1 Eric Alterman, Inequality in One City: Bill de Blasio and the New York Experiment, Year One (New York: Nation, 2015), 18.
2 Nikita Stewart, “Fight Looms as de Blasio Plans to Seek 90 New Homeless Shelters,” New York Times, February 28, 2017, www.nytimes.com.
3 Dina Temple-Raston, “Bloomberg Vows to Make Chronic Homelessness ‘Extinct,’” New York Sun, June 24, 2004.
4 City of New York, “Uniting for Solutions beyond Shelter: The Action Plan for New York City,” undated, pp. 4, 34, http://www.nyc.gov.
5 New York City Independent Budget Office, “Further Increases to Homeless Rental Assistance, but Additional Funds for Shelter Still Necessary,” May 2015, p. 2, http://www.ibo.nyc.ny.us.
6 “New York City Department of Investigation: Probe of Department of Homeless Services’Shelters for Families with Children Finds Serious Deficiencies,” March 12, 2015, www.nyc.gov.
7 E-mail from HRA spokesperson to Thomas J. Main, April 13, 2017.
8 Giselle Routhier, “Family Homelessness in NYC: City and State Must Meet Unprecedented Scale of Crisis with Proven Solutions,” Coalition for the Homeless, January 2017, p. 9, www.coalitionforthehomeless.org.
9 City of New York, “Turning the Tide on Homelessness in New York City,” undated, pp. ii–iii, http://www.nyc.gov.
1 B. G. Link et al., “Lifetime and Five-Year Prevalence of Homelessness in the United States,” American Journal of Public Health 84, no. 12 (1994): pp. 1907–12.
2 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Community Planning and Development, The 2013 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress, part 2, Estimates of Homelessness in the United States, p. 23. https://www.hudexchange.info/onecpd/assets/File/2013-AHAR-Part-2.pdf, p. 23.
3 U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, Fiscal Year 2013 Federal Government Homelessness Budget Fact Sheet, p. 2. http://usich.gov/resources/uploads/asset_library/FY13_Budget_Fact_Sheet_final.pdf
4 National Alliance to End Homelessness, Homelessness Research Institute, Data Point: Homeless Assistance Funding: Federal versus State and Local Assistance, July 2011. http://www.endhomelessness.org/library/entry/data-point-homeless-assistance-program-funding-federal-versus-state-and-loc
5 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, The 2010 Annual Homeless Assessment Report to Congress, p. 18.
6 Gallup Poll, March 2013. Retrieved April 16, 2013, from the iPOLL Databank, The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut. http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/ipoll/ipoll.html. See more at http://www.spotlightonpoverty.org/polling.aspx?id=a7a5c9dc-e2e6–4204–8958–1a003e09abca#sthash.LlSlkfGY.dpuf.
7 C. Lindbloom, “The Science of Muddling Through,” Public Administration Review 19, no. 2 (1959): pp. 79–88; C. Lindbloom, “Still Muddling, Not Yet Through,” Public Administration Review 39 (1979): pp. 517–26.
8 See, for example, Harold Meyerson, “Did the Founding Fathers Screw Up?” American Prospect, September 26, 2011, which argues that “Gridlock in Washington is no accident. It’s built into the Constitution.”
9 Examples of works expressing such concerns include James MacGregor Burns, The Deadlock of Democracy (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1963); Lloyd N. Cutler, “To Form a Government,” Foreign Affairs 59 (Fall 1980): pp. 126–43; James L Sundquist, Constitutional Reform and Effective Government (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1986); Daniel Lazare, The Frozen Republic: How the Constitution Is Paralyzing Democracy (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1996); Sanford Levinson, Our Undemocratic Constitution: Where the Constitution Goes Wrong (and How We the People Can Correct It (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006); Larry J. Sabato, A More Perfect Constitution: 23 Proposals to Revitalize Our Constitution and Make America a Fairer Country (New York: Walker, 2007).
10 Timothy J. Conlan, David R. Beam, and Margaret T. Wrightson, “Policy Models and Political Change: Insights from the Passage of Tax Reform,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 121.
11 National Alliance to End Homelessness, Homelessness Research Institute, Data Point: Homeless Assistance Funding: Federal versus State and Local Assistance, July 2011. http://www.endhomelessness.org/library/entry/data-point-homeless-assistance-program-funding-federal-versus-state-and-loc
12 For the count of the city’s sheltered homeless see Coalition for the Homeless, “New York City Municipal Shelter Population, 1983–Present,” undated, http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/NYCHomelessShelterPopulation-Worksheet1983-Present4-Sheet1.pdf; for the count of the city’s homeless people who live in public spaces, see New York City Department of Homeless Services, “Homeless Outreach Population Estimate (HOPE) Shows Five Percent Decrease in Unsheltered Population since 2014,” May 17, 2015. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/downloads/pdf/03-15-HOPE-Count-Findings-Release.pdf
13 For an account of the welfare hotels that helped establish their infamous status, see generally Jonathan Kozol, Rachel and Her Children: Homeless Families in America (New York: Crown, 1988).
14 Jennifer Toth, The Mole People: Life in the Tunnels beneath New York City (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 1993); Teun Voeten, Tunnel People, updated edition (Oakland, CA: PM Press, 2010). Toth’s account of “a city beneath the streets” seems exaggerated. Better documented is Voeten’s estimate of some thirty to fifty people living in the relatively accessible Amtrak railroad tunnel on Manhattan’s Upper West Side.
15 Diana R. Gordon, “A Hotel Is Not a Home,” chapter 7 in City Limits: Barriers to Change in Urban Government (New York: Charterhouse, 1973), pp. 255–93.
16 Ronald K. Vogel and John J. Harrigan, Political Change in the Metropolis, 8th ed. (New York: Pearson Longman, 2007), p. 27.
17 Wallace S. Sayre and Herbert Kaufman, Governing New York City (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1960), p. 716; Theodore J. Lowi, At the Pleasure of the Mayor (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), p. 199.
18 Martin Shefter, in Political Crisis/Fiscal Crisis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), emphasized the “boundaries within which the game of urban politics is played and the imperatives confronting the players of that game” (p. xxviii). Similarly, Ira Katznelson in City Trenches (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), emphasizes the “boundaries and rules” of urban politics (p. 6). In City Limits (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), Paul E. Peterson argues that “city politics is limited politics,” p. 4.
19 Blanche Blank, “Bureaucracy: Power in Details,” in Jewel Bellush and Dick Netzer, eds., Urban Politics New York Style (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1990), chapter 5.
20 Charles Brecher and Raymond D. Horton with Robert A. Cropf and Dean Michael Mead, Power Failure: New York City Politics and Policy since 1960 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 14.
21 Michael Lipsky, Street-Level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1980), p. 192.
22 Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. x.
23 See Thomas J. Main, “Quantum Change in the Fragmented Metropolis: Political Environment and Homeless Policy in New York City,” in Review of Policy Research 23, no. 4 (2006): pp. 903–13; and Thomas J. Main, “Nonincremental Change in an Urban Environment: The Case of New York City’s Human Resources Administration,” in Administration & Society 37, no. 4 (2005): pp. 483–503.
24 Michael Cragg and Brendan O’Flaherty, “Do Homeless Shelter Conditions Determine Shelter Population? The Case of the Dinkins Deluge,” Journal of Urban Economics 46 (1999): pp. 377–415.
25 Mayor Bloomberg has been quoted as saying that “[o]ne theory is that some people have been coming into the homeless system, the shelter system, in order to qualify for a program that helps you move out of the homeless system.” Mosi Secret, “City Sees End to Rental Aid for the Homeless,” New York Times, June 1, 2001, p. A1.
26 See Albert O. Hirschman, The Rhetoric of Reaction: Perversity, Futility, Jeopardy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
27 Sarah L. Kellerman, “Is Deinstitutionalization Working for the Mentally Ill?” (New York: Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation, and Alcoholism Services, 1982), p. 9.
28 See Thomas J. Main, “Shelters for Homeless Men in New York City: Towards Paternalism through Privatization,” in Lawrence Mead, ed., The New Paternalism (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 161–81.
29 In the early eighties there was a single EAU, which was at 241 Church Street in Manhattan. In the mid-1980s there were four EAUs, one in each borough except Staten Island. Through the nineties and the early twenty-first century, there was again a single EAU, this time at East 151st Street in the Bronx. It was the EAU at that location that developed the infamous reputation.
30 Gail Nayowith, one of three court-appointed special masters who recommended the EAU be eliminated; quoted in David Saltonstall with Mark Fass, “Despised Homeless Intake Office to Be Gutted,” Daily News, June 27, 2004, p. 24.
31 New York City Department of Homeless Services, Power Point presentation, Hope 2014: The Street Survey, slide 2.
32 Thomas J. Main, “The Heuristics of Homelessness: Balancing Structural and Individual Causes,” Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 7, no. 1 (1998): pp. 41–54; Thomas J. Main, “Analyzing Evidence for the Structural Theory of Homelessness,” Journal of Urban Affairs 18, no. 4 (1996): pp. 449–57.
33 National Multifamily Housing Council, Tabulations of 2013 American Community Survey, 1-Year Estimates. Updated Sept. 2014. Table, “Large Cities: Population, Housing, and Renters.” Accessed at http://www.nmhc.org/Content.aspx?id=4708, February 12, 2015.
34 Mireya Navarro, “In New York, Having a Job, or 2, Doesn’t Mean Having a Home,” New York Times, September 17, 2013. Navarro reports that “[m]ore than one out of four families in shelters, 28 percent, include at least one employed adult, city figures show, and 16 percent of single adults in shelters hold jobs,” but does not otherwise indicate the source of these numbers. Researcher Elizabeth Brown of the Independent Budget Office has tried to confirm these numbers with the city but has so far been unable to do so. Coalition for the Homeless obtained data from the Department of Homeless Services through a freedom of information request that showed 3,214 homeless families and 1,486 single adults reporting some income from employment in 2013. Blog post, Patrick Markee, “NY Times: Working New Yorkers without Homes,” posted September 18, 2013, at http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/ny-times-working-new-yorkers-without-homes/.
35 Milton Friedman and George J. Stigler, “Roofs or Ceilings? The Current Housing Problem” (Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: Foundation for Economic Education, 1946).
36 Rachana Sheth and Robert Neuwirth, “New York’s Housing Underground: A Refuge and Resource” (Brooklyn and Jackson Heights, NY: Pratt Center for Community Development and Chhaya Community Development Corporation, March 2008).
