge, 1999), 86.
135. Russell, Preface to Human Knowledge (London: Routledge, 2003), 5.
136. Moorehead, 432.
137. Collected Papers, vol. 11, 114.
138. Ray Monk, “Cambridge Philosophers: Russell,” Royal Institute of Philosophy, online http://www.royalinstitutephilosophy.org/articles/article.php?id=3. Accessed April 6, 2007.
139. “Russell, Experience, and the Roots of Science,” in The Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell, ed. Nicholas Griffin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 449–50.
140. John W. Dawson, Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel (Wellesley, MA: A. K. Peters, 1997), 204n.
141. See Dawson, 188. Gödel is quoted as saying furchtbar herzig. “Terribly cute” is Burton Feldman's translation.
142. Hao Wang, Reflections on Kurt Gödel (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 31.
143. Albert Einstein: Historical and Cultural Perspectives, The Centennial Symposium in Jerusalem, ed. Gerald Holton and Yehuda Elkana (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1982), 422.
144. Palle Yourgrau, A World without Time: The Forgotten Legacy of Gödel and Einstein (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 4.
145. Stanislaw Ulam, Adventures of a Mathematician (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 76.
146. Dawson, 111, 234.
147. Ibid., 31.
148. Ibid., 34, 187.
149. Ibid., 130.
150. Ibid., 153, 187.
151. Ibid., 158.
152. Wang, 6.
153. Dawson, 140–41.
154. Ibid., 142.
155. Ibid., 142.
156. Ibid., 91.
157. Ibid., 135.
158. Ibid., 262.
159. Ibid., 251.
160. Ibid., 201.
161. Ibid., 98. See also Dawson's notion of the “paradox of paranoia,” 265–66.
162. Wang, 214, quoting a letter from Gödel to his mother dated July 23, 1961.
163. Yourgrau's previous works on Gödel and Einstein were written for specialists, not, as he notes in A World Without Time, for “normal readers” (p. vii).
164. The distant ancestor of Gödel's effort here is perhaps Socrates, whose insistence that he did not know was an astonishingly fertile innovation, for it results in a dialectic (recursive) movement which sees any claim to know as the basis for a new test of itself. Although Gödel claimed to be a Platonist, at least a mathematical one, his work suggests the “incompletability” of thought that Socrates taught by his use of irony and myth.
165. “Ich war so dumm wenn [als] ich jung war!” Quoted in and translated by Charles Enz, No Time to Be Brief (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 117. Enz is the preeminent authority on Pauli's life, and this section is greatly indebted to his work. The discovery of electron spin in 1925 is told, delightfully, from another point of view in Samuel Goudsmit's 1971 lecture found at http://www.ilorentz.org/history/spin/goudsmit.html. The codiscoverers were S. A. Goudsmit and G. E. Uhlen-beck.
166. Ibid., 491–92.
167. Werner Heisenberg, IAEA Bulletin Special Supplement (1968), 45, quoted in Karl von Meyenn and Engelbert Schucking, “Wolfgang Pauli,” Physics Today (February 2001) http://www.physicstoday.org/ (accessed April 6, 2007).
168. Pauli Archive, CERN, http://documents.cern.ch//archive/electronic/other/pauli_vol1//born_0027.pdf, trans. Burton Feldman. Also quoted and translated in Enz, 394.
169. Enz points out that Sigmund Freud spent years as a medical doctor at a Viennese hospital before, in 1902, he was able to network and publish his way into a professorship at the University of Vienna (Enz, 8).
170. Ibid., 4.
171. Bertrand Russell, An Outline of Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1993), 235.
172. von Meyenn, 2001.
173. Enz, 49.
174. K. V. Laurikainen, Beyond the Atom: The Philosophical Thought of Wolfgang Pauli (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1988), 4.
175. Richard Courant, quoted in Enz, 87.
176. Ibid., 88.
177. Silvan Schweber, review of Jagdish Mehra and Helmut Rechenberg, The Historical Development of Quantum Theory, Volume 6: The Completion of Quantum Mechanics, 1926–1941, in Physics Today (November 2001), http://www.physicists.org/.
178. Enz, 92.
179. Ibid., 107.
180. Enz recounts in great detail the “curious history of spin.” In later years, a battle of words erupted between Pauli and Goudsmit over whether a note published by Pauli in 1924 should have been credited to Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck. In the note, Enz argues, Pauli suggests the idea of nuclear spin. See Enz, especially 116–19.
181. Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Beyond (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 61.
182. Enz, 129.
183. Karl von Meyenn and Engelbert Schucking allude to rumors that Pauli's letters “were taken from Heisenberg when he was arrested by the British in 1945” and thus may have survived the war. See von Meyenn.
184. Enz, 215.
185. Mike Perricone, “How to Make a Neutrino Beam,” Fermi News, November 19, 1999, 22 (22) 1. Available online at http://www.fnal.gov/pub/ferminews/Ferminews99-11-19.pdf.
186. Enz, 195.
187. See Joan Chodorow, “Inner-Directed Movement in Analysis: Early Beginnings,” Inside Pages: The Jung Society of Seattle, Spring 2005, 15.
188. Enz, 210.
189. Ibid., 224.
190. Ibid., 243.
191. Pauli was not Jung's only inspiration from the world of physics. Jung and Einstein met during the latter's stay in Zurich from 1909–13. In a letter, Jung recalled, “it was he [Einstein] who first started me off thinking about a possible relativity of time as well as space, and their psychic conditionality. More than thirty years later, this stimulus led to my relation with the physicist Professor W. Pauli and to my thesis of psychic synchronicity.” Quoted in Charles R. Card, “The Emergence of Archetypes in Present-Day Science and Its Significance for a Contemporary Philosophy of Nature,” Dynamical Psychology, 1996, available online: http://www.goertzel.org/dynapsyc/index.htm#1996.
192. From Enz's conversation with Franca Pauli in 1971. See Enz, 286.
193. Pais, 347.
1. Brian Greene paraphrases Ernst Rutherford's admonition “if you can't explain a result in simple, nontechnical terms, then you don't really understand it.” Not that it isn't true, Greene hastens to add (he is writing in most laudatory terms of string theory). A theory's truth and our true understanding of it are separate things. The Elegant Universe (New York: Vintage, 2005), 203.
2. Albert Einstein, Sidelights on Relativity, trans. G. B. Jeffrey and W. Perrett (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1983), 15.
3. “The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences,” in Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 13, no. 1 (February 1960), 7.
4. Albrecht Fölsing, Albert Einstein, trans. Ewald Osers (New York: Penguin, 1997), 390.
5. Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Ghost of Madness, 1921–1970 (New York: Free Press, 2001), 269.
6. Quoted in Torkel Franzen, Gödel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse (Wellesley, MA: A. K. Peters, 2005), 112–13.
7. Ibid., 113.
8. For detailed discussions of the proofs, the nonmathematical reader is referred elsewhere. Several able mathematicians have rendered Gödel as accessible as he can be to the nonmathematician. First and foremost are Ernest Nagel and James R. Newman, whose Gödel's Proof (dedicated to Bertrand Russell!), written five years before Gödel's death, first made Gödel possible for those with limited (though still hearty) mathematics. Since then, Gödel and incompleteness have entered the lay world via the bestselling Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid by Richard Hofstadter. A recent twist is Palle Yourgrau's A World Without Time, pairing Gödel and Einstein. Hofstadter is a cognitive scientist and Yourgrau a philosopher. Mathematicians continue to proffer “accessible” translations of the theorems. Two recent forays—delightful even for the mathematically challenged—are John L. Casti and Werner DePauli's Gödel: A Life of Logic and Rebecca Goldstein's Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Gödel. Still, these treatments—simplified and made remarkably palatable to the nonmathematician—require patience and fortitude. More challenging, but widely acclaimed for its clarity and accuracy and for its critique of popular invocation and misuses of Gödel, is the late Torkel Franzen's Gödel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse, cited above.
9. Ray Monk, Bertrand Russell: The Spirit of Solitude, 1872–1921 (New York: Free Press, 1996), 118.
10. Bertrand Russell, My Philosophical Development (New York: Rout-ledge, 1995; first published in 1959), 57.
11. Bertrand Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell (London: Routledge, 1998), 150.
12. The Principia was destined to become a landmark of modern mathematics. Still, Cambridge University Press shied away from publishing on such a daunting subject, fearing a loss of revenue. Russell and Whitehead were forced to ante up fifty pounds each for publication costs. Autobiography, 155.
13. Rebecca Goldstein, Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Gödel (New York: Norton, 2006), 111–113.
14. Monk, Spirit of Solitude, 153–54.
15. Ibid., 154.
16. Dawson, 72.
17. Ibid., 77.
18. Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997; first published 1912), 3.
19. On Planck and black-body radiation, see Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 58–64.
20. David Lindlay, The End of Physics: The Myth of a Unified Theory (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 11.