37 Unpublished master’s thesis, Mari Kanai, “The Solution to the Crisis of Low-Cost Housing in New York City: Creating an ‘Accessory Dwelling Unit’ Category,” Baruch College, 2013.
1 Howard M. Bahr and Theodore Caplow, Old Men Drunk and Sober (New York: NYU Press, 1973). Research for this study of Bowery men began in 1963, p. v.
2 John Darnton, “Alone and Homeless, ‘Shutouts’ of Society Sleep in Doorways,” New York Times, October 26, 1971, p. 82.
3 Pranay Gupte, “The Derelict Population Is Declining, but the Whole City Is Its ‘Flophouse,’” New York Times, October 23, 1973, p. 49.
4 John L. Hess, “Vagrants and Panhandlers Appearing in New Haunts,” New York Times, August 6, 1976, p. B15.
5 Kim Hopper, Reckoning with Homelessness (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), pp. 100–102.
6 David C. Anderson, “A Good Neighbor Shelter: No Longer a Horror on East Third Street,” New York Times, December 11, 1991, p. A26.
7 Personal interview with Bonnie Stone, October 26, 2011.
8 For a detailed description of the Men’s Shelter and the big room as they were during the late seventies and early eighties, see Hopper, Reckoning with Homelessness, pp. 85–86, 93–100.
9 Kim Hopper and L. Stuart Cox, “Litigation in Advocacy for the Homeless: The Case of New York City” (New York: Coalition for the Homeless, May 1982), p. 8.
10 Gerald Benjamin with Melissa Cusa, “Social Policy,” in Gerald Benjamin and Henrik N. Dullea, eds., Decision 1997: Constitutional Change in New York (Albany, NY: Rockefeller Institute Press, 1997), p. 310.
11 Jeffrey Omar Usman, “Good Enough for Government Work: The Interpretation of Positive Constitutional Rights in State Constitutions,” Albany Law Review 73 (2010): p. 1503.
12 Tucker v. Toya, 43 NY 2d 1, 400 N.Y.S. 2d 728 (1977).
13 43 NY 2d 437 and 448–49.
14 Ibid.
15 Christine Robitscher Ladd, “Note: A Right to Shelter for the Homeless in New York State,” New York University Law Review (May 1986): p. 272.
16 Doron Gopstein (with George Gutwirth), “Litigation Affecting the Homeless,” paper presented August 9, 1988, American Bar Association, Governmental Liability Committee, Toronto, Canada, p. 4.
17 “Judge to Hear Suit on Derelict Shelter,” New York Times, October 27, 1979, p. 23.
18 Hopper, Reckoning with Homelessness, p. 92.
19 Glenn Fowler, “Koch Pays Visit to New Shelter on Wards Island,” New York Times, January 4, 1980, p. 82.
20 Mayor’s Management Report, May 9, 1980, Section on Human Resources Administration, Family and Adult Services.
21 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42581/1979, 12/5/1979 Sup. Ct. Order.
22 Jonathan Soffer, Ed Koch and the Rebuilding of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 281.
23 Gopstein with Gutwirth, “Litigation Affecting the Homeless.”
24 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42581/1979, 12/24/1979 Sup. Ct. Order.
25 Personal interview with Robert Hayes, January 19, 2012.
26 Robin Herman, “Some of City’s Homeless Gather in Convention’s Shadow,” New York Times, August 14, 1980, p. B10.
27 Personal interview with Robert Hayes, January 19, 2012; personal interview with Kim Hopper, December 20, 2011.
28 Personal Interview with Kim Hopper, December 20, 2011.
29 Ellen Baxter and Kim Hopper, Private Lives/Public Spaces: Homeless Adults on the Streets of New York City (New York: Community Service Society, February 1981).
30 Kim Hopper et al., One Year Later: The Homeless Poor in New York City, 1982 (New York: Community Service Society, June 1982).
31 Laurie Johnston, “A Journey into the City’s Netherworld,” New York Times, March 11, 1981, p. B3. Another sponsor of CSS’s early work on the homeless was the Van Ameringen Foundation.
32 Baxter and Hopper, Private Lives/Public Spaces, p. vi.
33 Human Resources Administration of the City of New York, “Monthly Shelter Report” (November 17, 1982), table A1.
34 Baxter and Hopper, Private Lives/Public Spaces, p. 103.
35 Personal interview with Kim Hopper, December 20, 2011.
36 David Bird, “Help Is Urged for 36,000 Homeless in City’s Streets,” New York Times, March 8, 1981, sec. 1, part 1, p. 1.
37 Personal interview with Ellen Baxter, August 11, 2011.
38 Hopper et al., One Year Later, p. 44.
39 Baxter and Hopper, Private Lives/Public Spaces, p. iii.
40 Cynthia J. Bogard, “How Many Homeless? Experts, Advocates, and the Struggle over Numbers,” in Seasons Such as These: How Homelessness Took Shape in America (New York: de Gruyter, 2003), chapter 5, pp. 97–123.
41 Thomas J. Main, “The Homeless of New York,” Public Interest, no. 73 (Summer 1983): p. 12.
42 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, final judgment by consent.
43 Personal interview with Edward Koch, February 29, 2010.
44 Deirdre Carmody, “The City Seen on Solutions for Homeless,” New York Times, October 10, 1984, p. A1.
45 Personal interview with Robert Trobe, July 7, 2010.
46 Personal interview with Bonnie Stone, October 27, 2011.
47 Personal interview with Ellen Baxter, August 11, 2011.
48 Personal Interview with Robert Hayes, January 19, 2012.
49 Hopper and Cox, “Litigation in Advocacy for the Homeless,” p. 16.
50 Human Resources Administration of the City of New York, “Providing Services for the Homeless: The New York City Program” (December 1982), pp. 9–13.
51 David Bird, “Study on Homeless Sees Some Gains on Shelters,” New York Times, July 28, 1982, p. B22.
52 Robin Herman, “New York Struggling to find Permanent Homes for Homeless,” May 24, 1982, New York Times, p. B1.
53 Personal interview with Bonnie Stone, October 27, 2011.
54 Ibid.
55 Sarah Kellermann, “Is Deinstitutionalization Working for the Mentally Ill?” (New York: Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation, and Alcoholism Services, 1982), p. 9.
56 See Thomas J. Main, “The Homeless of New York,” Public Interest, no. 72 (Summer 1983): pp. 3–28. This article was condensed into an op ed piece published as “New York’s Lure to the Homeless” in 1984 in the Wall Street Journal, thus extending its impact.
57 See Michael Cragg and Brendan O’Flaherty, “Do Homeless Shelter Conditions Determine Shelter Population? The Case of the Dinkins Deluge,” Journal of Urban Economics 46 (1999): 377–415. This article is discussed in more detail in chapter 4.
58 New York City, Department of Homeless Services, “Average Daily Census (Adult System),” undated.
59 I am indebted to Jack Krauskopf for these insights on how the city charter influenced homelessness policy in the early eighties.
60 Mayor’s Management Report, September 17, 1982, p. 410.
61 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, Memorandum of Law in Support of Motion for Modification of Consent Judgment, by Doron Gopstein, Chief Assistant Corporation Council, October 8, 1992, p. 6.
62 Ibid., p. 8.
63 Ibid., p. 8.
64 Ibid., p. 17.
65 Lindsey Gruson, “City Asks Judge to Alter Agreement on Homeless,” New York Times, October 16, 1982, sec. 1, p. 29.
66 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, colloquy, October 27, 1982, p. 22.
67 Gruson, “City Asks Judge to Alter Agreement on Homeless.”
68 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, colloquy, October 27, 1982, pp. 37, 31.
69 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, deposition of Robert M. Hayes, October 14, 1982, p. 3. par. 7.
70 “Showers, Shelters,” New York Times, October 20, 1982, p. A26, Editorial Desk.
71 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, decision of Judge Richard Wallach, November 4, 1982, p. 3.
72 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, Memorandum of Law in Support of Motion for Modification of Consent Judgment, by Doron Gopstein, Chief Assistant Corporation Council, October 8, 1992, p. 16.
73 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, decision of Judge Richard Wallach, November 4, 1982, p. 6.
74 E. R. Shipp, “City Loses a Bid to Alter Accord on the Homeless,” New York Times, November 5, 1982, p. B1.
75 Hopper and Cox, “Litigation in Advocacy for the Homeless,” p. 17.
76 Edward I. Koch, “Homeless: One Place to Turn,” New York Times, February 26, 1983.
1 Interim Order, June 20, 1983, McCain (Index Number 41023/83).
2 18 NYCRR 352.3 (g)-(h) (1983).
3 Susan V. Demers, “The Failures of Litigation as a Tool for the Development of Social Welfare Policy,” Fordham Urban Law Journal 22, no. 4 (1994): article 7, pp. 1022–23.
4 Personal interview with Steven Banks, November 25, 2013.
5 83 ADM-47 issued September 29, 1983.
6 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 9, 2013.
7 83 ADM-47, IV, A, 2, a.
8 McCain v. Koch, 484 N.Y.S.2d 985, 987 (Sup. Ct. 1984).
9 Ibid.
10 Josh Barbanel, “City Barred from Sheltering Homeless Families in Offices,” New York Times, August 28, 1985, p. A1.
11 Ibid.
12 Matter of Lamboy v. Gross, 126 AD 2d 265—NY: Appellate Div., 1st Dept. 1987 126 A.D.2d 265 (1987) March 26, 1987.
13 Barbanel, “City Barred from Sheltering Homeless Families in Offices.”
14 Matter of Lamboy v. Gross, 126 AD 2d 265—NY: Appellate Div., 1st Dept. 1987 126 A.D.2d 265 (1987) March 26, 1987.
15 Barbanel, “City Barred from Sheltering Homeless Families in Offices.”
16 Lamboy v. Gross, 129 Misc.2d 564 (1985), Supreme Court, Special Term, New York County, August 26, 1985.
17 Order, Freedman, J., Oct. 2, 1985, at 5, Lamboy (Index No. 41108/85).
18 New York State Department of Social Services, letter dated June 19, 1985.
19 Susan V. Demers, “The Failures of Litigation as a Tool for the Development of Social Welfare Policy,” p. 1028.
20 Lamboy v. Gross, Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, First Department, 126 A.D. 2d 265; 513 NYS 2d 393; 1987 NY App. Div. Lexis 41227, March 26, 1987.
21 Ibid.
22 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 19, 2013.
23 Human Resources Administration, New York City, “An Observational Study of Toilet and Shower Utilization at Three Men’s Shelters,” Stephen Levine and James M. Svrcek, February 4, 1985, p. 6.
24 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, decision of Judge Stanley Sklar, October 1, 1987, pp. 6–7.
25 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, Plaintiffs’ memorandum in opposition to city defendant’s motion for modification of the consent decree and in support of plaintiffs’ cross-motion, December 19, 1986, p. 26.
26 Ibid., p. 15.
27 Ibid., pp. 14–27. On p. 13 of his decision of October 1, 1987, Judge Sklar notes that one of the study’s observations had been conducted while a World Series game was on television.
28 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79 Sup. Ct. NY County, decision of Judge Stanley Sklar, October 1, 1987, pp. 14, 18.
29 Robert B. Cooper, “Queuing Theory,” in Anthony Ralston, Edwin D. Reilly, and David Hemmendinger, eds., Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 4th ed. (Groves Dictionaries, 2000, pp. 1496–98.
30 Numbers of showers are rounded to the nearest tenth. City-proposed ratios for over five hundred clients were calculated on the basis of the city proposal that would add one fixture for every sixty extra clients. Queuing theory results assume the average shower is six minutes and the average use of a toilet is five minutes and that all clients take a shower and use the toilet within a three-hour breakfast or dinner period. The six-minute estimate of average time of a shower is taken from the affidavit of Robert H. White, Director of Service Operations in HRA’s Family and Adult Services Office, October 12, 1982, paragraph 12. Five-minute estimate of average use of a toilet comes from P. J. Davidson and R. G. Courtney, “Revised Scales for Sanitary Accommodation in Offices,” Building and Environment 11 (1976): pp. 51–56 and Goldstein et al., “Toilet Reading Habits in Israeli Adults,” Neurogastroenterology and Motility (2009): pp. 21, 291–95.
31 McCain v. Koch, 502 N.Y.S.2d 720 (N.Y. App. Div. 1986), May 13, 1986.
32 Ibid.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 Barbara Basler, “Ruling Widens Shelter Rights for Homeless,” New York Times, May 14, 1986, p. B1.
36 Ibid.
37 McCain v. Koch, Index number 41023/83, Order, July 3, 1986.
38 McCain v. Koch, 511 N.E.2d 62, 62–63 (N.Y. 1987).
39 Ibid.
40 For an account of how “veto points” can be transformed into “opportunity points” and thus generate nonincremental change, see R. Shep Melnick, “Separation of Powers and the Strategy of Rights: The Expansion of Special Education,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 23–46.
41 Ibid., pp. 26–27.
42 Jonathan Soffer, Ed Koch and the Rebuilding of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), chapter 19.
43 Alex Schwartz, “New York City and Subsidized Housing: Impacts and Lessons of the City’s $5 Billion Capital Budget Housing Plan,” Housing Policy Debate 10, no. 4 (1999): table 1.
44 Ibid., table 3.
45 Alan Finder, “Housing Plan Would Fix Up 5,200 Units,” New York Times, December 24, 1986, p. B1.
46 Schwartz, “New York City and Subsidized Housing,” figure 1.
47 Personal interview with Felice Michetti, December 13, 2011.
48 Personal interview with Ed Koch, February 19, 2010.
49 Ted Houghton, A Description and History of the New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals (New York: Corporation for Supportive Housing, 2001), p. 29.
50 Schwartz, “New York City and Subsidized Housing,” pp. 845–46. Low-income families got about 53 percent of the housing developed under the ten-year plan.
51 Judith Lynn Failer, Who Qualifies for Rights? Homelessness, Mental Illness, and Civil Commitment (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), p. 13.
52 Jane F. Putnam, Neal L. Cohen, and Ann M. Sullivan, “Innovative Outreach Services for the Homeless Mentally Ill,” International Journal of Mental Health 14, no. 4 (Winter 1985–1986): pp. 112–24.
53 Ibid., p. 24.
54 David Margolick, “Weighing the Risks and Rights of Homelessness,” New York Times, December 8, 1985, sec. 4, p. 6.
55 Failer, Who Qualifies for Rights? p. 152, note 15.
56 Columbia University Community Services would later change its name to the Center for Urban Community Services.
57 Personal interview with Ellen Baxter, August 11, 2011.
58 Houghton, A Description and History of the New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals, pp. 30–31.
59 Personal interview with Cynthia Stuart, chief operating officer, Supportive Housing Network of New York, September 8, 2014.
60 Personal interview with Edward Koch, February 29, 2010.
61 Memorandum from John E. Linville, vice president, Legal Affairs, and Luis R. Marcos, vice president, Mental Hygiene Services, New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, to Directors of Psychiatry, September 9, 1987, 1, 2, 3. Italics in the original. Cited in Failer, Who Qualifies for Rights, p. 152, note 18.
62 Personal interview with Edward Koch, February 29, 2010.
63 New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, Project HELP: Homeless mentally ill patients transported to Bellevue Hospital Pursuant to M.H.L. Sec. 9.37, October 28, 1987.
64 Luis R. Marcos, “Taking the Mentally Ill off the Streets: The Case of Joyce Brown,” International Journal of Mental Health 20, no. 2 (Summer 1991): pp. 7–16.
65 Cited in Failer, Who Qualifies for Rights? p. 25.
66 Cited in Gregory E. Pence, Classic Cases in Medical Ethics, 5th ed. (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2008), chapter 15, p. 296.
67 Personal interview with Sam Tsembris, June 18, 2010.
68 Todd S. Purdum (based on reporting by Howard W. French, Michael Wines, and Todd S. Purdum), “Melee in Tompkins Sq. Park: Violence and Its Provocation,” New York Times, August 14, 1988, sec. 1, p. 1; Janet Abu-Lughod, “The Battle for Tompkins Square Park,” in Janet L. Abu-Lughod, ed., From Urban Village to East Village: The Battle for New York’s Lower East Side (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994), p. 237.
69 C. Carr, “Night Clubbing: Reports from the Tompkins Square Police Riot,” Village Voice, August 16, 1988, pp. 10, 17.
70 Robert D. McFadden, “Park Curfew Protest Erupts into a Battle and 38 Are Injured,” New York Times, August 8, 1988, p. A1. The Times reported that “Mayor Koch reversed a police order that had kept the park closed from 1 a.m. to sunrise for the last month and directed that it remain open ‘during the current heat wave’ to cool passions. ‘During this heat wave, we don’t want to enforce a curfew and provoke another confrontation,’ said Larry Simonberg, a spokesman for the Mayor.”
71 Janet Abu-Lughod, “The Battle for Tompkins Square Park,” in Janet L. Abu-Lughod, ed., From Urban Village to East Village: The Battle for New York’s Lower East Side, p. 255.
72 James Barron, “Removal of Tompkins Sq. Homeless Is Set,” New York Times, November 16, 1989, p. B1.
73 Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Vintage Books, 1979).
74 Tim Golden, “Cuomo and Dinkins Agree to House 5,225 Mentally Ill,” New York Times, August 23, 1990, p. A1.
75 The New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals, August 22, 1990, Section D: Placement Targets; Amendment, October 1993, Section 5. http://shnny.org/images/uploads/NYNYAgreement.pdf
76 Houghton, A Description and History of the New York/New York Agreement to House Mentally Ill Individuals, p. 3.
77 Personal interview with Cindy Freidmutter, February 9, 2012.
78 Houghton, A Description and History of The New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals, p. 34.
79 Ibid., pp. 29–30.
80 New York Times, editorial, August 24, 1990, p. A28.
81 Houghton, A Description and History of the New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals, p. 34.
82 Personal interview with Diane Baillargeon, February 24, 2012.
83 Personal interview with Cindy Freidmutter, February 9, 2012.
84 Ibid.
85 Ibid.
86 Personal interview with Diane Baillargeon, February 24, 2012.
87 Houghton, A Description and History of the New York/New York Agreement to House Homeless Mentally Ill Individuals, pp. 45, 3.
1 Manhattan Borough President’s Taskforce on Housing for Homeless Families, A Shelter Is Not a Home (New York, March 1987).
2 Randall K. Filer, “What Really Causes Family Homelessness?” NY: The City Journal 1, no. 1 (Autumn 1990).
3 Barbara Basler, “Koch Limits Using Welfare Hotels,” New York Times, December 17, 1985.
4 Susan V. Demers, “The Failures of Litigation as a Tool for the Development of Social Welfare Policy,” Fordham Urban Law Journal 22, no. 4 (1994): article 7, p. 1027.
5 Peter Hellman, “Justice Freedman v. New York,” City Journal, Spring 1997.
6 Michael A. Cardozo, “The New York City Corporation Counsel: The Best Legal Job in America,” New York Law School Law Review 53 (2008–2009): 459.
7 Leslie Kaufman and David W. Chen, “City Agrees to Deal on Homeless Families’ Right to Shelter,” New York Times, September 18, 2008, p. B1.
8 Order, Freedman, J., Mar. 25, 1991, McCain (Index No. 41023/83).
9 18 NYCRR 352.3 (e) (2).
10 Order, Freedman, J., Mar. 25, 1991, McCain (Index No. 41023/83).
11 Preliminary order, Freedman, January 8, 1991, McCain (Index No. 41023/83).
12 Thomas Morgan, “Contempt Charge Faced in Placement of Homeless,” New York Times, September 12, 1991, p. B6.
13 Memorandum decision, Freedman, September 10, 1991, McCain (Index No. 41023/83); Thomas Morgan, “Contempt Charge Faced in Placement of Homeless,” p. B6.
14 Thomas Morgan, “New York Admits Failure of Homeless-Family Effort” New York Times, September 18, 1991, p. B3.
15 Todd S. Purdum, “Shelter Deadline Causes Angry Clash between Dinkins and Vallone,” New York Times, October 3, 1991, p. B7.
16 Memorandum decision, Freedman, November 20, 1992, McCain (Index No. 41023/83).
17 Celia W. Dugger, “4 Dinkins Officials Found in Contempt on Housing Delay,” New York Times, November 21, 1992, sec. 1, p. 1.