21. Republic, trans. Cornford, 1941, 527 (Stephanus numbers used).
22. Insights of Genius (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 180–82.
23. See Thomas S. Kuhn's Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity 1984–1912 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978). Referenced in David C. Cassidy, Einstein and Our World (New York: Humanity Books, 2004), 53–54.
24. Albert Einstein, “Concerning an Heuristic Point of View Toward the Emission and Transformation of Light,” Ann. Phys. 17, 132, 1905; Translation into English, American Journal of Physics, vol. 33, no. 5, May 1965.
25. Throughout this section, I am indebted to the following: John Gribbin, Q Is for Quantum: An Encyclopedia of Particle Physics (New York: The Free Press, 1998); J. P. McEvoy, Introducing Quantum Theory (Cam-bridge, UK: Icon Books, 1999); Tony Rothman, Instant Physics (New York: Fawcett, 1995); David C. Cassidy, Einstein and our World (New York: Humanity Books, 2004); Michio Kaku, Einstein's Cosmos (New York: Atlas Books, 2004); Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999); and Richard P. Feynman, Six Easy Pieces (New York: Basic Books, 1995; first published in 1963).
26. See “J. J. and the Cavendish,” by Sir G. P. Thomson, at History of the Department, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, at http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/cavendish/history/years/jjandcav.php.
27. De Broglie's Nobel speech is quoted in the Mactutor History of Mathematics biography of de Broglie by J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Broglie.html.
28. At Heisenberg's doctoral oral examination were his adviser, Arthur Sommerfeld, and Wilhelm Wein, an experimental physicist whose lab course Heisenberg took with ill-concealed disdain. So impoverished was Heisenberg's knowledge of the experimental side he could not answer Wein's question about a simple storage battery. The incensed Wein wanted to fail Heisenberg. Only Sommerfeld's support salvaged a pass—with the grade of III, to Pauli's grade of I, a summa cum laude. Humiliated, Heisenberg set off for Max Born's laboratory wondering whether the job offer still stood. It did. Born himself was more theorist than experimentalist. See David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1992), 151–53.
29. Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Beyond (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 38.
30. See “The Double-Slit Experiment” and “The Most Beautiful Experiment,” Physics Web, September 2003. Young's experiment actually ranked fifth in the contest; its application to electrons came in first. http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/15/9/2002.
31. Richard P. Feynman, Six Easy Pieces (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 132.
32. Niels Bohr, “The Bohr-Einstein Dialogue,” in Niels Bohr: A Centenary Volume, ed. A. P. French and P. J. Kennedy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 124.
33. Fölsing, 693.
34. Michio Kaku, Einstein's Cosmos (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), 176.
35. Kaku calls these particles a “motley collection,” compiled over the course of nearly 150 years, from the discovery of the cathode ray, which turned out to be the electron, to the “tau neutrino,” discovered in 2000. Every few years, it seemed, another particle found its way into Greek nomenclature, to perhaps some consternation. Kaku quotes Oppenheimer: “The Nobel Prize in Physics should be given to the physicist who does not discover a new particle that year” (Kaku, 225).
36. The Born-Einstein Letters, 88.
37. Ibid., 146.
38. Ibid., 152, 161, 163.
39. Ibid., 165, 170, 171–72.
40. Ibid., 216.
41. Kaku, 232.
42. Etienne Klein and Marc Lachieze-Rey, The Quest for Unity, trans. Axel Reisinger (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 41.
43. Abraham Pais, Subtle Is the Lord (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 235.
44. “Autobiographical Notes,” in Albert Einstein: Philosopher Scientist, The Library of Living Philosophers, ed. Paul Arthur Schilpp (New York: Tutor Publishing, 1949), 88–89.
45. Pais, 152.
46. Einstein-Besso Correspondence, 138. Translation by Burton Feldman and Katherine Williams.
47. Fölsing, 556.
48. Ideas and Opinions, 274.
49. Ibid., 233.
50. Quoted in Fölsing, 561, from a letter to Cornelius Lanczos dated January 24, 1938. Ernst Mach (1838–1916) was an influential and rigorous empiricist whose influence Einstein always acknowledged.
51. Einstein and the History of General Relativity, ed. Don Howard and John Stachel (Boston: Birkhauser, 1989), 315.
52. Note that in The Evolution of Physics, 257–58, Einstein commented on the relationship between matter and the energy of the field.
53. Pais, 141.
54. Ideas and Opinions, 230 (italics added).
55. Max Born and Albert Einstein, The Born-Einstein Letters, trans. Irene Born (New York: Macmillan, 2005), 82.
56. Ibid., 85.
57. Klein, 70.
58. Greene, 12.
59. Burton Feldman, The Nobel Prize, (New York: Arcade, 2000), 164.
60. Klein, 116.
61. Pais, 343.
62. Ibid., 343–50.
63. Ibid., 347.
64. Ibid., 350.
65. Enz, ed., Pauli: Writings, 116.
66. See Stanley Jaki, A Mind's Matter (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerd-mans, 2002), 1–5.
67. Harald Atmanspacher and Hans Primas, “Pauli's Ideas on Mind and Matter in the Context of Contemporary Science” in The Journal of Consciousness Studies, 13, 3, 5–50, 2006.
68. Russell, Human Knowledge, 422.
69. “Remarks on Bertrand Russell's Theory of Knowledge,” reprinted in Ideas and Opinions, 21.
70. Ibid., 24–25.
71. Collected Papers, vol. 11, 30.
72. Fölsing, 559. To Fölsing, Einstein's search for a unified theory was tainted and doomed by the belief that “mathematical criteria were ‘the only reliable source of truth.’” See 561 and 559ff.
73. Russell, “Einstein and the Theory of Relativity,” Collected Papers, vol. 11, 581–82.
74. From Scientific American, April 1950.
1. Paul Lawrence Rose, Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 284.
2. Thomas Powers, Heisenberg's War (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2000), 344.
3. David Cassidy, Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1992), 30.
4. Ibid., 85.
5. Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Beyond, trans. Arnold J. Pomerans (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 93.
6. Mark Walker, Nazi Science: Myth, Truth and the German Atomic Bomb (New York: Plenum Press, 1995), 77.
7. Ibid., 83.
8. Ibid., 84.
9. Rainer Karlsch, Hitlers Bombe (München: Deutsche Verlas-Anstalt, 2005).
10. Rose, 260.
11. Ibid., 269.
12. Ibid., 238.
13. Ibid., 239.
14. Ibid., 248, 258.
15. Walker, 230.
16. Peter Goodchild, J. Robert Oppenheimer: Shatter of Worlds (New York: Fromm Intl., 1985), 61.
17. Jane S. Wilson and Charlotte Serber, Standing By and Making Do (Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos Historical Society, 1988), 4.
18. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 523.
19. Ibid., 524.
20. Ibid.
21. S.S. Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 70.
22. Rhodes, 444.
23. Ibid., 445.
24. Ibid., 449.
25. Ibid., 605.
26. Ibid., 571.
27. Paul Johnson, Modern Times (New York: Harper Collins, 2001), 205.
28. Schweber, 110.
29. Ibid., 123–24.
30. Ibid., 127.
31. Peter Michelmore, The Swift Years: The Robert Oppenheimer Story (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1969), 223.
32. Fred Jerome, The Einstein File (New York: St. Martins, 2002), 5–6.
33. Ibid., 39–40.
34. Schweber, 17.
1. Abraham Pais, Subtle Is the Lord (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), 467.
2. Gerald Holton and Yehuda Elkaka, eds., Albert Einstein: Historical Cultural Perspectives: The Centennial Symposium in Jerusalem (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 398.
3. Pais, 341.
4. John A. Wheeler, Geons, Black Holes, and Quantum Foam: A Life in Physics (New York: Norton, 1998), 237–38.
5. Pais, 14–15.
6. David Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton (New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1965), 143.
7. Burton Feldman, The Nobel Prize (New York: Arcade, 2000), 140.
8. S. S. Schweber, In the Shadow of the Bomb (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 65.
9. David Lindley, The End of Physics: The Myth of a Unified Theory (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 11. In Brian Greene's aptly titled The Elegant Universe (London: Vintage, 2005), the war between the experimentalists and theorists is dismissed in favor of the as-yet unproven string theories: “String theorists have no desire for a solo trek to the upper reaches of Mount Nature; the would far prefer to share the burden and the excitement with experimental colleagues. It is merely a technological mismatch in our current situation—a historical asynchrony—that the theoretical ropes and crampons for the final push to the top have at least been partially fashioned, while the experimental ones do not yet exist. But this does not mean that string theory is fundamentally divorced from experiment. Rather, string theorists have high hopes of ‘kicking down a theoretical stone’ from the ultra-high-energy mountaintop to experimentalists working at a lower base camp” (210). Let it not be said that physics is a classless society.
10. See, for instance, Michio Kaku's Einstein's Cosmos (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 230–33.
11. Charles P. Enz, No Time to Be Brief: A Scientific Biography of Wolfgang Pauli (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 389.