18 Celia W. Dugger, “Still at Odds over the Homeless,” New York Times, November 23, 1992, p. B3.
19 Celia W. Dugger, “Dinkins to Appeal Contempt on Homeless,” New York Times, December 15, 1992, p. B3.
20 McCain v. Dinkins, Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, First Department, 192 A.D. 2d 217; July 29, 1993.
21 Personal interview with Norman Steisel, June 24, 2010.
22 Personal interview with Cesar A. Perales, May 10, 2010.
23 Daniel Wise, “Alternate Dispute Resolution Was Key to Settlement of Homeless Litigation,” New York Law Journal, January 23, 2003.
24 Note: “Implementation Problems in Institutional Reform Litigation,” Harvard Law Review 91 (1977): p. 449.
25 Ibid.
26 Citizens Committee for Children of New York, On Their Own: At What Cost; A look at Families Who Leave Shelters (New York, 1992), illustration 1, p. 4.
27 Sam Roberts, “Metro Matters: City as Landlord; Homeless Force Policy Turnabout,” New York Times, September 20, 1990, p. B1.
28 Edward F. Dejowski and Julie Ibanez, Trends in Family Shelter Usage: Report to the New York City Human Resources Administration (New York: Bureau of Management Information Systems, Human Resources Administration, 1992), p. 2.
29 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, November 12, 1992.
30 Ibid.
31 S. Roberts, “What Led to a Crackdown on the Homeless,” New York Times, October 28, 1991, p. B1.
32 Thomas Morgan, “Advocates for Homeless Fault Housing Plan,” New York Times, November 1, 1990.
33 David N. Dinkins with Peter Knobler, A Mayor’s Life: Governing New York’s Gorgeous Mosaic (New York: Public Affairs, 2013), pp. 183–84.
34 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, November 12, 1992.
35 J. Phillip Thompson, “The Failure of Liberal Homeless Policy in the Koch and Dinkins Administrations,” Political Science Quarterly 111, no. 4 (Winter 1996): pp. 639–60; Gordon Berlin and William McAllister, “Homelessness: Why Nothing Has Worked, and What Will,” Brookings Review 10, no. 4 (Fall 1992): pp. 12–17; Gordon Berlin and William McAllister, “Homeless Family Shelters and Family Homelessness,” American Behavioral Scientist 37, no. 3 (January 1994): pp. 422–34; Gordon Berlin and William McAllister, “Homelessness,” in Henry J. Aaron and Charles L Schultz, eds., Setting Domestic Priorities: What Can Government Do? (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press), pp. 63–99; Christopher Jencks, The Homeless (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1994), pp.104–5.
36 Personal interview with Norman Steisel, June 24, 2010.
37 Personal interview with Cesar A. Perales, May 10, 2010.
38 Cragg and O’Flaherty, “Do Homeless Shelter Conditions Determine Shelter Population? The Case of the Dinkins Deluge,” Journal of Urban Economics 46 (1999): p. 377.
39 Ibid., p. 413.
40 Ibid., p. 380.
41 Ibid., p. 409.
42 Patrick Markee, “Bloomberg Administration Officials to NY Times: Up Is Down, Night Is Day, 2 + 2 = 5, Etc. Etc.” Coalition for the Homeless Blog, posted June 1, 2011 at http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/bloomberg-administration-officials-to-ny-times-up-is-down-night-is-day-2-2-5-etc-etc.
43 Brian A. Jacob, and Jens Ludwig. “The Effects of Housing Assistance on Labor Supply: Evidence from a Voucher Lottery,” American Economic Review 102, no. 1 (2012): pp. 272–304.
44 Dejowski and Ibanez, Trends in Family Shelter Usage, figure 1.
45 Celia Dugger, “Memo to Democrats: Housing Won’t Solve Homelessness,” New York Times, July 12, 1992.
46 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, May 24, 2010.
47 City of New York, Mayor’s Management Report, September 17, 1990, p. 245.
48 New York City Housing Authority, Sally Hernandez-Pinero, “The Homeless and Public Housing in New York City,” Testimony to New York City Council, undated, p. 2.
49 Ibid., p. 3.
50 Personal interview with Norman Steisel, June 24, 2010.
51 Personal interview with Sally Hernandez-Pinero, March 25, 1993.
52 A Shelter Is Not a Home, p. 8.
53 Ibid., p. 108.
54 James R. Knickman and Beth C. Weitzman, A Study of Homeless Families in New York City: Risk Assessment Models and Strategies for Prevention, final report, vol. 1 (New York: Health Research Program of New York University, September 1989).
55 Ibid., p. 30.
56 Ibid., p. 39.
57 Marybeth Shinn, Beth C. Weitzman, Daniela Stojanovic, and James R. Knickman et al., “Predictors of Homelessness among Families in New York City: From Shelter Request to Housing Stability,” American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 11 (November 1998): pp. 1651–57, ABI/INFORM Global. This study found that “[i]ndividual characteristics associated with shelter entry did not prevent most families from becoming rehoused,” p. 1654.
58 Marybeth Shinn, Judith S. Schteingart, and Nathanial Chioke Williams et al., “Long-Term Associations of Homelessness with Children’s Well-Being,” American Behavioral Scientist 51 (2008): 789. This study found that “[o]verall, the results suggest that a median of 55 months after first entering shelter and 39 months after last leaving it, formerly homeless children who remained with their mothers did not look enormously different from their continuously housed peers whose mothers used welfare. Nevertheless, almost all differences favored housed children,” p. 802. An important qualification is that children who did not stay with their mothers at the time of the second interview were not included.
59 Siobhan M. Toohey, Marybeth Shinn, and Beth C. Weitzman, “Social Networks and Homelessness among Women Heads of Household,” American Journal of Community Psychology 33, nos. 1/2 (March 2004). According to the authors,
It does appear that there were some subtle long-term differences between formerly homeless and housed women but that formerly homeless women were not socially isolated. This finding, along with our finding that women on the verge of homelessness were better connected with social networks than were housed women, suggests that the more severe social deprivation other researchers have found among currently homeless women may be a temporary consequence of living in a shelter, rather than a central cause of homelessness.
60 New York City Commission on the Homeless, The Way Home: A New Direction in Social Policy (New York: February 1992), p. 21.
61 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, March 16, 2015.
62 Anthony Marcus, Where Have All the Homeless Gone? The Making and Unmaking of a Crisis (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006), pp. 68–69.
63 Celia W. Dugger, “Big Shelters Hold Terrors for the Mentally Ill,” New York Times, January 12, 1992, sec. 1, p. 1.
64 Personal interview with Anne Teicher, March 17, 2015.
65 New York City Five-Year Plan for Housing and Assisting Homeless Adults, October 1991, p. 1.
66 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, March 16, 2015.
67 New York City Five-Year Plan for Housing and Assisting Homeless Adults, p. 62.
68 Ibid., pp. 67–68.
69 Sam Roberts, “Deciding on Sites for Shelters: A Faceless Numbers-Cruncher,” New York Times, December 2, 1991, p. B3.
70 A Shelter Is Not a Home, p. 8.
71 Personal interview with Anne Teicher, March 17, 2015.
72 Personal interview with Nancy Wackstein, March 16, 2015.
73 Todd S. Purdum, “Dinkins Lists Possible Shelter Sites to Irate Protests on Many Fronts,” New York Times, October 11, 1991, p. A1.
74 New York City Commission on the Homeless, The Way Home: A New Direction in Social Policy (New York: February 1992).
75 Ibid., p. 73.
76 Ibid., p. 7.
77 Ibid., p. 28.
78 Ibid., p. 9.
79 Ibid., p. 81.
80 Ibid., p. 15.
81 Sam Roberts, “Dinkins to Study Homeless Proposals,” New York Times, February 22, 1992, sec. 1, p. 27.
82 Celia W. Dugger, “Panel’s Report on Homeless Is Criticized by Dinkins Staff,” New York Times, February 1, 1992, sec. 1, p. 1.
83 Ibid.
84 James C. McKinley Jr., “Dinkins Names a Manager for Agency for Homeless,” New York Times, December 3, 1992, p. B3.
85 Personal interview with Muzzy Rosenblatt, April 9, 2010.
86 Celia W. Dugger, “Dinkins Plan for Homeless under Attack,” New York Times, May 13, 1993, p. B1.
87 Celia W. Dugger, “Finding Ways to House All Vexes Leaders at Every Level,” New York Times, July 6, 1993, p. A1.
88 Ibid.
89 Personal interview with Charles V. Raymond, April 9, 2010.
90 Personal interview with Norman Steisel, June 24, 2010.
91 Raymond is identified as Steisel’s “protégé” in Celia W. Dugger, “A New Effort Aims to Raise Housing Aid,” New York Times, May 30, 1993, sec. 1, p. 29, and as Steisel’s “hand-picked candidate,” in Celia W. Dugger, “Feud between Top Dinkins Aids Is Seen as Hurting Social Programs,” New York Times, January 1, 1993, p. A1.
92 Dennis P. Culhane, “The Quandaries of Shelter Reform: An Appraisal of Efforts to ‘Manage’ Homelessness,” Social Service Review, September 1992, pp. 428–40.
93 Personal interview with Charles V. Raymond, April 9, 2010.
94 McCain v. Dinkins, motion seq. no. 029, December 8, 1993.
95 James C. McKinley Jr., “Dinkins Names a Manager for Agency for Homeless,” New York Times, December 3, 1992, p. B3.
96 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, November 24, 2014.
97 David L. Shern et al., “Serving Street-Dwelling Individuals with Psychiatric Disabilities: Outcomes of a Psychiatric Rehabilitation Clinical Trial,” American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 12 (December 2000): p. 1873.
98 Personal interview with William Anthony, January 12, 2015.
99 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, November 24, 2014.
100 David L. Shern et al., “Serving Street-Dwelling Individuals with Psychiatric Disabilities: Outcomes of a Psychiatric Rehabilitation Clinical Trial,” p. 1873.
101 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, November 24, 2014.
102 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, June 18, 2010.
103 Celia W. Dugger, “Giuliani Calls Dinkins Indecisive on Housing and Homeless,” New York Times, August 5, 1993, p. B1.
1 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Shawn G. Kennedy, “Council Votes to Extend Life of Department for the Homeless,” New York Times, September 7, 1995, p. B3.
5 Celia W. Dugger, “Giuliani Eases Stance on Plans for Homeless,” New York Times, March 20, 1994, sec. 1, p. 1.
6 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
7 Dugger, “Giuliani Eases Stance on Plans for Homeless.”
8 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
9 On how competitive political environments encourage policy entrepreneurship and facilitate the adoption of new policy ideas see Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), p. 211 and pp. 278–79.
10 New York City Department of Homeless Services, “Reforming New York City’s System of Homeless Services,” May 1994, pp. 1, 6.
11 New York State Department of Social Services Administrative Directive 83 ADM-47. Section IV. A. I. 6: at 2.
12 New York State Department of Social Services Administrative Directive 94-ADM-20, Section IV, D.
13 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
14 New York City Department of Homeless Services, “Reforming New York City’s System of Homeless Services,” p. 4.
15 Kevin Sack, “Pataki Proposes to Deny Shelter to Homeless Who Break Rules: Shifting the Balance to Personal Responsibility,” New York Times, April 15, 1995, p. A1. Also see New York State Department of Social Services, notice for proposed rule making for the enactment of 18 NYCRR 352.35, November 7, 1995.
16 Shawn G. Kennedy, “Judge Blocks a Bid to Deny Emergency Shelter,” New York Times, November 17, 1995, p. B2.
17 Callahan v. Carey, Index No. 42582/79, “Memorandum in Support of Plaintiffs’ Motion to Declare State ‘Emergency’ Regulations Null and Void,” p. 8. (Sup. Ct. N.Y. County, filed Dec. 8, 1995).
18 President of the Borough of Manhattan, A Shelter Is Not a Home: Report of the Manhattan Borough President’s Task Force on Housing for Homeless Families (New York: March 1987), pp. 121–22; and City Council of the City of New York, “Report of the Select Committee on the Homeless,” November 24, 1986, p. 78.
19 Mayor’s Advisory Task Force on the Homeless, “Toward a Comprehensive Policy on Homelessness,” New York, 1987, p. 59.
20 New York City Commission on the Homeless, The Way Home: A New Direction in Social Policy (New York: February 1992), p. 32.
21 Department of Homeless Services, “Reforming New York City’s System of Homeless Services,” p. 6.
22 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
23 Thomas J. Main, “Shelters for Homeless Men in New York City: Towards Paternalism through Privatization,” in Lawrence M. Mead, ed., The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), table 5-1, p. 172.
24 Citizens’ Budget Commission, “Department of Homeless Services,” in The State of Municipal Services in the 1990s: Social Services in New York City, 1997.
25 Lynette Holloway, “City Plans Greatly Diminished Role in Homeless Shelters,” New York Times, June 21, 1998, sec. 1, p. 32.
26 Janice M. Hirota, “Life and Work in City Shelters: Homeless Residents and Organizational Dynamics at the Borden Avenue Veterans Residence,” City of New York Human Resources Administration, May 1991.
27 Salvation Army, Borden Avenue Veterans Residence, “What is BAVR?” New York, undated, p. 2.
28 Hirota, “Life and Work in City Shelters,” p. 16.
29 Ibid., p. 21.
30 Alfred Peck, Isaac Pimentel, and Gerald Saunders, “Yesterday’s Heroes, Today’s Homeless: Strategies to Address African-American Veterans’ Homelessness,” Veterans Braintrust, Congressional Black Caucus, undated, pp. 2–3.
31 Hirota, “Life and Work in City Shelters,” p. 41.
32 Ibid., p. iv.
33 Ibid., p. 60.
34 Sara Rimer, “Despite Pledge, Homeless Still in Hotel,” New York Times, November 11, 1989, sec. 1, p. 29.
35 Carol Goar, “A Triumph of Urban Ingenuity,” Toronto Star, November 26, 2003, p. A28.
36 Anthony Ramirez, “Neighborhood Report: Midtown; The Four Rules of Politics, by Nick Fish,” New York Times, November 3, 1996, sec. 13, p. 6.
37 Personal interview with Rosanne Haggerty, April 29, 2015.
38 McCain v. Giuliani, Supreme Court, New York County, Part 30, Index No. 41023/83, November 22, 1994.
39 Personal interview with Kenneth Feinberg, August 18, 2011.
40 Ibid.
41 Leslie Kaufman, “One Constant in Homeless Litigation: New York v. the Judge,” New York Times, November 12, 2002, p. B1.
42 Joyce Purnick, “For Homeless, a New Era Could Be Near,” New York Times, March 3, 2005, p. B1.
43 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2010.
44 Personal interview with Steven Banks, November 25, 2013.
45 Lawrence Van Gelder, “Judge Asked to Halt Use of an Office for Homeless,” New York Times, June 17, 1995, sec. 1, p. 23.
46 McCain v. Giuliani, index number 41023/83, Memorandum Decision, May 14, 1996, p. 12.
47 McCain v. Giuliani, index number 41023/83, Recommendations of the Special Masters, March 15, 1996, p. 1.
48 McCain v. Giuliani, index number 41023/83, Memorandum Decision, May 14, 1996, p. 34.
49 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2011.
50 Personal interview with Steven Banks, November 25, 2013.
51 94 ADM-20, New York State Office of Temporary and Disability Assistance, December 29, 1994, IV, D, p. 5
52 Celia W. Dugger, “Giuliani Relieved of an Obligation on the Homeless,” New York Times, December 31, 1994, sec. 1, p. 1.
53 Ibid.
54 McCain v. Giuliani, index number 41023/83, Memorandum Decision, May 14, 1996, pp. 29–30.
55 94 ADM-20, III, p. 4.
56 McCain v. Giuliani, memorandum decision, March 3, 1998, p. 11.
57 Ibid., p. 14.
58 94 ADM-20, IV, D, p. 5.
59 McCain v. Giuliani, index number 41023/83, Memorandum Decision, May 14, 1996, pp. 29–30.
60 Matthew Purdy, “City to Revise Its Housing of Homeless,” New York Times, February 2, 1995, p. B3.
61 Personal interview with Steven Banks, November 25, 2013.
62 McCain v. Koch, 502 N.Y.S.2d 720 (N.Y. App. Div. 1986), May 13, 1986.
63 Ibid.
64 McCain v. Koch, Order, July 3, 1986.
65 Ibid.
66 18 NYCRR 352.35 (e) 1.
67 18 NYCRR 352.35 (d).
68 McCain v. Giuliani, December 30, 1996, p. 7.
69 Ibid., pp. 16–19.
70 McCain v. Giuliani, May 27, 1997.
71 McCain v. Giuliani, Supreme Court of New York, Appellate Division, First Division 252 A.D. 2d 461; 676 N.Y.S. 2d 151; 1998 N.Y.App. Div. July 30, 1998.
72 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2011.
73 Virginia Breen and Joel Siegel, “Families Booted at Homeless Ctr.,” New York Daily News, August 27, 1996, p. 10.
74 86 ADM-7, IV. A. 4, March 3, 1986. http://www.wnylc.net/Pdf/administrative-directives/old-admin-directives/86adm7.pdf.
75 Nina Bernstein, “Judge Orders City to Stop Housing Homeless in Office,” New York Times, January 14, 1999, p. B3.
76 Nina Bernstein, “Giuliani to Order Homeless to Work for Their Shelter,” New York Times, October 26, 1999, p. A1.
77 Ibid.
78 Ibid.
79 David M. Herszenhorn, “City Vows to Fight Order on Homeless Policy,” New York Times, December 10, 1999, p. B12.
80 Personal interview with Joan Malin, March 29, 2010.
81 Personal interview with Gordon Campbell, October 24, 2011.
82 K. C. Baker and Joel Siegel, “Welfare Hotel Rule a Goner,” New York Daily News, September 10, 1996.
83 Claire Serant, “Shelter Residents Protest Ouster,” New York Daily News, October 9, 1996, Suburban section, p. 1.
84 Claire Serant, “Ex-Shelter to Become Luxury Inn,” New York Daily News, March 20, 1997, Suburban section, p. 2.
85 Lynette Holloway, “City Plans Greatly Diminished Role in Homeless Staff,” New York Times, June 21, 1998, sec.1, p. 32.
86 Messages and Papers from the Mayor, M-320, Communication from the Mayor—Mayor’s veto and disapproval message of Introductory Number 317-A, July 24, 1998.
87 Mike Allen, “Defiance Reigns as Council Keeps Swinging at Mayor,” New York Times, June 25, 1998, p. B3; Metro News Briefs: New York, “Giuliani Defies Council with Homeless-Bill Veto,” New York Times, p. B5.
88 New York City Legislative Annual, 1998, Veto Report for Intro. 407-A (Local Law 57 in 1998) December 7, 1998.
89 New York City Council, Law Number 1998/057, enactment date: 12/17/1998. http://nyc.legistar.com/LegislationDetail.aspx?ID=432045&GUID=5E3ED12C-7ED3-45B8-97D3-C30B63021811&Options=&Search=
90 Nina Bernstein, “Clash over Shelter Exposes Deep Rift on Homeless Policy,” New York Times, December 31, 1998, p. B1.
91 Personal interview with Martin Oesterreich, April 5, 2010.
92 Kemba Johnson, “My Favorite Martin,” City Limits, July 1, 1999.
93 Personal interview with Martin Oesterreich, April 5, 2010.
94 Personal Interview with Steven Banks, December 9, 2013.
95 Nina Bernstein, “Homeless Shelters in New York Fill to Highest Level since 80’s,” New York Times, February 8, 2001, p. A1; personal interview with Martin Oesterreich, April 5, 2010.
96 Personal Interview with Mark Hurwitz, October 17, 2014.
97 Sam Tsemberis and Ronda F. Eisenberg, “Pathways to Housing: Supported Housing for Street-Dwelling Homeless Individuals with Psychiatric Disabilities,” Psychiatric Services 51, no. 4 (April 2000): pp. 487–93, figure 1.
98 Personal Interview with Mark Hurwitz, October 17, 2014.
99 “NY/NY II,” Supportive Housing Network of NY, undated, accessed at http://shnny.ore/budget-policy/nyc/ny-ny/ny-ny ii/; Connie Temple, Corporation for Supportive Housing, “Creating Supportive Housing through the NY/NY Agreements,” Power Point presentation, September 30, 2009, slides 8–11.
100 Personal interview with Shelly Nortz, April 20, 2015.
101 David Gonzalez, “About New York; Street Name for Impasse: Homeless,” New York Times, January 9, 1999, p. B1.
102 Personal interview with Shelly Nortz, April 20, 2015.
103 Raymond Hernandez, “Pataki and Giuliani Agree on Housing for the Mentally Ill,” New York Times, April 22, 1999, p. B1.
104 Personal interview with Shelly Nortz, April 20, 2015.
1 Leslie Kaufman, “City Shifts View on Homelessness,” New York Times, June 16, 2004, p. 1.
2 Carine Barometre, deputy commissioner, Prevention Services, New York City Department of Homeless Services, “Preventing Homelessness in New York City,” presentation at Fairfax County Virginia Summit, April 7, 2006. Accessed at http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/homeless/summit/newyorkcity.pdf, June 18, 2012.
3 Accessed at http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/html/about/agencyintro.shtml, June 18, 2012. Emphasis in the original.
4 James Q. Wilson, Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do and Why They Do It (New York: Basic Books, 1989), pp. 38, 49.
5 M. Anne Hill and Thomas J. Main, Is Welfare Working: The Massachusetts Reforms Three Years Later (Boston: Pioneer Institute, 1998), pp. 51–71.
6 Thus the much-criticized HUD report of 1984 claimed that “for most people who become homeless, their condition is recent and likely to be temporary.” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, A Report for the Secretary on the Homeless and Emergency Shelters (Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research, 1984).
7 Richard B. Freeman and Brian Hall, “Permanent Homelessness in America?” Population Research and Policy Review 6 (1987): p. 4.
8 Kim Hopper and Jill Hamberg, The Making of America’s Homeless: From Skid Row to New Poor, 1945–1984 (New York: Community Service Society, December 1984), pp. 62–63.
9 Thomas J. Main, “Homeless Families in New York City,” New York Times, November 28, 1986.
10 Marybeth Shinn et al., “Predictors of Homelessness among Families in New York City: From Shelter Request to Housing Stability,” American Journal of Public Health, November 1998, pp. 1651–57.
11 Daniela Stojanovic et al., “Tracing the Path out of Homelessness: The Housing Patterns of Families after Exiting Shelter,” Journal of Community Psychology 27, no. 2 (1999): pp. 199–208.
12 Ibid.
13 Randall Kuhn and Dennis P. Culhane, “Applying Cluster Analysis to Test a Typology of Homelessness by Pattern of Shelter Utilization: Results from the Analysis of Administrative Data,” American Journal of Community Psychology 26, no. 2 (1998): pp. 207–32.
14 Ibid., p. 226.
15 Ibid., p. 229.
16 For accounts of the role that professional consensus plays in precipitating nonincremental change, see Timothy J. Conlan, David R. Beam, and Margaret T. Wrightson, “Policy Models and Political Change: Insights from the Passage of Tax Reform,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 121–42; also see M. A. Hill and Thomas J. Main, Is Welfare Working? The Massachusetts Reforms Three Years Later (Boston: Pioneer Institute, 1998), chapter 3. For an account of the nature of public ideas see Mark H. Moore, “What Sort of Ideas Become Public Ideas?” in Robert B. Reich, ed., The Power of Public Ideas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
17 Douglas McGary, “The Abolitionist,” Atlantic Monthly, June 2004, pp. 36–39.
18 Personal interview with Nan Roman, April 3, 2006.
19 Personal interview with Philip F. Mangano, April 25, 2006.
20 Dennis P. Culhane, Stephen Metreaux, and Trevor Hadley, “Public Service Reductions with Placement of Homeless Persons in Supportive Housing,” Housing Policy Debate 13, no. 1 (2002): pp. 107–63.
21 Personal interview with Connie Temple, April 23, 2015.
22 Sam Tsemberis, Leyla Gulcur, and Maria Nakae, “Housing First, Consumer Choice, and Harm Reduction for Homeless Individuals with a Dual Diagnosis,” American Journal of Public Health 94, no. 4 (April 2004): p. 654.
23 In “The Curious Case of Housing First: The Limits of Evidence-Based Policy,” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 34 (2011): p. 278, Victoria Stanhope and Kerry Dunn report that
[s]even of the eleven cities funded by CIHC (the federal Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness) used some variation of the Housing First model and achieved 85% housing retention rates after 12 months. . . . The Department of Housing and Urban Development published the outcomes of their three-city, 12-month study of Housing First programs (one of which was Pathways to Housing) reporting an 84% housing retention rate for 12 months.
24 James Q. Wilson discusses the generally dismal track record of interagency councils and quotes approvingly Harold Seidman’s judgment: “Interagency committees are the crabgrass in the garden of government. Nobody wants them, but everyone has them. Committees seem to thrive on scorn and ridicule.” Bureaucracy, pp. 269–74.
25 Dina Temple-Raston, “Bloomberg Vows to Make Chronic Homelessness ‘Extinct,’” New York Sun, June 24, 2004.
26 Personal interview with Lilliam Barrios-Paoli, senior vice president of the United Way of New York and cochair of the New York Coordinating Committee on Homelessness, November 12, 2004.
27 David Saltonstall, “Record 38,000 without Homes,” New York Daily News, December 31, 2002, p. 10.
28 Ibid.
29 David Saltonstall, “A Plan to Help Homeless,” New York Daily News, June 24, 2004, p. 2. For a more detailed account of the decision to switch from a ten-year to a five-year plan see John Cassidy, “Bloomberg’s Game,” New Yorker, April 4, 2005, p. 56. New York City mayors are term limited to a maximum of two consecutive terms, or eight years. The city’s official plan on homelessness, “Uniting for Solutions beyond Shelter,” envisions a ten-year process. http://www.nyc.gov/html/endinghomelessness/downloads/pdf/actionbooklet/pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
30 Leslie Kaufman, “City Shifts View on Homelessness,” New York Times, June 16, 2004, p. 1.
31 Leslie Kaufman, “Mayor Urges Major Overhaul for Homeless,” New York Times, June 24, 2004, p. 1. The quotation is from Joe Weisbord, staff director of Housing First, a housing advocacy group very critical of New York City in the past.
32 The City of New York, Uniting for Solutions beyond Shelter: The Action Plan for New York City, undated, p. 10. http://www.nyc.gov/html/endinghomelessness/downloads/pdf/actionbooklet.pdf, accessed December 14, 2015.
33 Ibid., p. 42.
34 Ibid., p. 5.
35 Ibid., pp. 4, 34.
36 Coalition for the Homeless, Advocacy Department, “New York City Homeless Municipal Shelter Population, 1983–Present,” undated, http://coalhome.3cdn.net/9bf5aad273af9beaad_ldm6i6j2r.pdf, accessed January 21, 2014.
37 Leslie Kaurmann, “Mayor Urges Major Overhaul for Homeless,” New York Times, June 24, 2004, p. B1.
38 Stipulation dated January 17, 2003.
39 Daniel Wise, “Alternate Dispute Resolution Was Key to Settlement of Homeless Litigation,” New York Law Journal, January 23, 2003.
40 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2011.
41 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 9, 2013.
42 Special Master Panel Agreement, January 17, 2003.
43 “Top Cases of 2003; Corporate Crime; Judicial Conduct; Government,” New York Law Journal, February 23, 2004, col. 1, p. 15. Also see Daniel Wise, “Alternate Dispute Resolution Was Key to Settlement of Homeless Litigation,” which reported on “the creation of a three-member panel with powers that, at least on paper, look more akin to those of an arbitrator than those of a mediator.”
44 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2011.
45 Personal interview with Steven Banks, November 25, 2013.
46 Personal interview with Thomas Crane, December 14, 2011.
47 New York City Family Homelessness Special Master Panel, Report on the Emergency Assistance Unit and Shelter Eligibility Determination, June 23, 2004, p. 5.
48 Report on the Emergency Assistance Unit and Eligibility Determination, p. 7.
49 New York City Family Homelessness Special Master Panel, Report on the Emergency Assistance Unit and Shelter Eligibility Determination, p. 1.
50 Leslie Kaufman, “For Homeless Families in City, Stricter Rules and Quicker Aid,” New York Times, November 17, 2004, p. 1.
51 Cassi Feldman, “Cruel to Be Kind,” City Limits, September/October 2005.
52 Michael Saul, “Plan New Facility for Homeless,” New York Daily News, November 17, 2004, p. 20.
53 David Saltonstall with Mark Fass, “Despised Homeless Intake Office to Be Gutted,” Daily News, June 27, 2004, p. 24.
54 Interview with Rebecca Chew, January 24, 2012.
55 Jennifer Egan, “To Be Young and Homeless,” New York Times, March 24, 2002, sec. 6, col. 1, Magazine Desk, p. 32.
56 Feldman, “Cruel to Be Kind”
57 Michelle O’Donnell, “Judge Rules in City’s Favor on Housing Homeless Families,” New York Times, August 17, 2005, p. B2.
58 Personal interview with Vida Chavez-Downs, February 27, 2006.
59 Ginia Bellafante, “Rare Sympathy for the Landlord,” New York Times, February 26, 2012, sec. MB, p. 1.
60 Howard Husock, “Reining in Housing Vouchers,” New York Sun, November 3, 2004, p. 11.
61 Leslie Kaufman, “Homeless Families Blocked from Seeking U.S. Housing Aid,” New York Times, October 20, 2004, p. B1.
62 Michael Cragg and Brendan O’Flaherty, “Do Homeless Shelter Conditions Determine Shelter Population? The Case of the Dinkins Deluge,” Journal of Urban Economics 46 (1999): pp. 377–415.
63 Leslie Kaufman, “Homeless Families Blocked from Seeking U.S. Housing Aid.”
64 Howard Husock, “Reining in Housing Vouchers.”
65 Leslie Kaufman, “Homeless Families Blocked from Seeking U.S. Housing Aid.”
66 Personal interview with Linda Gibbs, July 25, 2005.
67 New York City Family Homelessness Special Master Panel, Letter to the Court, January 16, 2005. For a news report on the issuance of the SMP’s findings see Leslie Kaufman, “Deal on Legal Aid Lawsuits for Homeless Breaks Down,” New York Times, February 16, 2005, p. B3.
68 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 9, 2013.
69 Affirmation of Thomas Crane, February 2006, p. 26.
70 Ibid., pp. 14–15.
71 Personal interview with George Nashak, October 19, 2014.
72 Ibid.
73 Personal interview with Shelly Nortz, April 20, 2015.
74 Personal interview with Connie Temple, April 23, 2015.
75 Personal interview with George Nashak, October 19, 2014; Tanveer Ali, “Hess vs. Homelessness: Chat with DHS Commish,” City Limits, August 7, 2006.
76 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, November 24, 2014.
77 Personal interview with George Nashak, October 19, 2014.
78 Personal interview with Robert Hess, March 26, 2010.
79 Personal interview with Scott Auwarter, assistant executive director, BronxWorks, October 19, 2011.
80 Mosi Secret, “Smaller Shelters and Persuasion Coax Homeless off Bronx Streets,” New York Times, October 18, 2011, p. A1; HOPE 2011, The NYC Street Survey, slide 8. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/downloads/pdf/hope11_results.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
81 HOPE 2014, The NYC Street Survey, slide 7.
82 “Decision of Interest; New York County Supreme Court; Justice Helen E. Freedman; DOI; Court Appoints ‘Special Masters’ to Investigate Erroneous Denials of Emergency Shelter to Homeless,” New York Law Journal, November 27, 2007, p. 26.
83 Ibid.
84 McCain v. Bloomberg, Supreme Court of New York County of New York, Index no. 41023/83, Affidavit of John Mollenkopf, August 2007.
85 Ibid. The three members of the new special master panel were former appellate division justices Hon. Betty Weinberg Ellerin and Hon. E. Leo Milonas, and former Legal Services Corporation president, Alexander Forger, Esq.
86 Daniel Wise, “City Seeks to End Court Oversight of Homeless Shelters,” New York Law Journal, November 21, 2007, col. 1, p. 1.
87 Bloomberg Businessweek, Company Overview of Lawyers Committee for Civil Rights under Law, Executive Profile, Alexander D. Forger Esq. Accessed January 8, 2014.
88 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 19, 2013.
89 Ibid.
90 Michael A. Cardozo, “The New York City Corporation Counsel: The Best Legal Job in America,” New York Law School Law Review 53 (2008–2009): p. 459.
91 Daniel Wise, “City, Legal Aid Agree to Settle 25-Year-Old Homeless Suits,” New York Law Journal, September 18, 2008, p. 1.
92 Editorial, “Good Riddance,” New York Daily News, September 19, 2008, p. 28.
93 Personal interview with Steven Banks, December 9, 2013.
94 Ibid.
95 Boston v. City of New York, Index No. 402295/08, Final Judgment, September 17, 2008, pp. 1–2.
96 New York City Independent Budget Office, Inside the Budget, Number 157, “Has the Rise in Homeless Prevention Spending Decreased the Shelter Population?” August 7, 2008, p. 4. http://www.ibo.nyc.ny.us/newsfax/insidethebudget157.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
97 Ibid.; Tina Moore with Adam Lisberg, “Bloomy Defends Homeless Program,” New York Daily News, October 2, 2010, p. 6.
98 Abt Associates, Final Report: Evaluation of the Homebase Community Prevention Program, June 6, 2013, p. 3. http://www.abtassociates.com/AbtAssociates/files/cf/cf819ade-6613-4664-9ac1-2344225c24d7.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015; Cara Buckley, “To Test Housing Program, Some Are Denied Aid,” New York Times, December 9, 2010, p. A1.
99 Tina Moore, “City’s Cruel Test for Poor Families: 200 Denied Aid Are Being Treated Like ‘Rats in a Lab Experiment,’” New York Daily News, September 30, 2010, p. 6.
100 States News Service, Statement from the Manhattan Borough President on Department of Homeless Services’ Home Base Program, October 5, 2010. https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-238778110.html, accessed December 15, 2015.
101 Tina Moore, “Uproar by Pols over ‘Cruel Test’ of City Homeless,” New York Daily News, October 1, 2010, p. 4.
102 Ibid.
103 Tina Moore, “‘Serious Ethical Questions’: Council Members Grill Officials over Denying Homeless Services for a Study,” New York Daily News, December 10, 2010, p. 30.
104 Tina Moore with Adam Lisberg, “Bloomy Defends Homeless Program.”
105 Abt Associates, Final Report: Evaluation of the Homebase Community Prevention Program, p. 13.
106 Ibid., p. 14.
107 Peter Hellman, “Justice Freedman v. New York,” City Journal, Spring 1997.
108 Alan Feuer, “The Hidden Homeless,” New York Times, February 5, 2012, sec. MB, Metropolitan Desk, p. 1.
109 New York City Department of Homeless Services press release, PR-149-11, May 11, 2011.
110 Interview with Rebecca Chew, January 24, 2012.
111 Ibid.
112 Coalition for the Homeless, “State of the Homeless 2009: A Proven Way to Reduce Family Homelessness during the Economic Recession,” April 23, 2009, p. 4. http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/StateoftheHomeless2009.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
113 Howard Husock, “Reining in Housing Vouchers,” New York Sun, November 3, 2004, p. 1.
114 Ibid.
115 Coalition for the Homeless, “Homeless Families at Risk: Hazardous Conditions in the Housing Stability Plus Program,” February 2007, p. 2, written by Lindsey Davis, edited by Patrick Markee. http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/HomelessFamiliesAtRiskReport2007/wAppendx.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
116 Sewell Chan, “Critics See Flaws in a Program to Help the Homeless Pay Rent,” New York Times, May 8, 2006, p. B2.
117 Leslie Kaufman, “With a Record Number of Homeless Families, the City Vows to Improve Aid,” New York Times, March 19, 2007, p. B1.
118 Ibid.
119 Coalition for the Homeless, Advocacy Department, “New York City Homeless Municipal Shelter Population, 1983–Present,” undated, http://coalhome.3cdn.net/9bf5aad273af9beaad_ldm6i6j2r.pdf, accessed January 21, 2014.
120 Leslie Kaufman, “With a Record Number of Homeless Families, the City Vows to Improve Aid,” p. B1.
121 New York City Department of Homeless Services, “New Rental Strategy Rewards Work and Prepares Clients for Independent Living through Matched Savings,” April 25, 2007. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/html/communications/pr042507.shtml, accessed July 21, 2014. This document explains the matched savings feature of Advantage as follows:
A key tool in the Work Advantage program is a savings program that will provide clients with a financial cushion when rental assistance ends. While clients are receiving the rental subsidy, which will account for almost 100% of their rent, they can contribute up to 20% of the rent amount to a savings account that will be matched at the end of the program. In addition, clients will pay $50 in rent directly to the landlord, which will also be matched and added to the client’s savings. For instance, after one year, a family with a monthly rent of $1,070 who was saving at a rate of 20% per month could end up with nearly $6,000 in a savings account, including the client savings and City matching funds.
122 Personal interview with Robert V. Hess, March 26, 2010.
123 Coalition for the Homeless, Advocacy Department, “New York City Homeless Municipal Shelter Population, 1983–Present.”
124 New York City Department of Homeless Services, A Progress Report on Uniting for Solutions beyond Shelter, Fall 2008, p. 2. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/downloads/pdf/progress_Report.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
125 Commissioner Robert V. Hess explained the revised requirements for the Advantage program as follows:
Clients entering year one of the Advantage NY program will be required to be employed for at least 20 hours per week, and participate in an additional 15 hours per week of housing searches or HRA-approved work activities. Clients will also be required to contribute 30 percent of their gross monthly income toward rent during their first year of participation in the program.
For year two, the subsidy will be available to those who are employed for 35 hours per week and remain compliant with program rules. The revised program has raised the income threshold as well, to where clients must continue to have an income that is less than 200 percent of the federal poverty level—an improvement to our previous program which set the cap at 150 percent of the federal poverty level. During the second year, participants will be required to contribute the greater half of their monthly rent, or 30 percent of their income, toward their housing costs.
Testimony of Commissioner Robert V. Hess for City Council Hearing, General Welfare Committee, “Oversight: Update on DHS’ Advantage NY and Homebase Programs” Thursday, April 15, 2010.
126 Julie Bosman, “Plan Would Require Homeless to Work to Qualify for Rent Subsidies,” New York Times, April 14, 2010, p. A20.
127 New York City Office of Comptroller, “Audit Report on the Monitoring of the Work Advantage Program by the Department of Homeless Services,” Audit Number: MG10–060A, Release Date: July 15, 2010. http://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/audit/?r=07-15-10_MG10-060A, accessed December 15, 2015.
128 New York City Department of Homeless Services, “The 411 on Advantage: Myths and Facts,” undated. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/html/communications/pb072810.shtml, accessed December 15, 2015.
129 Diana Scholl, “Critics of Homeless Program Fight to Save It,” City Limits, March 11, 2011.
130 Patrick Markee and Giselle Routhier, Coalition for the Homeless, “The Revolving Door Spins Faster: New Evidence That the Flawed ‘Advantage’ Program Forces Many Formerly-Homeless Families Back into Homelessness,” February 16, 2011. http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/BriefingPaper-TheRevolvingDoorSpinsFaster2-16-201l.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
131 Associated Press, “NYC: 15,000 Ex-homeless Families Losing Rent Help,” March 17, 2011; Mosi Secret, “City Says State Is Forcing Cuts to Program for the Homeless,” New York Times, March 11, 2011.
132 Markee and Routhier, Coalition for the Homeless, “The Revolving Door Spins Faster.”
133 Remarks by Seth Diamond at No Way to Pay: What’s Next for Homeless Families in NYC, a forum held by the Milano School’s Center for New York City Affairs May 3, 2012. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dhs/downloads/pdf/commissioner_remarks_05032012.pdf.
134 DHS complied a collection of thirty-four press and radio stories from March and April 2011 on the coming end of Advantage. There were also several television news stories.
135 Mosi Secret, “City Sees End to Rental Aid for Homeless,” New York Times, June 1, 2011, p. A1.
136 Coalition for the Homeless, Advocacy Department, “New York City Homeless Municipal Shelter Population, 1983–Present.”
137 Personal interview with Richard Motta, November 22, 2011.
1 Heather Mac Donald, “No Managers Need Apply,” City Journal, Eye on the News, March 11, 2014.
2 Personal interview with Steven Banks, May 29, 2015.
3 City of New York, Department of Homeless Services, Press Release, “DHS Launches Largest Homelessness Prevention Campaign Ever: ‘Imagine’ Campaign Encourages Families to “Read Out, Before a Shelter Is Your Only Option,” March 16, 2015. http://www1.nyc.gov/assets/dhs/downloads/pdf/press-releases/1-15-Homebase-Campaign-Press-Release-Draft.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015; Department of Homeless Services Testimony, New York City Council General Welfare Committee, Preliminary Budget Hearing for Fiscal Year 2016, March 17, 2015, http://www1.nyc.gov/assets/dhs/downloads/pdf/testimony/preliminary_budget_testimony_3.17.14.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
4 Personal interview with Steven Banks, May 29, 2015.
5 Personal interview with Lilliam Barrios-Paoli, May 1, 2015.
6 Leslie Kaufman, “With a Record Number of Homeless Families, the City Vows to Improve Aid,” New York Times, March 19, 2007, p. B1.
7 Personal interview with Patrick Markee, June 5, 2015.
8 Greg B. Smith, “Pathways to Misery: Troubled Nonprofits’ Clients Face Evict,” New York Daily News, September 7, 2014, p. 6; Greg B. Smith, “It’s My Life on Fear Street: Ailing Firm puts Mentally Ill at Risk,” New York Daily News, September 14, 2014, p. 10.
9 Personal interview with Lilliam Barrios-Paoli, May 1, 2015.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 New York City Department of Homeless Services, 2015–2017 Operational Plan, March 2015, p. 3. http://www1.nyc.gov/assets/dhs/downloads/pdf/operational-plan-2015-2017.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
13 Personal interview with Gilbert Taylor, May 7, 2015.
14 Personal interview with Steven Banks, May 29, 2015.
15 For accounts of the role that professional consensus plays in precipitating nonincremental change, see Timothy J. Conlan, David R. Beam, and Margaret T. Wrightson, “Policy Models and Political Change: Insights from the Passage of Tax Reform,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 121–42; also see M. A. Hill and Thomas J. Main, Is Welfare Working? The Massachusetts Reforms Three Years Later (Boston: Pioneer Institute, 1998), chapter 3. For an account of the nature of public ideas, see Mark H. Moore, “What Sort of Ideas Become Public Ideas?” in Robert B. Reich, ed., The Power of Public Ideas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
1 Wallace S. Sayer and Herbert Kaufman, Governing New York City (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1960), p. 720.
2 Jewel Bellush, “Clusters of Power: Interest Groups,” in Jewel Bellush and Dick Netzer, eds., Urban Politics New York Style (Armonk, NY: Sharpe, 1990), p. 334.
3 David A. Snow, Sarah A. Soule, and Daniel M. Cress, “Identifying the Precipitants of Homeless Protest across 17 US Cities, 1980 to 1990,” Social Forces 83, no. 3 (March 2005): p. 1184.
4 Donna Wilson Kircheimer, “Sheltering the Homeless in New York City: Expansion in an Era of Government Contraction,” Political Science Quarterly 104, no. 4, (Winter 1989–1990): pp. 607–23.
5 The City of New York, Executive Budget, Fiscal Year 2014, Office of Management and Budget, Message of the Mayor, p. 3. http://www.nyc.gov/html/omb/downloads/pdf/mm5_13.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015.
6 Sarah Kellermann, “Is Deinstitutionalization Working for the Mentally Ill?” (New York: Department of Mental Health, Mental Retardation, and Alcoholism Services, 1982), p. 9.
7 Adjustment for inflation calculated using CPI Inflation Calculator, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
8 Los Angeles Homeless Services Authority, “2014–15 Proposed Budget by Programs and Funding,” June 30, 2015.
9 Daniel M. Cress and David A. Snow, “The Outcomes of Homeless Mobilization: The Influence of Organization, Disruption, Political Mediation, and Framing,” American Journal of Sociology 105, no. 4 (January 2000): 1086. The article does not indicate in what year the Oakland Union of the Homeless achieved the housing project.
10 Donna Wilson Kirchheimer, “Sheltering the Homeless in New York City,” Political Science Quarterly 104, no. 4 (Winter 1989–1990): p. 623.
11 For an account that recognizes both the accomplishments and the limitations of La Guardia’s housing policy, see Thomas Kessner, Fiorello H. La Guardia and the Making of Modern New York (New York: Penguin, 1989), chapters 4 and 5, pp. 320–36.
12 See Roger Burrows and Brian Loader, Towards a Post-Fordist Welfare State? (London: Routledge, 1994).
13 Kirchheimer, “Sheltering the Homeless in New York City,” p. 615.
14 Ibid., p. 616.
15 Barrett A. Lee, Chad R. Farrell, and Bruce G. Link, “Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Case of Public Exposure to Homelessness,” American Sociological Review 69, no. 1 (February 2004): pp. 40–63.
16 Joel Blau, The Visible Poor: Homelessness in the United States (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 4.
17 Ana Maria Arumi and Andrew L. Yarro, with Amber Ott and Jonathan Rochkind, Compassion, Concern, and Conflicted Feelings: New Yorkers on Homelessness and Housing (New York: Public Agenda Foundation, 2007).
18 Personal interview with Edward Koch, February 19, 2010.
19 Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), p. 36.
20 “Residents of Welfare Hotel Seize City Office to Demand Permanent Housing,” New York Times, January 10, 1989, p. B2; Sara Rimer, “Homeless Organize to Fight for Themselves,” New York Times, January 26, 1989, p. B1; Jesus Rangel, “Self-Help at a Shelter,” New York Times, sec., part 3, p. 67; Gloria Gasper, “Parents on the Move”: A Qualitative Study of a Self-Help Organization of Homeless Parents, unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1991.
21 Jimmy Breslin, “Homeless Raise Voices to Bring Down Roof,” Sun Sentinel, December 15, 1986 (syndicated column); Theresa Funiciello, Tyranny of Kindness: Dismantling the Welfare System to End Poverty in America (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1993), pp. 176–77.
22 Joyce Purnick, “Location Isn’t Everything,” New York Times, September 28, 1997, sec. 7, p. 18. This article is a review of John Jiler, Sleeping with the Mayor (St. Paul: Hungry Mind Press, 1997).
23 Michel Marriott, “Homeless in Park Sticking to a Cause,” New York Times, November 28, 1988, p. B3.
24 Funiciello, Tyranny of Kindness, pp.162, xvii.
25 Daniel P. Moynihan, The Politics of a Guaranteed Income: The Nixon Administration and the Family Assistance Plan (New York: Vintage, 1973); Lawrence M. Mead, Beyond Entitlement: The Social Obligations of Citizenship (New York: Free Press, 1986); Leslie Lenkowsky, Politics, Economics, and Welfare Reform: The Failure of the Negative Income Tax in Britain and the United States (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1986).
26 Thomas J. Main, “Nonincremental Change in an Urban Environment: The Case of New York City’s Human Resources Administration,” Administration & Society 37, no. 4 (September 2005): pp. 483–503.
27 Lawrence M. Mead, “The Rise of Paternalism,” in The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1997), p. 2.
28 Sam Tsemberis, Leyla Gulcur, Maria Nakae, “Housing First, Consumer Choice, and Harm Reduction for Homeless Individuals with a Dual Diagnosis,” American Journal of Public Health 94, no. 4 (April 2004): pp. 651–56, figure 4.
29 Deborah K. Padget, Leyla Gulcur, and Sam Tsemberis, “Housing First Services for People Who Are Homeless with Co-Occurring Serious Mental Illness and Substance Abuse,” Research on Social Work Practice 16, no. 1 (January 2006): pp. 74–83, figure 4.
30 Ibid., p. 654.
31 Ronni Michelle Greenwood et al., “Decreasing Psychiatric Symptoms by Increasing Choice in Services for Adults,” American Journal of Community Psychology 36, nos. 3/4 (December 2005): pp. 223–38.
32 Ronni Michelle Greenwood, Ana Stefanici, and Sam Tsemberis, “Pathways Housing First for Homeless Persons with Psychiatric Disabilities: Program Innovation, Research, and Advocacy,” Journal of Social Issues 69, no. 4 (2013): p. 649.
33 Personal interview with Sam Tsemberis, November 24, 2014.
34 Dina Temple-Raston, “Bloomberg Vows to Make Chronic Homelessness ‘Extinct,’” New York Sun, June 24, 2004.
35 Personal interview with Linda Gibbs, July 25, 2005.
36 John Hull Mollenkopf, A Phoenix in the Ashes: The Rise and Fall of the Koch Coalition in New York City Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 70.
37 Ibid., p. 193.
38 Ibid., pp. 157–58, 185, 198.
39 Personal interview with Edward Koch, February 29, 2010.
40 Personal interview with Len Koerner, December 14, 2011.
41 Steven Kelman, Making Public Policy: A Hopeful View of American Government (New York: Basic Books, 1988), p. 10.
42 Jonathan Soffer, Ed Koch and the Rebuilding of New York City (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), p. 294.
43 Mollenkopf, A Phoenix in the Ashes, pp. 21, 148, 150.
44 The rebuilding of marginal housing, the crime drop, and the improved public transportation are discussed in Michael Gecan, “Getting Better All the Time: Inside New York’s Quiet Success Stories,” Village Voice, December 30, 2003.
45 Clarence N. Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta, 1946–1988 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1989), p. 227.
46 Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure: A Study of Decision Makers (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1963).
47 Stone, Regime Politics, p. 176.
48 The words quoted in this sentence come from a passage from The Prince by Machiavelli, quoted by Stone in Regime Politics, p. 183. The full passage reads, “Nothing makes a prince so much esteemed as to carry on great enterprises.”
49 Robert Coldwell Wood, 1400 Governments: The Political Economy of the New York Metropolitan Region (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961), pp. 1–2.
50 Theodore J. Lowi, At the Pleasure of the Mayor: Patronage and Power in New York City, 1989–1958 (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1964), p. 218.
51 Ibid.
52 John J. Harrigan and Ronald K. Vogel, Political Change in the Metropolis, 7th ed. (New York: Longman, 2003), pp. 16–17.
53 For a convincing account of the power of the rights strategy in U.S. policymaking, see Marc K. Landy, “The New Politics of Environmental Policy,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press), pp. 207–27.
54 The phrase “opportunity points” comes from R. Shep Melnick, “Separation of Powers and the Strategy of Rights: The Expansion of Special Education,” in Marc K. Landy and Martin A. Levin, eds., The New Politics of Public Policy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 23–46.
55 For a discussion of policy feedbacks see M. Weir, A. S. Orloff, and T. Skocpol, “Introduction: Understanding American Social Politics,” in M. Weir, A. S. Orloff, and T. Skocpol, eds., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 25.
56 Greenwood, Stefanici, and Tsemberis, “Pathways Housing First for Homeless Persons,” p. 649.
57 Personal interview with Deborah Padgett, January 23, 2015.